ANA224

Assoc. Prof. Porncharn Saitongdee, Ph.D.

Anatomy Unit, Department of Biomedical Science,
Faculty of Science, RSU
1
 Objectives
I. Cartilage
 Structure of Cartilage
- Cartilage Cells, Matrix, Perichondrium
 Types of cartilage :Hyaline cartilage, Elastic cartilage, Fibrocartilage
 Growth of cartilage : Appositional growth and Interstitial growth
 -Clinical correlations
II. BONE
 Structure of Bone:
- Matrix : Inorganic and Organic constituents
- Bone Cells
 Bone types: based on shape, texture and microscopic observations
 Structure of typical long bone
- Haversian canal systems (Osteons)
 Bone growth and bone formation (Ossification)
- Bone Remodeling
 The repair of a bone fracture
 Clinical correlations
 Joint structure
2
 Cartilage & Bone
-derived from embryonic mesenchyme

Cartilage Bone
Cells + Extracellular matrix Cells + Mineralized Extracellular matrix
(Fibers + Ground substance)

How cells of cartilage and bone survive

• diffusion of nutrients and • nutrients are transported from

metabolites through the aqueous blood vessels to cell through
phase of the extracellular matrix. canaliculi
3
 Cartilage
-a semisolid, firm, and flexible form of connective tissue
 Cells: Chondrocytes in lacunae
 Extracellular matrix
1. Fiber: mainly collagen fiber
(tough and flexible)
2. Ground substance
2.1 Proteoglycan aggregates
- have a large negative charges that hold
large amount of water molecules
2.2 Multiadhesive glycoproteins
interaction between collagen fiber and
proteoglycan
Matrix - highly hydrated to provide resilience and diffusion of small molecules

• The tightly bound proteoglycans forming a hydrated matrix resists deformation by

compressive forces 4
 1

Perichondrium
2
- a layer of a dense irregular
collagenous connective
tissue
- firmly attaches to connective
tissue surrounding the cartilage
- responsible for the growth and
maintenance of the cartilage
- composed of
 Outer fibrous layer : fibroblasts, type I collagen, and contains blood vessels and nerves

 Inner chondrogenic layer : Chondrogenic cells undergo division and differentiate

(transcription factor Sox9) into chondroblasts which grows by adding to its periphery,
a process of appositional growth

5
 Cartilage Cells
Chondrogenic cells
- are spindle-shaped, narrow cells
- possess an ovoid nucleus with one or two nucleoli, a small Golgi
apparatus, a few mitochondria, and an abundance of free ribosomes
- can differentiate into both chondroblasts & osteoprogenitor cells

Chondroblasts
- are plump, basophilic cells with euchromatic nucleus
- rich network of RER, a well-developed Golgi complex, numerous
mitochondria and an abundance of secretory vesicles (for protein
synthesis)

Chondrocytes
- are ovoid, in deeper area are more rounded
- a large nucleus with a prominent nucleolus and RER
- produce matrix
6
Young chondrocytes
- have a pale-staining cytoplasm with many mitochondria, RER,
a well-developed golgi apparatus, lipid and glycogen.
- are still capable of cell division, forming a cluster of two to four or more cells in a lacuna
(isogenous groups)
- also secrete metalloproteinases, enzymes that degrade cartilage matrix,
allowing the cells to expand and reposition themselves within the growing isogenous group.

Older chondrocytes
- reduce organelles with an abundance of free ribosomes
7
Three types of cartilage :
(according to the matrix appearance and mechanical properties)
1. Hyaline cartilage 2. Elastic cartilage 3. Fibrocartilage

Hyaline cartilage
The homogenous, amorphous extracellular matrix appears
glassy matrix.
• Fiber: mainly type II collagen (tough and flexible),and
other collagen types
• surrounded by perichondrium except in the articular
surface and epiphyseal growth plate

“Semitranslucent blue-gray matrix”

- because the refractive index of the collagen fibrils and
that of the ground substance are nearly the same
Function: Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints,
flexibility, and support; It is the weakest type of cartilage
Location: most abundant cartilage in body: embryonic and fetal skeleton , epiphyseal
plate, articular surface in synovial joints, costal rib, laryngeal, tracheal and bronchial
cartilages
8
 Hyaline cartilage (continued)
Because of its high content of sulfated GAG in the ground substance, cartilage stains
with basic dyes (basophilic staining)
Extracellular matrix
• tightly bound proteoglycans form a
hydrated matrix resists deformation by
compressive forces

Molecular composition of hyaline

cartilage

9
 Hyaline cartilage (continued)
Three different regions of matrix:
1. Capsular or pericellular matrix (surrounding individual
chondrocytes)
: a fine meshwork of collagen fibers embedded in a basal
lamina-like substance
-to protect the chondrocytes from mechanical stresses

2. Territorial matrix ( surrounding the isogenous group):

poor in collagen and rich in chondroitin sulfate, which
contributes to its basophilic and intense staining with
periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reagent.

