Introduction to Indian History, Cultures, traditions, and Beliefs

India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South

Asia. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu.
The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation
for the Indus River. India is known as the seventh largest country by geographical area, the
second most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy
in the world. The country is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the
south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east. It also shares land borders with Pakistan to
the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In
the Indian Ocean, India is the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India’s Andaman
and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast
empires, the Indian suncontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much
of its long history. Four of the world’s major religions originated here and has long exercised a
strong influence on Indian writing. India is the birth place
of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian religions. Indian
religions, also known as Dharmic religions are a major form of world religions along
with Abrahamic ones.

Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-
largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and
possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. India is also the birthplace
for the Lingayat and Ahmadiyya faiths. India also is one of the most
religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply
religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive
role in the life of many of its people.
India comes under direct rule of the British crown after failed Indian mutiny in 1858 and
in 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded as forum for emerging nationalist feeling. In
1920, nationalist figurehead Mahatma Gandhi launches anti-British civil disobedience campaign
and he became the leader of the Indian independence movement. The Government of India Act
and the creation of a new constitution emerged in 1935 and in 1947 British and Indian leaders
agrees to divide the country into India and Pakistan and on August 15 of the same year, India
became independent. A year after, Mahatma Gandhi was assasinated by Hindu extremist and in
1950 a new Indian Constitution was ratified and Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first Prime
Minister. A couple of years after Nehru’s death in 1964, his daughter Indira Gandhi was elected
as the first woman Prime Minister of India, though in 1977 Gandhi’s Congress Party loses general
elections, but returns to power three yeras after. Indira Gandhi was assasinated by Sikh
bodyguards in 1884 and so her son, Rajiv, took over while Pratibha Patil becomes first woman to
be elected president of India in 2007. India successfully launches its first mission to the moon,
the unmanned lunar probe Chandrayaan-1 in 2008.

Famous Places

From its rich history, India is a place where the famous Taj Mahal is
located. It is one of India’s best – known sites and one of the best
architectural achievements in India, located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. It was
built between 1631 and 1653 by Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his wife,
Arjumand Banu, more popularly known as Mumtaz Mahal, and the Taj
Mahal serves as her tomb and as the icon of Mumbai.

Another historical site in India is a 2000-year old temple, the Mahabodhi

Temple dedicated to Gautama Buddha in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. This temple
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Other temples in India include Brihadishwara Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil

Nadu which was built by the Cholas. This temple is one of India’s most
prized architectural sites. The Shore Temple, along with the collection of
other monuments in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu has also been declared
as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Baha’i Temple in Delhi, which was completed in 1986 serves as the
Mother Temple of the Indian Subcontinent. It has won numerous
architectural awards and have been featured in hundreds of newspapers
and magazines. This temple is also known as the Lotus Temple.

A Buddhist center of learning located in the Indian State of Bihar is the

Nalanda, built partly under the Pala Empire which has been called “one of
the first great universities” in recorded history. According to historical
studies, the University of Nalanda was established 450 C.E under the
patronage of the Gupta Emperors, notably Kumaragupta.
 Another site to behold is the Victoria Memorial in Kolkata which was built
during the British Raj, and the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus located in
Mumbai which was built for Queen Victoria.

Culture

The culture of India refers to the religions, beliefs, languages,

ceremonies, arts, values and the way of life in India and its people.
India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, and food differ
from place to place within the country. Its culture often labeled as an
amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures is spread all over the Indian
subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.

Regarded by many historians as the "oldest living civilization of Earth", the Indian tradition
dates back to 8000 BC, and has a continuous recorded history since the time of the Vedas,
believed variously to be 3,000 to over 5,500 years ago. Several elements of India's diverse culture,
such as Indian religions, yoga, and Indian cuisine, have had a profound impact across the world.

Religion in India is a way of life. Though Hinduism is the dominant religion, Indians have
learned to co-exist with people of other faiths. The ancient shlokas of the Hindu prayers,
the aazaans of the Muslim prayers, the gurvani of the Sikhs, chanting of the Buddhist monks fill
the skies simultaneously.

According to a 2001 census of India, the religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is
practiced by around 13% of all Indians. The country had over 23 million Christians, over 19 million
Sikhs, about 8 million Buddhists and about 4 million Jains. Sikhism, Jainism and especially
Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the
world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and theBahá'í Faith are also influential but their
numbers are smaller. Atheism and agnostics also have visible influence in India, along with a self-
ascribed tolerance to other people.
 Religion plays a vital role in the Indian way of life. Religious laws of the Hindus and
Muslims govern the people's clothing, food, and marriage. They also strongly influence the type
of occupation among persons who strictly follow the laws. Violence between Hindus and Muslims
led to the division of India into three nations, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

India has 18 official languages – 15 of which are Indo-European. The 2001 census of India
found 122 first languages in active use. Literary records suggest India had interacted in languages
of other ancient civilizations. This inscription is from Indian emperor Ashoka, carved in stone
about 250 BCE, found in Afghanistan. Inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, with ideas of non-
violence against men and all living beings, as the doctrine ofEusebeia - spiritual maturity.

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect
than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet
bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar,
than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could
examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source,
which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for
supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had
the same origin with the Sanskrit.

The Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan

language, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European
language family. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of
India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of
18th century were struck by the far reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both
in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe.
Intensive scientific studies that followed have established that Sanskrit
and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes
Sankrit English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian,
Persian, Tocharian and other Indo-European languages.
Manuscript

The evolution of language within India may be distinguished over three periods: old,
middle and modern Indo-Aryan. The classical form of old Indo-Aryan was Samskrta meaning
polished, cultivated and correct (much like proper English), in distinction to Prakrta - the practical
language of the migrating masses evolving without concern to proper pronunciation or grammar,
the structure of language changing as those masses mingled, settled new lands and adopted
words from people of other native languages. Prakrta became middle Indo-Aryan leading
to Pali (the language of early Buddhists and Ashoka era in 200-300 BC),Prakrit (the language of
Jain philosophers) and Apabhramsa (the language blend at the final stage of middle Indo-Aryan).
It is Apabhramsa, scholars claim, that flowered into Hindi, Gujarati, Begali, Marathi, Punjabi and
many other languages now in use in India's north, east and west. All of these Indian languages
have roots and structure similar to Sanskrit, to each other and to other Indo-European languages.
Thus we have in India three thousand years of continuous linguistic history recorded and
preserved in literary documents. This enables scholars to follow language evolution and observe
how, by changes hardly noticeable from generation to generation, an original language alters
into descendant languages that are now barely recognizable as the same.
Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages and literature of India. Hindi, India's
most spoken language, is a "Sanskritized register" of the Khariboli dialect. In addition, all
modern Indo-Aryan languages, Munda languages and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many
words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan
languages (tadbhava words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly
fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, and the literary forms of
(Dravidian) Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. Part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages,
the Bengali language arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages and its roots are traced to
the 5th century BC Ardhamagadhi language.
Tamil, one of India's major classical languages, descends from Proto-Dravidian languages
which was spoken around the third millennium BC in peninsular India. Tamil literature has existed
for over two thousand years and the earliest epigraphic records found date from around the third
century BC.

Traditions & Beliefs

For centuries, arranged marriages have been the tradition in

Indian society though men and women have always had the choice of
who they want to marry. Even today, the majority of Indians have their
marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-
members, with the consent of the bride and groom.

In most marriages the bride's family provide a dowry to the bride to safe guard herself
and her children in the event of her husband passing prematurely. Historically, in most families
the inheritance of family estates passed down the male line. Since 1956, Indian laws treat males
and females as equal in matters of inheritance without a legal will. Indians are increasingly using
a legal will for inheritance and property succession, with about 20 percent using a legal will by
2004.
Recent studies suggest that Indian culture is trending away from traditional arranged
marriages. They find that the marriage trends in India are similar to trends observed over last 40
years in China, Japan and other nations. Fewer marriages are purely arranged without consent
and that majority of surveyed Indian marriages were arranged with consent. The percentage of
self-arranged marriages (called love marriages in India) were also increasing, particularly in the
urban parts of India. A 2006 article reported that between 10 and 20 percent of marriages in
urban India were self-arranged.
 Extended family cohesiveness and frequent contact is a notable feature of Indian families.
Researchers have noted that people who do not belong to cohesive families have fewer coping
resources and increased levels of social and psychological stress. Psychological stress is
associated with heart disease, various cancers and increased mortality risk. Indians shed
emotional stress exceptionally well. Their stress-shedding personalities and the familial support
which they receive and contribute to are important stress-reducing mechanisms.

Indian Philosophy is one of the foremost Eastern traditions of abstract inquiry. Indian
philosophy, expressed in Sanskrit, comprises of many diverse schools of thought and perspectives
and includes a substantial body of intellectual debate and argumentation among the various
views.

Indian philosophy is extensive, rich, and complex. Scholars analyze not only its significance
and its insights, but also its classical teachings about knowledge and language. Meanwhile, the
majority of Western students of Indian thought have been drawn to its religious and mystical
teachings. Some scholars have argued that Platonism (the philosophy of ancient Greek
thinker Plato) and neo-Platonism (a 3rd-century movement based on Platonism) were greatly
influenced by Indian thought. Nevertheless, the traditions of Indian and Western
philosophy developed largely in ignorance of one another, and, until modern times, showed few
signs of influencing one another.

A famous Jain argument is that since animals are capable of pain, humans have an
obligation not to harm them. Unlike in the West, the Indian classical philosophers often think
about ethics in connection with Indian views about actions, or habits (karma), and rebirth (the
belief in reincarnation). Indian philosophy is characterized by a highly refined ethical sensibility
(common among Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism), along with standards of character and
conduct that are common to many other cultures.

The Indian intellectual environment extends beyond the universities, where continuation
of India's spiritual philosophy is influenced by religious and mystical practices, such
as yoga, atman and Dharma (Sanskrit for "duty" or "the right way to live"), that are distinct or
much more prominent in Indian culture.

In addition to being satisfied with oneself, personal control (self-knowledge) has been
one of the best predictors of well-being. Volumes of research show clearly that the path to
happiness and health is more easily pursued together than alone. Extreme positive moods were
followed by lows which washed out happiness whereas steady, moderate pleasures sustained
well- being over time. People who were socially involved and drew solace from religious
faith had a 10 times greater chance of being happy. Indians live in the best possible environment
as mentioned above.

The Indian caste system, an important facet of Hinduism, is a major social system that
groups people according to birth. Lower caste groups do perform much of the manual labor and
fill most unskilled jobs in the economy. Harijans, formerly known as Untouchables, have
traditionally occupied the lowest rung of the social ladder. The Indian legislature gave jobs for
the Harijans and that of the tribal people, but the caste system still remains and is still important.
No matter which part of the world you tour, you will find the natives nurturing certain
beliefs and superstitions and India is no exception in this case. Though the Indian society is fast
progressing, there are many people who are still superstitious and have a strong faith in the local
beliefs. While some of them are quite hilarious, few others are really interesting, as many aspects
of life are linked to them. Few beliefs even find their way into the Indian religious texts and
scriptures.

