110 Chapter 3 Equilibrium

force systems and in Section B the equilibrium of bodies subjected to

three-dimensional force systems.

SECTION A EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS

3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram

Before we apply Eqs. 3/1, we must define unambiguously the partic-
ular body or mechanical system to be analyzed and represent clearly
and completely all forces acting on the body. Omission of a force which
acts on the body in question, or inclusion of a force which does not act
on the body, will give erroneous results.
A mechanical system is defined as a body or group of bodies which
can be conceptually isolated from all other bodies. A system may be a
single body or a combination of connected bodies. The bodies may be
rigid or nonrigid. The system may also be an identifiable fluid mass, ei-
ther liquid or gas, or a combination of fluids and solids. In statics we
study primarily forces which act on rigid bodies at rest, although we also
study forces acting on fluids in equilibrium.
Once we decide which body or combination of bodies to analyze, we
then treat this body or combination as a single body isolated from all
surrounding bodies. This isolation is accomplished by means of the
free-body diagram, which is a diagrammatic representation of the
isolated system treated as a single body. The diagram shows all forces
applied to the system by mechanical contact with other bodies, which
are imagined to be removed. If appreciable body forces are present,
such as gravitational or magnetic attraction, then these forces must
also be shown on the free-body diagram of the isolated system. Only
after such a diagram has been carefully drawn should the equilibrium
equations be written. Because of its critical importance, we emphasize
here that

the free-body diagram is the most important single

step in the solution of problems in mechanics.

Before attempting to draw a free-body diagram, we must recall the

basic characteristics of force. These characteristics were described in
Art. 2/2, with primary attention focused on the vector properties of
force. Forces can be applied either by direct physical contact or by re-
mote action. Forces can be either internal or external to the system
under consideration. Application of force is accompanied by reactive
force, and both applied and reactive forces may be either concentrated
or distributed. The principle of transmissibility permits the treatment
of force as a sliding vector as far as its external effects on a rigid body
are concerned.
We will now use these force characteristics to develop conceptual
models of isolated mechanical systems. These models enable us to
 Article 3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram 111

write the appropriate equations of equilibrium, which can then be

analyzed.

Modeling the Action of Forces

Figure 3/1 shows the common types of force application on mechani-
cal systems for analysis in two dimensions. Each example shows the
force exerted on the body to be isolated, by the body to be removed. New-
ton’s third law, which notes the existence of an equal and opposite reac-
tion to every action, must be carefully observed. The force exerted on
the body in question by a contacting or supporting member is always in
the sense to oppose the movement of the isolated body which would
occur if the contacting or supporting body were removed.

MODELING THE ACTION OF FORCES IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Type of Contact and Force Origin Action on Body to Be Isolated
1. Flexible cable, belt,
chain, or rope θ Force exerted by
Weight of cable θ a flexible cable is
negligible T always a tension away
from the body in the
Weight of cable θ θ direction of the cable.
not negligible
T
2. Smooth surfaces
Contact force is
compressive and is
normal to the surface.
N

3. Rough surfaces Rough surfaces are

F capable of supporting
a tangential compo-
nent F (frictional
R force) as well as a
normal component
N N of the resultant
contact force R.

4. Roller support
Roller, rocker, or ball
N support transmits a
compressive force
normal to the
supporting surface.
N

5. Freely sliding guide

Collar or slider free to
move along smooth
guides; can support
force normal to guide
only.
N N

Figure 3/1
112 Chapter 3 Equilibrium

MODELING THE ACTION OF FORCES IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (cont.)

Type of Contact and Force Origin Action on Body to Be Isolated
6. Pin connection Pin free to turn A freely hinged pin
connection is capable
θ of supporting a force
in any direction in the
Rx
plane normal to the
R
Ry pin axis. We may
either show two
Pin not free to turn components Rx and
Ry or a magnitude R
and direction θ. A pin
Rx not free to turn also
M
supports a couple M.
Ry

7. Built-in or fixed support A A built-in or fixed

M support is capable of
A A supporting an axial
or F force F, a transverse
force V (shear force),
Weld and a couple M
(bending moment) to
V
prevent rotation.

8. Gravitational attraction The resultant of

gravitational
attraction on all
m G elements of a body of
mass m is the weight
W = mg and acts
W = mg toward the center of
the earth through the
center mass G.

9. Spring action Spring force is tensile

Linear Nonlinear if spring is stretched
Neutral F F and compressive if
position Hardening compressed. For a
F = kx F linearly elastic spring
x
F the stiffness k is the
Softening force required to
x x deform the spring a
unit distance.