3. Interterritorial matrix (surrounds the territorial matrix

and occupies the space between isogenous groups)
: richer in type II collagen and poorer in proteoglycans than
the territorial matrix

Hyaline cartilage: a key tissue in the development of

the fetal skeleton (endochondral ossification) and
in most growing bones (epiphyseal growth plates).
10
 Elastic cartilage
 Fiber:>elastic fiber + type II collagen
 Function: provides strength and elasticity;
maintains shape of certain structures, more pliability
 Location: pinna, epiglotis, eustachian tube,
and external auditory canal
 surrounded by the perichondrium.
Outer perichondrium -rich in elastic fibers
Matrix - abundant, fine to coarse branching elastic fibers
and interposed with type II collagen fiber bundles

- The elastic fiber bundles of the territorial matrix

are larger and coarser than those of the
interterritorial matrix
- Chondrocytes :-more abundant and larger than
those of hyaline cartilage
11
 Fibrocartilage
- a combination of dense regular connective tissue and hyaline cartilage
with scant amount of matrix
- Chondrocytes scattered among clearly visible thick bundles of collagen fibers
within extracellular matrix
 Fiber : densely interwoven of type I collagen (durable &tough)
with stain acidophilic & some type II collagen
 Cells: isogenous groups are aligned in alternating parallel rows
with the thick, coarse bundles of collagen (resist to the tensile
forces )
 appearance of the basophilic staining of the capsular matrix
material and territorial matrix .
 Absent perichondrium
 Function: resist deformation under great stress to support and
joining structures together(the strongest type of cartilage)
 Location: annulus fibrosus, pubic symphysis (where hip bones
join anteriorly), meniscus, articular disks, insertions of tendons
and ligaments on the bone

12
 Growth of cartilage (Chondrogenesis)
Cartilage grows by two mechanisms :
1. Appositional growth
2. Interstitial growth

Appositional growth: process that forms new cartilage at the

peripheral part of cartilage (perichondrium)
- starts later than interstitial growth and continuous through adolescence
Inner cell layer of perichondrium
Chondrogenic cells
divide and differentiate

chondroblasts
the cell with matrix become chondrocytes
- the matrix accumulate beneath perichondrium on the surface of cartilage
= growth in width
13
 Interstitial growth: process that forms new cartilage within an
existing cartilage mass
• expand within the cartilage mass
- occur while the cartilage is young, during childhood and adolescence
- increase rapidly in size due to the division of existing chondrocytes
and continuous deposition of increasing amount of matrix

As the cells of an isogenous group produce matrix, they are pushed away from each other, forming
separate lacunae and thus enlarging the cartilage = interstitial growth.
14
Chondrogenesis and Cartilage Growth
Expression of transcription factor Sox-9 triggers differentiation of mesenchymal cells
into chondroblasts

Cartilage grows and repairs slowly with two basic patterns

1. Appositional growth (perichondrium) - secreting of matrix by newly
differentiated chondroblasts
2. Interstitial growth (cartilage mass) - secreting of new matrix by chondrocytes

Most cartilages of the body grow by appositional growth.