The standard viewpoint is that most of the Indian beliefs and values have sprung with an
objective to protect from evil spirits, but some were based on scientific reasoning. With the
passage of time, the reasoning part behind the origin of these cultural beliefs and superstitions
got eroded. That is exactly why most of these beliefs appear unsubstantiated and false. However,
in reality, there are many such beliefs in the Indians culture which are absolutely absurd and have
no logic behind them.
Superstitions are deemed as pertinent in India because these, generally, hint at future
occurrences and can be either good or bad. Thus, anything from the call of a bird to the falling of
utensils is considered an omen in India. Many of the traditional superstitions in India are
connected with animals, birds and reptiles. For instance, seeing an elephant when one is leaving
for a journey is considered lucky. This is because an elephant represents Lord Ganesha, the Indian
God who is the harbinger of good luck and removes obstacles. Similarly, other auspicious signs
could be cawing of a black crow in one's house, as it forecasts the arrival of guests. Seeing a
peacock on a journey is also considered lucky, but hearing its shrill sound is bad. Indians feel
happy if a sparrow builds a nest in a new house because it signals good fortune. A very old belief
is that if you kill a cat, you have to offer one in gold to a priest. This belief or superstition was
concocted by the priests to protect the cats, which are useful in killing the rats in people's houses.
Leaving one's home after wedding or for some other important task is a significant occasion.
Thus, Indians often consult astrological charts to fix an auspicious time for this. Again, it is
considered lucky to see cereals, paddy, cotton, hay or a newly wed before embarking on a
journey. In India, you may also come across or hear about people who help in interpreting other's
dreams. Even the daily life of Indians is governed by beliefs and superstitions. For example,
Monday is not an auspicious day for shaving and Thursday is a bad day for washing one's hair.

Customs

Indians have very distinct practices, these are rooted from their cultural
uniqueness. Namaskar or Namaste is the most popular form of greeting in India.
It is a general salutation that is used to welcome somebody and also for bidding
farewell. While doing namaskar, both the palms are placed together and raised
below the face to greet a person. It is believed that both the hands symbolise
one mind, or the self meeting the self. While the right hand represents higher
nature, the left hand denotes worldly or lower nature.

Indians have a ritual mark on the forehead, this is called Tilak. It can be put
in many forms as a sign of blessing , greeting or auspiciousness. The tilak is usually
made out of a red vermilion paste (kumkum)which is a mixture of turmeric, alum,
iodine, camphor, etc. It can also be of a sandalwood paste (chandan) blended with
 This is the spot on which yogis meditate to become one with Lord Brahma. It also indicates
the point at which the spiritual eye opens. All thoughts and actions are said to be governed by
this spot. Putting of the coloured mark symbolizes the quest for the 'opening ' of the third eye.
All rites and ceremonies of the Hindus begin with a tilak topped with a few grains of rice placed
on this spot with the index finger or the thumb. The same custom is followed while welcoming
or bidding farewell to guests or relations.

The Arati, on the other hand, is an act of veneration and love. It is

often performed as a mark of worship and to seek blessings from God, to welcome the guests,
for children on their birthdays, family members on auspicious occasions or to welcome a newly
wedded couple. For performing Arati, five small lamps called niranjanas are filled with ghee or
oil and arranged in a small tray made of metal. A wick is made out of cotton wool and placed in
the lamps. A conchshell filled with water, auspicious leaves or flowers, incense or lighted
camphor are also placed in the tray. The lamps are lit and the tray is rotated in a circular motion
in front of the deity or the person to be welcomed. The purpose of performing arati is to ward
off evil effects and the malefic influence of the ‘evil eye’.

Garlanding is also customary in India, flower garlands are

generally offered as a mark of respect and honour. They are offered to
welcome the visitors or in honour to the Gods and Goddesses. The
garlands are generally made with white jasmine and orange marigold
flowers. They are weaved in thread tied in the end with a help of a knot.
 Bindi, just like Tilak, is an auspicious mark worn by young girls
and women . Bindi is derived from bindu, the Sanskrit word for dot .
It is usually a red dot made with vermilion powder which is worn by
women between their eyebrows on their forehead.

Considered a symbol of Goddess Parvati, a bindi signifies female energy and is believed to
protect women and their husbands. Traditionally a symbol of marriage, it has also become
decorative and is worn today by unmarried girls and women as well. No longer restricted in colour
or shape, bindis are seen in many bright colours and in different shapes and designs. They are
also made of coloured felt and embellished with coloured glass or glitter.

Other essential ornaments include nose pin, this is pin wore by Indian
women on their nose studded with stones. This symbolizes purity and
marriage, the nose pin is today adorned by many unmarried girls as well.

Shakha-Paula, on the other hand, are a pair of shell (shakha) and red
coral (paula) bangles worn as marriage symbols by the Bengali women.

The Mangalsutra, on the other hand, is worn only by the married women as a mark of
being married. It is the Indian equivalent of the western wedding ring. The mangalsutra is tied by
the groom around his bride's neck. Mangalsutra is generally made out of two strings of small
black beads with a gold pendant. The black beads are believed to act as protection against evil.
The married women wear this to protect their marriage and the life of their husband. In southern
India, the mangalsutra is called 'tali'. It is a small gold ornament, strung on a cotton cord or a gold
chain.