Figure 3/1, continued

In Fig. 3/1, Example 1 depicts the action of a flexible cable, belt, rope,
or chain on the body to which it is attached. Because of its flexibility, a
rope or cable is unable to offer any resistance to bending, shear, or com-
pression and therefore exerts only a tension force in a direction tangent to
the cable at its point of attachment. The force exerted by the cable on the
body to which it is attached is always away from the body. When the ten-
sion T is large compared with the weight of the cable, we may assume that
the cable forms a straight line. When the cable weight is not negligible
compared with its tension, the sag of the cable becomes important, and
the tension in the cable changes direction and magnitude along its length.
When the smooth surfaces of two bodies are in contact, as in Exam-
ple 2, the force exerted by one on the other is normal to the tangent to
the surfaces and is compressive. Although no actual surfaces are per-
 Article 3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram 115

The free-body method is extremely important in mechanics because

it ensures an accurate definition of a mechanical system and focuses at-
tention on the exact meaning and application of the force laws of statics
and dynamics. Review the foregoing four steps for constructing a free-
body diagram while studying the sample free-body diagrams shown in
Fig. 3/2 and the Sample Problems which appear at the end of the next
article.

Examples of Free-Body Diagrams

Figure 3/2 gives four examples of mechanisms and structures to-
gether with their correct free-body diagrams. Dimensions and magni-
tudes are omitted for clarity. In each case we treat the entire system as

SAMPLE FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS

Mechanical System Free-Body Diagram of Isolated Body
1. Plane truss

Weight of truss P
assumed negligible
P y
compared with P

A B Ax x
Ay By
2. Cantilever beam V
F3 F2 F1 F3 F2 F1

F y
A Mass m
M
W = mg
x
3. Beam
Smooth surface M M
contact at A.
Mass m N y
A
P P
B Bx W = mg
x
By
4. Rigid system of interconnected bodies
analyzed as a single unit y

P Weight of mechanism P
neglected
x

m W = mg
A B Bx
Ay By

Figure 3/2
118 Chapter 3 Equilibrium

FREE-BODY DIAGRAM EXERCISES

3/A In each of the five following examples, the body to be necessary in each case to form a complete free-body
isolated is shown in the left-hand diagram, and an in- diagram. The weights of the bodies are negligible un-
complete free-body diagram (FBD) of the isolated less otherwise indicated. Dimensions and numerical
body is shown on the right. Add whatever forces are values are omitted for simplicity.

Body Incomplete FBD

1. Bell crank mg
m T
supporting mass Flexible
m with pin support cable A
at A. A

Pull P P
2. Control lever
applying torque O
to shaft at O.

FO
A
3. Boom OA, of
negligible mass B
compared with
mass m. Boom m mg
T
hinged at O and
supported by O
hoisting cable at B. O

4. Uniform crate of
mass m leaning A
A
against smooth
vertical wall and mg
supported on a
rough horizontal
surface.
B
B

5. Loaded bracket
supported by pin
B B
connection at A and
fixed pin in smooth
slot at B. Load L L
A A

Problem 3/A
 Free-Body Diagram Exercises 119

3/B In each of the five following examples, the body to be tions are necessary in each case to form a correct and
isolated is shown in the left-hand diagram, and either complete free-body diagram. The weights of the bod-
a wrong or an incomplete free-body diagram (FBD) is ies are negligible unless otherwise indicated. Dimen-
shown on the right. Make whatever changes or addi- sions and numerical values are omitted for simplicity.

Body Wrong or Incomplete FBD

P
1. Lawn roller of P
mass m being mg
pushed up
incline .
N

2. Prybar lifting P P
R
body A having
smooth horizontal A
surface. Bar rests
on horizontal
rough surface. N

3. Uniform pole of
mass m being
hoisted into posi- T
tion by winch.
Horizontal sup-
mg
porting surface
notched to prevent
slipping of pole. Notch R

F
B
4. Supporting angle
B
bracket for frame;
pin joints.
A
A

F F
5. Bent rod welded to A
support at A and Ay
y
subjected to two
forces and couple. M M
P
x P

Problem 3/B
120 Chapter 3 Equilibrium

3/C Draw a complete and correct free-body diagram of each All forces, known and unknown, should be labeled.
of the bodies designated in the statements. The weights (Note: The sense of some reaction components cannot
of the bodies are significant only if the mass is stated. always be determined without numerical calculation.)

1. Uniform horizontal bar of mass m 5. Uniform grooved wheel of mass m

suspended by vertical cable at A and supported by a rough surface and by
supported by rough inclined surface action of horizontal cable.
at B.

m
A m B

2. Wheel of mass m on verge of being 6. Bar, initially horizontal but deflected

rolled over curb by pull P. under load L. Pinned to rigid support
at each end.

A B
P

3. Loaded truss supported by pin joint at 7. Uniform heavy plate of mass m

A and by cable at B. supported in vertical plane by cable
C and hinge A.

B C

A m
A

4. Uniform bar of mass m and roller of 8. Entire frame, pulleys, and contacting
mass m0 taken together. Subjected to cable to be isolated as a single unit.
couple M and supported as shown.
B
Roller is free to turn.
m0 M

A A
L

Problem 3/C