Articular cartilage
-lacks a perichondrium, increases in size only by interstitial growth
Epiphyseal plates of long bones
-the lacunae are arranged in a longitudinal orientation parallel to the long axis
of the bone; interstitial growth serves to lengthen the bone.
15
 Hormones and vitamins influence on the growth, development, and
function of cartilage

Effects of Hormones and Vitamins on Hyaline Cartilage

Hormone Effect
Thyroxine, testosterone, and somatotropin Stimulate cartilage growth and matrix formation
(via insulin-like growth factors)
Cortisone, hydrocortisone, and estradiol Inhibit cartilage growth and matrix formation
Vitamin Effect
Hypovitaminosis A Reduces width of epiphyseal plates
Hypervitaminosis A Accelerates ossification of epiphyseal plates
Hypovitaminosis C Inhibits matrix synthesis and deforms architecture of
epiphyseal plate, leading to scurvy
Absence of vitamin D, resulting in Proliferation of chondrocytes is normal but matrix
deficiency in absorption of calcium and does not become calcified properly, resulting in
phosphorus rickets

16
 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

Hyaline cartilage degeneration

- when the chondrocytes hypertrophy and die , the matrix begins to calcify.
(a natural process of aging, often resulting in less mobility and has pain in joint)

Cartilage regeneration is usually poor ,except in children

- Chondrogenic cells from the perichondrium enter the defect and form new cartilage.
If the defect is large, the cells form the dense connective tissue to repair .

Due to its avascular nature, cartilage has limited ability for repair. Repair mostly
involves the production of dense connective tissue.

In the aging process, hyaline cartilage is prone to calcification and is replaced by bone.
The elastic cartilage does not normally undergo the calcification process

17
 Intervertebral disks

Articular surface of vertebrae - hyaline cartilage

Intervertebral disks
Nucleus pulposus: a gelatinous center
- composed of cells, derived from the notochord,
lying within a hyaluronic acid-rich matrix
Annulus fibrosus - the layers of fibrocartilage
surrounding the Nucleus pulposus

The fibers of adjacent lamellae are oriented obliquely to each other, providing
support to the gelatinous nucleus pulposus.
The annulus fibrosus provides resistance against tensile forces, whereas the nucleu
pulposus resists forces of compression.

CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
A ruptured disk refers to a tear or break of the annulus fibrosus through which the gel-like
nucleus pulposus extrudes "slipped disk”

18
Type Identifying Characteristics Perichondrium Location
Hyaline C. Type II collagen, basophilic matrix, Present Articular ends of
chondrocytes usually arranged in (exceptions: long bones, nose,
groups articular cartilages larynx, trachea,
and epiphyses) bronchi, ventral
ends of ribs

Elastic C. Type II collagen, elastic fibers Present Pinna of ear, walls

of auditory canal,
auditory tube,
epiglottis,
cuneiform cartilage
of larynx
Fibro Type I collagen, acidophilic matrix; Absent Intervertebral disks,
cartilage chondrocytes arranged in parallel articular disks,
rows between bundles of collagen; pubic symphysis ,
always associated with dense menisci, insertion
regular collagenous connective of some tendons
tissue

19
 BONE
Cells + Mineralised extracellular matrix
(specialized extracellular matrix + calcium hydroxyapatite)

a collagenous tissue of type I collagen embedded in a glycosaminoglycan

gel containing specific glycoproteins (e.g. osteocalcin) = osteoid

Osteocalcin -strongly bind calcium

Deposition of mineral salts in the osteoid gives bone its characteristic rigidity and
functional strength.

20
Bone Functions
1. Provide support to body (soft tissue,)
2. Provide mineral storage (Ca, PO4)
- a reservoir for several minerals of the body such as calcium and phosphate
3. Produced WBC & RBC &pletlets (red bone marrow: hemopoiesis)
- contains a central cavity, the marrow cavity, which houses the bone marrow, a
hemopoietic tissue
4. Protect organs (delicate structures)
- the mineralisation of its matrix produce extreme hard tissue “calcium hydroxyapatite
crystals”
5. Provide attachment (ligament & tendon)
- work with skeletal muscle for the muscles attachment to generate movement
6. Store triglycerides as energy source (yellow bone marrow)
21
 Two methods -to prepare bone tissue for study

 Decalcified sections -in an acid solution to remove the calcium

salts. The tissue can then be embedded, sectioned, and
routinely stained for study.
= Osteocytes are distorted

Undecalcified ground bone

Decalcified compact bone

 Ground sections -by sawing the bone into thin slices, followed by grinding the
sections with abrasives between glass plates.
= The cells are destroyed, and the lacunae and canaliculi are filled in with bone debris
22
 Bone Matrix
Inorganic and Organic constituents

Inorganic Component :
crystals of calcium hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]
calcium and phosphorus about 65% of bone dry weight
- Hydroxyapatite crystals are arranged along the type I collagen fibers.