Literatures
 The Indian literary tradition is primarily one of verse and is also
essentially oral. The earliest works were composed to be sung or recited
and were so transmitted for many generations before being written
down. As a result, the earliest records of a text may be later by several
centuries than the conjectured date of its composition. Throughout the
history of Indian literature, certain religious doctrines have formed
common threads and one such doctrine is karma, the chain of good and
Indian literature bad actions and their inevitable consequences which result in the
in Sanskrit reapeated birth and death of the soul.
language

Literature was practically confined to religion and philosophy up to the more recent
times. Its earliest literature, the Vedas, may be considered both religious and philosophical.
Indian literature is either religious or a reworking of familiar stories from the Sanskrit epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the mythological writings known as Puranas, are but
some of the most reknown literary works of India.. Biographical details of the lives of most of the
earlier Indian writers exist only in much later stories and legends.

Both the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are oral epics that existed in
spoken form as chants or songs long before they were written down. This is
very important. In ancient India, the oral tradition was prized much more
highly than anything in written form. There is a sacred reality contained within
the vocal utterance, something that can never be captured in writing. You
might be aware of the Sanskrit term mantra which expresses this idea of the
sacred utterance.

A mantra is a special chant or prayer whose words contain what we might call a magical
power. You do not gain the power of the mantra by copying it out in writing. You gain the power
of the mantra by pronouncing its words, using the power of the voice.

And in dealing with works that circulate in oral form rather than as written texts, it is much
harder to assign a date to their composition. As a result, it is very hard to say just when the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata were first composed. In fact, it really does not make sense to
talk about "the" Ramayana or "the" Mahabharata, since both of the epics exist in many different
versions. There are versions in Sanskrit, but there are also versions composed in the other
languages of south Asia. For example, when you read Narayan's English adaptation of the
Ramayana), he is working from a version that was composed in the Tamil language (one of the
languages of southern India) by the poet Kamban, who lived about one thousand years ago, in
the 11th century C.E. When you read Buck's English adaptation of the Ramayana, he is working
from the Sanskrit version attributed to Valmiki, which probably dates to around the 3rd century
B.C.E., over two thousand years ago.

The Mahabharata (composed between 300 BC and 300 AD) has the honor of
being the longest epic in world literature, 100,000 2-line stanzas (although the
most recent critical edition edits this down to about 88,000), making it
eight times as long as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey together, and over 3 times as
long as the Bible (Chaitanya vii).

According to the Narasimhan version, only about 4000 lines relate to the main story; the
rest contain additional myths and teachings. In other words, the Mahabharata resembles a long
journey with many side roads and detours. It is said that “Whatever is here is found elsewhere.
But whatever is not here is nowhere else.”

The name means “great [story of the] Bharatas.” Bharata was an early ancestor of both
the Pandavas and Kauravas who fight each other in a great war, but the word is also used
generically for the Indian race, so the Mahabharata sometimes is referred to as “the great story
of India.” The work is divided into 18 books (concerning an 18-day war among 18 armies). The
main narrative concerning the war is contained in the first ten books.

In medieval Indian literature the earliest works in many of the languages were sectarian,
designed to advance or to celebrate some unorthodox regional belief. Examples are
the Caryapadas in Bengali, Tantric verses of the 12th century, and the Lilacaritra (circa 1280), in
Marathi. In Kannada (Kanarese) from the 10th century, and later in Gujarati from the 13th
century, the first truly indigenous works are Jain romances; ostensibly the lives of Jain saints,
these are actually popular tales based on Sanskrit and Pali themes. Other example was in
Rajasthani of the bardic tales of chivalry and heroic resistance to the first Muslim invasions - such
as the 12th-century epic poem Prithiraja-raso by Chand Bardai of Lahore.
 Most important of all for later Indian literature were the first traces in the
vernacular languages of the northern Indian cults of Krishna and of Rama.
Included are the 12th-century poems by Jaydev, called
the Gitagovinda (The Cowherd's Song); and about 1400, a group of religious
love poems written in Maithili (eastern Hindi of Bihar) by the poet Vidyapati
were a seminal influence on the cult of Radha-Krishna in Bengal.The oldest
literature of Indian thought are the Vedas (Books of Knowledge), a
collection of religious and philisophical poems and hymns composed over
several generations beginning as early as 3000 BC.
The Vedas were composed in Sanskrit, the intellectual language of both ancient and
classical Indian civilizations. Four collections were made, so it is said that there are four Vedas.
The four as a group came to be viewed as sacred in Hinduism.

Some Vedic hymns and poems address philosophic themes, such as the henotheism that
is key to much Hindu theology. Henotheism is the idea that one God takes many different forms,
and that although individuals may worship several different gods and goddesses, they really
revere but one Supreme Being.

There are four Vedas:

The Rig-Veda’s traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the German scholar Max
Mueller accepted. As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the wisdom of verses) is nothing short of
remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns (10,589 verses which are divided into ten mandalas or book-
sections) dedicated to thirty-three different gods. The most often addressed gods were nature
gods like Indra (rain god; king of heavens), Agni (fire god), Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'), Soma
(the draught of immortality, an alcoholic brew).

The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of samans or chants, derived
from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig-Veda. These were meant for the priests who officiated
at the rituals of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking instructions in Sama-Veda about
how particular hymns must be sung; to put great emphasis upon sounds of the words of the
mantras and the effect they could have on the environment and the person who pronounced
them.

The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred invocations (yajurs) which
were chanted by a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites.
The Veda also outlines various chants which should be sung to pray and pay respects to the
various instruments which are involved in the sacrifice.