Bone hardness and strength - due to the association of hydroxyapatite

crystals with collagen fibers
• If bone is decalcified (all of the mineral is removed from the bone), it
still retains its original shape but becomes so flexible that it can be
bent like a piece of tough rubber.
• If the organic component is extracted from bone, the mineralized
skeleton still retains its original shape, but it becomes extremely
brittle and can be fractured with ease.
23
 Bone matrix (continue)

Organic Component :
Fibers and Ground substances ( 35% of the dry weight of bone)
 Type I collagen fiber (90% of bone matrix protein) to a lesser extent
type V collagen and others
- is formed in large (50 to 70 nm in diameter) bundles displaying a
typical 67-nm periodicity
- is highly cross-linked, which prevents it from being easily extracted

The abundance of type I collagen causes the matrix to be acidophilic.

Bone matrix stains with PAS reagent and displays slight metachromasia
indicates the presence of sulfated glycosaminoglycans

24
 Cells of Bone
Osteoprogenitor cells
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
Osteoprogenitor cells
- are derived from embryonic mesenchymal stem cells (in the bone marrow) and retain
their ability to undergo mitosis
- are spindle-shaped cells with a pale-staining oval nucleus; their scant pale-staining
cytoplasm displays an abundance of free ribosomes
- have potential to differentiate into osteoblast
- are located in the inner cellular layer of the periosteum, lining Haversian and Volkmann’s
canals, and in the endosteum

25
 Osteoblasts
= secretory cells and retain ability to divide
- are cuboidal to columnar cells that aggregates into a single
cell layer (cells connect each other with gap junctions) lying in
apposition to the forming bone.
- has basophilic cytoplasm containing abundant RER, free
ribosome, a well-developed Golgi complex and numerous
secretory vesicles
- synthesize the organic protein components of the bone
matrix (osteoid) , including type I collagen, bone matrix
proteins (calcium binding protein: osteocalcin for bone
mineralization), proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and alkaline
phosphatase
- respond to mechanical stimuli to mediate the changes in bone
growth and bone remodelling
- possess receptors for parathyroid hormone

When parathyroid hormone binds to the receptors, it stimulates osteoblasts to secrete a factor that
induces the differentiation of preosteoclasts into osteoclasts. Also osteoblasts secrete an osteoclast-
stimulating factor, which activates osteoclasts to resorb the bone.
- Osteoblasts also secrete enzymes responsible for removing osteoid so that osteoclasts
can make contact with the mineralized bone surface.
26
 Osteocytes
- are mature bone cells, housed in lacunae within the
calcified bony matrix
- spindle shaped cell with flattened nucleus, and poor
organelles in cytoplasm
- its processes radiating out in all directions from the
lacuna into narrow, tunnel-like spaces (canaliculi) to
contact the processes of neighboring cells by forming
gap junctions so the ions and small molecules can
move between the cells.
The canaliculi also contain extracellular fluid
carrying nutrients and metabolites that nourish the
osteocytes.

- function to maintain the bone matrix by synthesize

new matrix

27
 Osteoclasts

- Its precursor originating in the bone marrow, are derived from

the monocyte/macrophage lineage

 are large, motile cells (150 μm. in diameter)

 has multinuclei (up to 50 nuclei) and an acidophilic cytoplasm
 contain numerous lysosome (+rnx with acid phosphatase) have receptors for
osteoclast-stimulating factor which response for bone resorption (= Remodelling cells)

 It is located on the resorbed surfaces (shallow depression) in the bone matrix

called Howship’s lacunae
 It functions in the exocytosis of digestive materials
When actively resorbing bone , it exhibits the ruffled border (for increasing surface area)
in direct contact with bone for the exocytosis of hydrolytic enz. and secretion of proton, as
well as endocytosis of degradation products & bone debris.

28
 Mechanism of Bone Resorption

Howship’s lacuna
Sealing zone

Osteoclastic function. RER, rough endoplasmic reticulum.

(From Gartner LP, Hiatt JL, Strum JM: Cell Biology and
Histology [Board Review Series]. Philadelphia, Lippincott
Williams [amp ] Wilkins, 1998, p 100.)

Osteoclasts resorb bone tissue

1. releasing proton-ATPase for dissolution inorganic component (bone demineralization) within
an acidic environment (carbonic acid)
2. releasing lysosomal hydrolytic enzyme to degrade organic component (collagen and other
proteins)
The liberated minerals(Ca&PO4) enter the osteoclast cytoplasm to be delivered to nearby capillary.
When resorption is completed, osteoclasts undergo apoptosis.

Hormonal Control of Bone Resorption

-regulated by parathyroid hormone (increases osteoclast activity) and calcitonin (reduces
osteoclast activity)
29
30
 Osteoblasts
Osteoid (uncalcified bone matrix)
-RER
-free ribosome 1. Organic matrix
-well develope Golgi complex – collagen, proteoglycan
-numerous secretory vesicles
2. Ca binding protein (Osteocalcin)
Capture Ca from blood for bone
mineralization

parathyroid hormone receptor 3. Alkaline phosphatase

Parathyroid hormone stimulate mineralization of osteoid
CaPO4-hydroxyapatite crystal

4.Osteoprotegerin ligand (OPGL)

: stimulate Preosteoclast Osteoclast
5.Osteoclast stimulating factor
: osteoclasts resorb the bone

31
 Osteoclast
- numerous lysosome
- Ruffled border
Howship’s lacunae
(resorbed area)
Produce carbonic acid to demineralize bone matrix

Ca & PO4 Endocytosis

Capillary
Exocytosis of hydrolytic enzyme & H+
to degrade the collagen protein

Osteoclast apoptosis

32
Bone type accords to the shape: Long bones , Short bones ,Flat bones ,Irregular
bones, Sesamoid bones

Bone type according to the texture

1. Compact bone or Cortical bone
2. Spongy bone or Cancellous
(branching bony trabeculae and spicules )

Structure of typical long bone

- Diaphysis ( shaft)
- Epiphyses (the articular ends )
- Epiphyseal plate of cartilage
- Metaphysis (between the epiphysis and the diaphysis that
bone grows in length)
- Marrow or medullary cavity

Surface of the articulating end

- covered with only a thin layer of compact bone and top with
hyaline cartilage
Periosteum (CT sheath with bl.vv.) attaches to the bone with
perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers (collagen bundles)
- Outer fibrous layer of dense irregular CT
- Inner osteogenic cell layer
33
 Bone cavity (Medullary cavity)
-lined by endosteum, a layer of connective
tissue cells that contains osteoprogenitor
cells
- Marrow cavity and the spaces in spongy
bone contain bone marrow
Bone marrow exists as two types:
• red bone marrow, in which blood cells
are forming
• yellow bone marrow, composed mostly
of fat

In response to appropriate stimuli, such as extreme blood loss,

yellow bone marrow can revert to the red marrow.
In the adult, red marrow is restricted to the spaces of
spongy bone : sternum, rib, iliac crest, proximal tibia, vertebra,
skull, proximal ends of humerus and femur
34
 Bone Types based on microscopic
observations
Primary bone (immature or woven bone)
-the first bone to form during fetal
development and during bone repair.
-has abundant osteocytes and irregular
bundles of collagen, less mineral content
(without lamellar line) which are later replaced
and organized as secondary bone

Secondary bone (mature or lamellar bone)

- composed of parallel or concentric bony lamellae
(3- to 7-μm thick)
- Osteocytes in their lacunae are regularly dispersed
- Canaliculi, housing osteocytic processes, connect
neighboring lacunae with one another, that facilitate
the flow of nutrients, hormones, ions, and waste
products to and from osteocytes.
-osteocytic processes within these canaliculi make
contact with neighboring osteocytes by gap junctions
to communicate with each other. 35
 Compact bone tissue
– composed of repeating structural units of osteons.

HAVERSIAN CANAL SYSTEMS (OSTEONS)

1. Central or Harvesian canal
-contains blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
2. Lamellae
-concentric ring of matrix -mineral salt (hardness) and collagen
fibers (strength)
3. Lacunae
-small spaces between lamellae contain osteocytes
4. Canaliculi
-network of tiny canals containing the proceses of osteocytes
-projecting from the lacunae ( routes for nutrients and waste
transportation)
Haversian canals of adjacent osteons are connected to each other by Volkmann's canals
(Perforating canals).
36
A typical long bone shaft.
In the cortex : Haversian canals, Volkmann’s canals.
The canals contain blood vessels and some nerves.
The interior of each Haversian canal is lined by flat osteoprogenitor cells as are the
inner surface of the cortical bone plate (endosteum) and the outer surface of the
bone, the fibrocollagenous periosteum. 37
Spongy bone tissue (Trabecular or
Cancellous bone tissue)
No Haversian system present in spongy
bone, but there are irregular arrangements
of lamellae containing lacunae housing
osteocytes that are nourished by diffusion
from the marrow cavity.
38
Lamellar Systems of Compact Bone
four lamellar systems in compact bone:
- Outer circumferential lamellae
- Inner circumferential lamellae
- Osteons
- Interstitial lamellae
(fragments of the old osteons)