The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the families of the atharvan
sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition of the Vedas. It is a
compilation of hymns but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda such a
breathtaking spiritual experience.

The Brahmanas is prose commentaries on the Vedic hymns and religious rites, these are
possibly the earliest existing pieces of Indo-European prose, while the Sutras is extremely
concise, often unintelligible treatises concerning rituals. One very influential Indian prose is the
Upanishads, a collection of 108 discourses on the Brahman religion. The term Upanishads ('upa'
near; 'ni' down; 'sad' to sit) means sitting down near; this implies the students sitting down near
their Guru to learn the big secret. In the splendid isolation of their forest abodes, the philosophers
who composed the Upanishads contemplated upon the various mysteries of life and its creation
– whether common, or metaphysical. The answers were however not open to all, but only for
select students. The reason for this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge. The
composition of the Upanishads marks a significant and stride forward in the direction of knowing
the mystery of earth's creation and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers. Through
episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the Upanishads unfold the fascinating
tale of creation, life, the essence of life and of that beyond to the seeker of truth. There is no
exact date for the composition of the Upanishads. They continued to be composed over a long
period, the core being over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally called Vedanta,
which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas. In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the
Absolute, or God) and atman (one's true self) were proposed. The core of the teachings of the
Upanishads is summed up in three words: tat tvam as… you are that.

Famous People
India is home to prominent people who have made a mark not just in India but also to
other nations. These Indian personalities have not just influenced the people of India, but have
also left an indelible mark on the world book.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), commonly known

as Mahatma Gandhi, was the preeminent leader of Indian
nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience,
Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence,
civil rights and freedom across the world.
He became a leader of Muslims protesting the declining status of the Caliphate. Assuming
leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing
poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability,
increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of India
from British domination. He is known in India as the Father of the Nation, but was assassinated
on 30 January 1948 by a Hindu nationalist who thought Gandhi was too sympathetic to India's
Muslims.
 Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), a Noble Laureate, being the great poet
has contributed a lot to the Indian literature. Tagore had an early success
as a writer in his native Bengal. With his translations of some of his poems
he became rapidly known in the West. In fact his fame attained a luminous
height, taking him across continents on lecture tours and tours of
friendship. For the world he became the voice of India's spiritual heritage;
and for India, especially for Bengal, he became a great living institution.
His most notable work is Gitanjali (Song Offerings).

Mumtaz Mahal had a very deep and loving marriage with Shah
Jahan. Even during her lifetime, poets would extol her beauty, gracefulness
and compassion. She was his trusted companion and traveled with him all
over the Mughal Empire. Although Mumtaz was one amongst the three
wives Shah Jahan had had, the relationship with his other wives "had
nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection,
attention and favor which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence
(Mumtaz) exceeded by a thousand times what he felt for any other". It is
believed that she was the perfect wife and portrayed no aspirations of
political power.

It was in 1630 that Mumtaz Mahal accompanied Shah Jahan who was fighting a campaign
in the Deccan Plateau. Little did she know that this was the last journey that she would ever take
as soon after, she died in 1631, while giving birth to their 14th child, and left for the holy abode.
It is believed that such was the level of devastation that Shah Jahan was inconsolable. Although
her remains were buried in Burhanpur, it wasn't permanent as Shah Jahan, had decided to build
the world's richest mausoleum in memory of his Jewel. It took her husband 22 years and most of
his royal treasury to build a monument befitting the memory of his beloved wife. Now, in the
name of Mumtaz Mahal stands the most beautiful building in the universe and that monument
of love, purity and unparalleled beauty is called the Taj Mahal.

Shah Jahan (1592-1631), his name along with the name of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal, being synonymous with the existence and ever growing
popularity of Taj Mahal, was a Mughal Emperor of the Southern Asia who
reigned from 1627 to 1658. Born as Prince Shihab-ud-din Muhammad
Khurram in the Lahore, Pakistan of 1592, Shah Jahan was the son of Emperor
Jahangir. His name Khurram, which means "joyful" in Persian, was given to
him by his grandfather Akbar the Great.
Displaying great military skills at an early age against numerous enemies including Mewar, the
Lodi in the Deccan, and Kangra, impressed his father so much that Shah Jahan received the title
"Shah Jahan Bahadur" from him. He wasn't just a sharp military leader, but also had an
exceptional talent for building and proved it by re-designing buildings within the Agra fort.
Among many titles he had earned, "The Builder of the Marvels" was one that was about to be
proved the most deserving in the time to come. Apart from the Taj Mahal, one of the Seven
Wonders of the World, the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir
Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan, are some of the noble structures
associated with the name of Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World" in Persian.

Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar also known as Akbar the Great (14

October 1542 – 27 October 1605) was the third Mughal Emperor. He
was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson
of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who
founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the
Mughal empire covered most of northern and central India. He is most
appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and
during his era, culture and art reached a zenith as compared to his
predecessors.

Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556),
following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from
the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he
decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. Akbar's reign significantly
influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great patron of art and architecture. He took
a great interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides
encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he also patronised the European style of
painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated into Persian and
Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by
painters from his court.

Indira Gandhi (1917-1984) is another personality in India who was

considered as the Iron Lady and Prime Minister of India who made the
enemies even bow before her. She served as the third Prime Minister for
three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term (1980–84). Gandhi
was the second female head of government in the world, and she remains
as the world's second longest serving female Prime Minister as of 2012. She
was the first woman to become prime minister in India and the daughter of
Jawarlahar Nehru.
She was also the only Indian Prime Minister to have declared a state of emergency in
order to 'rule by decree' and the only Indian Prime Minister to have been imprisoned after
holding that office. She was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation for
ordering Operation Blue Star.

Mother Teresa was born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu in Macedonia.

Her family was of Albanian descent. At the age of twelve, she felt strongly
the call of God. She knew she had to be a missionary to spread the love
of Christ. At the age of eighteen she left her parental home in Skopje and
joined the Sisters of Loreto, an Irish community of nuns with missions in
India. After a few months' training in Dublin she was sent to India, where
on May 24, 1931, she took her initial vows as a nun.

On October 7, 1950, Mother Teresa received permission from the Holy See to start her
own order, "The Missionaries of Charity", whose primary task was to love and care for those
persons nobody was prepared to look after. In 1965 the Society became an International
Religious Family by a decree of Pope Paul VI. Mother Teresa's work has been recognised and
acclaimed throughout the world and she has received a number of awards and distinctions,
including the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971) and the Nehru Prize for her promotion of
international peace and understanding (1972). She also received the Balzan Prize (1979) and the
Templeton and Magsaysay awards.

India has been made by the contributions of several people who have made their inputs
in various ages. India has been enlightened by the presence of these people since its birth. All of
them, contributing in various spheres of life have been of great importance to the Indian Society.
LITERARY JOURNEY
INDIAN DRAMA
Excerpt from Mahabharata

Yudhisthira said:
Grandsire, how do happiness and misery come tothose who are rich, as well as those who
are poor, but who live by observing different practices and rites?

Bhishma replied:
In this connection, we can cite the old story told by CampAka who had attained peace and
emanciption for himself.
In former times, a certain brahmin, who led an (apparently) pitiful because of a bad wife, lack
of clothing, and hunger, lived in the observance of the vow of renunciation and told me these verses:

From the day of his birth, a person born on this earth undergoes
various types of joys and sorrows.

If he could ascribe either of them to the hand of Destiny, he

would not then feel glad when happiness came or miserable when
sorrow overtook him.

Although your mind is without desire, you carry a heavy burden.

You aren't seeking what is good for you, (your salvation). Are
you not successful in controlling your mind?

If you go about your life, having renounced your home and

desirable possessions, you will taste real happiness. A person
divested of everything sleeps and awakes only in happiness.

Complete poverty, in this world, is happiness. It is a good

regimen, it is the source of blessings, it is freedom from
danger. This noble path is not attainable (by those who
cherish desire) but is attainable (by those who are free from
desire).

As I look at every part of the three worlds, I cannot see anyone who is equal to a poor man of
pure conduct and without attachment (to worldly things). I weighted poverty and sovereignty in a
balance; poverty weighed heavier than sovereignty and seemed to possess greater merits.
Between poverty and sovereignty, this is this great distinction: the sovereign, a man of great wealth, is
always agitated by anxiety and seems to be within the very jaws of death.

The poor man, however, who because of his divestment of wealth has freed himself from
(unwanted) hopes and has therefore emancipated himself, cannot be bettered by fire, nor enemy, nor
death, nor robbers. [The key is that he is satisfied in his soul, and cannot be harmed by things of this
world.] The very gods applaud such a man, who wanders about according to his will, who lies down on
the bare ground with his arm for a pillow, and who is possessed of inner peace.
Affected by rage and selfish desire, the man of affluence is stained by a wicked heart. He casts
oblique glances and makes dry speeches. He becomes sinful, and his face is always darkened with frowns.
Biting his lips, excited with wrath, he utters harsh and cruel words. If such a man desires to even make a
gift of the whole world, who is there that would like to even look at him?

Constant companionship with Prosperity stupefies a person of

weak judgment. It drives off his judgment like the wind drives
off the clouds of autumn. Companionship with Prosperity
induces him to think, `I am damn good-looking! I'm really
rich!

`I am high-born! I'll always be successful in whatever I do!

I'm not an ordinary human being!' Because of these three
reasons, his heart becomes intoxicated.

Deeply attached to worldly possessions, he wastes the wealth

hoarded by his acestors. Reduced to want, he then thinks that
the appropriation of others' wealth is blameless.

At this stage, when he transgresses all barriers and begins to take from others from every side,
the government obstruct and afflict him like hunters afflict a deer that is spied in the woodswith sharp
arrows. Such a man is then overwhelmed with suffering of a similar kind, that come from weapons and
fire. Therefore, disregarding all selfish worldly desires as well as all fleeting unrealities, one should, aided
by one's reason, apply the proper medicine to cure these afflictions.

Without Renunciation, one can never attain happiness. Without Renunciation, one can never
obtain what is for one's highestgood.

Without Renunciation, one can never sleep at ease. Therefore, renouncing all, make happiness
your own! [This is very much like Bhagavad-gita 18.66; the significant difference is that Sri Krishna adds
thepositive statement that He will save us Himself.]

All this, what ChampAka sang, was told to me long ago at Hastinapura, by a learned brahmin.
For this reason, I regard Renunciation to be the foremost of things.
LITERARY REFLECTION
1. How would you describe happiness?
2. Do you agree that complete poverty is happiness? Explain your stand/ side?
3. What does it take to have a simple and sincere living?
4. Do you think Indian doctrine of Karma has something to do with the way in which joy and sorrow
come to the wealthy and the poor?
5. What particular religious belief and culture of Indian are exemplified in the text?

LITERARY APPRECIATION
The Mahabharata contains numerous values common among Asian countries. Try to identify these
values orientations which you think exist in the epic and discuss each one of them in the light of the
cultural setting of the Philippines.

LITERARY INSPIRATION

“Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.”
-Mahatma Gandhi
LITERARY JOURNEY
If I Were An Idol In A Temple
By: Arpita

An idol in a temple? Aha! An item of great reverence and attraction for myriads of people, what fun I
would mean and what an enviable status it would be.

The status of an idol in any temple big or small is I thrill greater than the greatest of human beings living
with flesh and blood can ever conceive of. Is it not ironical, humans that can be seen are less respected
than just an idol of someone whom no one, yes no one has ever seen.

Funny are the ways of man isn't it? In spite of being apparently lifeless, an image of someone who is just
imagined and never seen, my life would be full of thrill and gusto, people thronging at my door from
morning to night, more than they ever think of going to any human no matter how great.

Besides, the thrill of knowing that people don't just come to me for the sake of coming but, they enter
my room with some hopes, some demands. This idea would enhance further my ego and make me feel
as though I am really God or at least God-Like.

The idea that I mean a lot for people would give me great satisfaction; it would give me a shrill in my still
body when I would notice a continuous chain of people coming to me with their hopes pinned or my
capacity to help them. Seeing this, I would really start thinking that, I am someone important and I would
really pray that I am able to help those helpless humans.

At times, the feeling of resentment among people against me Oh! Not me but the God I represent would
set me thinking and my thinking cap would be put up at once.

I would really wonder what makes them all think that I can do everything for them. What I know is that,
man reaps just as he sows so, I do not understand why man lays so much stress on asking me for favours,
or redemption of his sins or wrong doings.

I know and, I think that most of the educated and intelligent men also know that I cannot and do not do
anything for anyone. I do not help any one. The world belongs to man and it is his own doing that
boomerang on him - both good and bad. However, if man has faith on me, and my capacity to help him
it is good for, faith I understand can work wonders.
So, if I were an idol in a temple I would be having the happiest existence, as, I'd never be alone. I'd infuse
faith in people both believing and non-believing, good and bad, and, I would always look trim and
beautiful - so what else can anyone hope to get from life?

My real trial would come when a dacoit or a criminal would come at my doorstep and try to hide his
identity and fool the simple folks in and around the temple premises.

This would really enrage me and my desire to come to life and hit out at the bad man would arouse, and
to the Almighty I'd pray that he give me strength to destroy all evil from the face of the earth, and
specially the evil right in front of me.

In turn, my faith in the Almighty I would strike and the strength latent in my still body would rise to the
occasion and destroy the evil in front of me. If this could happen in my temple, it would be a very
interesting experience of my life and I would really enjoy it even in my mute and dumb status.

Life would be just wonderful with no care, no worry, no work, and people always at my beack and call to
serve me, without having to call them. People coming in and going out of the temple would never allow
a moment of loneliness or frustration for me. Aha! What a fine life it would be though dumb and dull in
my existence.

LITERARY REFLECTION
1.What Indian religious practices are mentioned by the author?
2. Describe how they give respect and honor to their gods.
3. Do you think the author is trying to project an image of god? Cite lines that would support your answer.
4. If you were an idol in a temple, how would you like to be treated? How would you wish to be worshipped
by people? Scribble on a piece of paper the different ways by which you would like to be treated if you
were an idol in a temple.
5. What culture, traditions and beliefs are reflected in the essay?

LITERARY APPRECIATION
Religiosity is one of the common charactersitics among Asian people. They place great emphasis on the
importance of religion, write an essay how religion affects the consciousness and well-being of a
particular group of people. Also discuss how religion influence the economic and political orientation of
a particular country.

LITERARY INSPIRATION
 “Prayer is not asking. Prayer is putting oneself in the hands of God, at His disposition, and listening to
His voice in the depth of our hearts.”

-Mother Teresa

LITERARY JOURNEY

A Moment’s Indulgence
By: Rabindranath Tagore
I ask for a moment's indulgence to sit by thy side. The works
that I have in hand I will finish afterwards.

Away from the sight of thy face my heart knows no rest nor respite,
and my work becomes an endless toil in a shoreless sea of toil.

Today the summer has come at my window with its sighs and murmurs; and
the bees are plying their minstrelsy at the court of the flowering grove.

Now it is time to sit quite, face to face with thee, and to sing
dedication of life in this silent and overflowing leisure.

LITERARY REFLECTION
1. What is the poem all about?
2. Who do you think is being refered to in the last line of the poem?
3. Why do you the author needs a moment of indulgence? For what purpose does the author ask for
it?
4. What Indian culture or belief is evident in the poem?
LITERARY APPRECIATION
Briefly discuss the reasons why some people prefer to stop momentarily from the hustlebustle
of life and would rather pause for a while to enjoy “man’s humanity to man.”

LITERARY INSPIRATION
“In order to realize the Self, renounce everything. Having cast off all, assimilate yorself to that which
remains.”
-Annapurna Upanishads

LITERARY JOURNEY
Roses of Gratitude
By: Anil Chandra
Ajay Prasad flushed. Why was his teacher looking at him, her lips pursed in dissatisfaction?
Ajay who was ten, worshipped Mrs. Kumar—a tall, slender woman whose face normally wore a
serene smile. He had felt this way ever since, in front of the whole class, she had tousled his hair and told
him he knew the answer; he must simply think. Beet red but grinning, Ajay had thought hard—and solved
the problem. From then on, pleasing her was the most important thing in his life. Now, what had
happened? Where had he gone wrong?
At home after school, Ajay studied his reflection in the mirror for a clue to Mrs. Kumar’s disapproval.
His ragged clothes and worn out tennis shoes—hardly sufficient to shield him from the cold—were not
his fault. It was the winter of 1953 at Lucknow.
Ajay Prasad’s father worked as a foreman in an iron foundry until 1950 when the factory closed and
he was laid off. While his father searched for work, his mother worked as a part-time domestic servant.
The family, then with four children, lived in an old three-room house. The rats that scrabbled in the dark,
decaying floors terrified Ajay.
Mrs. Kumar couldn’t know about the rats, could she? Ajay was mystified. He was a good student,
and had done well for someone who spoke no English until he started going to school. That night, as he
huddled under his covers, Ajay decided he would ask his teacher what was wrong.
But the next morning, Ajay’s resolve melted like an icicle in sunshine. At noon, as he was about to
go home, Mrs. Kumar suddenly appeared beside him in the verandah of the school. “Come with me,
Ajay.” Ajay followed, thinking they were going to the Principal’s office.
Mrs. Kumar walked briskly out of the school, and strode into a shoe shop with Ajay right behind her.
“Sit down,” she told him.
“Have you got a pair of shoes to fit this little boy?” she asked. The salesman took off his tattered
tennis shoes and measured his feet. He found a pair of shoes that fitted Ajay perfectly.
 Outside, their purchase in a cardboard box, Ajay started back towards school. Without a word, Mrs.
Kumar turned around in the other direction, again leaving him no choice but to follow. They entered a
clothing store. Now Mrs. Kumar bought him a shirt and shorts. Ajay gaped at the notes she used to pay
for them—it was more money than he had ever seen. They took the purchases and went back to school
where Mrs. Kumar got two cups of tea for Ajay and herself.
As they sat in the staff room, Ajay tried to find words to express his thanks. But Mrs. Kumar’s quick
gulps and hurried manner told him there was little time for talk. “We must go, Ajay,” she said. In her smile
he again saw the serenity he treasured.
I will never forget this, Ajay Prasad said to himself as he watched her saree flutter as she left.
Soon after, the school was closed; its pupils and teachers were scattered. Ajay lost track of his
beloved teacher before he had ever found the right moment to thank her.
In time Ajay Prasad finished school and became an engineer. He married and fathered two boys.
Then, in early 1991, Ajay suffered a massive heart attack. Lying in a hospital bed, he recalled his
teacher of long ago.
He wondered if she was still alive, and if so, where she lived. He thought of his promise, and knew
he had some unfinished business to tend.
In August 1991, Ajay Prasad wrote to his old school. A few days later he got a letter from Mrs.
Kumar’s son. His mother and father had retired fifteen years ago and moved to Dehradun. He gave Ajay
their telephone number.
“Hello?” He recognized the lilting voice of his former teacher.
“Mrs. Kumar, this is Ajay.” He found he had trouble speaking. “Ajay Prasad.”
After he told her why he was calling, Sheila Kumar said, “Ajay, I am sorry. I don’t remember you.
There were so many hungry, ill-clothed children....”
“That’s okay,” he assured her. He told her he was coming to Dehradun to meet her.
“Oh Ajay,” Mrs. Kumar said. “That’s too much trouble.”
“I don’t care,” Ajay said. “I want to do it.”
She was silent for a moment. “You visualize me the way I looked then. I’m old and wrinkled now.”
“I’m not young either,” he said.
“Are you absolutely certain you want to come?”
“I’ve never been more sure of anything in my life.”
On September twenty three, Ajay Prasad took a train to Dehradun. There he hired a taxi, bought a
bouquet of long-stemmed roses and drove straight to the Kumar’s residence. Sheila Kumar met him at
the door in her best saree, her grey hair freshly curled, her eyes sparkling. Ajay swept her up in his arms
and hugged her. “Oh my Ajay,” Mrs. Kumar exclaimed.
They sat in the Kumar’s drawing-room to catch up on forty years. Ajay told them about his life as
an engineer, where all he worked, his wife and his two children. “I often thought about you, those shoes
and the clothes,” he said to Mrs. Kumar.
As he was leaving Sheila Kumar said, “How can I ever thank you for all the trouble you’ve taken?”
“Just think how much interest I owe you for the shoes and clothes,” Ajay squeezed her hand. Mrs.
Kumar, eyes misty, stood a long time looking at the long stemmed roses in the flower vase. Their
fragrance lingered for a long time in the room.

LITERARY REFLECTION
1. How would you describe Mrs. Sheila Kumar as a teacher? How would you describe Ajay Prasad as a
student?
2. What do you think is the reason why the teacher bought Ajay shoes and clothes?
3. After so many years, Ajay decided to visit his teacher, what particular Indian culture or belief is
apparent in this gesture?

LITERARY APPRECIATION
1. How do you appreciate people who in one way or another have been responsible in bringing about
remarkable influence to your upbringing and personality? Are there ways to make people happy? What
are some of them? Present your insights in class.
2. What makes you appreciate the simple things in life? Briefly write an essay, how life could be lived
better without the sophistications frequently observed among people.
3. Watch the movie entitled “The Three Idiots.”Then, make a story frame highlighting Indian cultures,
traditions, & beliefs. Present your output in class through slide presentations.
LITERARY INSPIRATION
“At the end of life, we will not be judged by how many diplomas we have received, how much money
we have made, how many great things we have done.
We will be judged by "I was hungry, and you gave me something to eat, I was naked and you clothed
me. I was homeless, and you took me in.”