Outer circumferential lamellae

-just deep to the periosteum,
the outermost region of the diaphysis
-contain Sharpey's fibers (collagen fibers)
anchoring the periosteum to the bone

Inner circumferential lamellae

-completely encircle the marrow cavity
-Trabeculae of spongy bone extend from the inner circumferential lamellae into the marrow
cavity, interrupting the endosteal lining of the inner circumferential lamellae.
39
Perpendicular orientation of collagen fibers in
adjacent layers

Interstitial lamellae result from bone remodeling

and formation of new Haversian systems.

Both the inner circumferential lamellae and the spongy

bone on the internal surface of the compact bone are
covered by a thin layer of endosteum, which faces
bone marrow spaces.

The outer surface of the bone is covered by

periosteum that contains a thicker layer of
connective tissue.

Branches of nutritional arteries and small veins

accompanied by nerves are present within the
Haversian and Volkmann’s canals and also supply the
periosteum and endosteum.

40
Bone growth in thickness

As new bone is
deposited on the
outer surface of
bone by osteoblasts,
the bone tissue
lining the medullary
cavity is destroyed
by osteoclasts in the
endosteum.

41
 Bone Formation in
an Embryo and Fetus

The two methods of bone

formation (Ossification)
1. Intramembranous ossification
Bone forms directly within mesenchyme, which is arranged in sheet-like layers
that resemble membranes
: the flat bones of the skull, most of the facial bones, mandible and the medial
part of the clavicle (collar bone)

2. Endochondral ossification
Bone forms within hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme
42
 Intramembranous ossification

- involves the formation of bone within

mesenchyme arranged in sheetlike layers
that resemble membranes.

43
 Endochondral ossification

During endochondral
ossification, bone
gradually replaces a
cartilage model.

44
Five zones of the epiphyseal plate
(at the epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate)

 Zone of reserve cartilage:

Small scattered chondrocytes
 Zone of proliferation: Chondrocytes,
rapidly proliferating, form columns of
chondrocytes that parallel the direction of
bone growth (interstitial growth).
 Zone of maturation and hypertrophy:
Chondrocytes -mature and hypertrophy,
accumulate glycogen and alkaline phosphatase in their cytoplasm. The matrix
between their lacunae narrows with a corresponding growth of lacunae.
 Zone of calcification: Lacunae become confluent, hypertrophied
chondrocytes die, and cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
 Zone of ossification: Osteoprogenitor cells invade the area and
differentiate into osteoblasts, which elaborate matrix that becomes
calcified on the surface of calcified cartilage. That is followed by resorption of
calcified cartilage/calcified bone complex. This transitional zone is known as
the metaphysis.

The chondrocytes of the epiphyseal plate proliferate at the epiphyseal aspect,

and replacement by bone takes place at the diaphyseal side of the plate.
45
 Mineralization of Bone
are deposits of calcium phosphate on the collagen fibril in the osteoid
Because 99% of the calcium in the body is stored in bone as hydroxyapatite crystals,
the remaining 1% must be available for mobilization from the bone on short notice.
Calcium ions retrieved from bone to maintain blood calcium levels come from new and
young osteons, where mineralization is incomplete.

BONE GROWTH
• Bone lengthening
- by the interstitial growth of cartilage, which is eventually replaced by bone.
• Growth of the diaphysis in width - by appositional growth.

46
 Bone Modeling
- a change in the shape of the overall bone (prominent during childhood and
adolescence)
- the process by which the marrow cavity expands as the bone grows in diameter.
Failure of modeling is the basis of hematopoietic failure in osteopetrosis.

Bone Remodeling
- a process where osteoclasts and osteoblasts work sequentially in the same bone remodeling
unit. (removal of bone matrix and replacement with new bone)

In a young person, bone production exceeds bone resorption because new Haversian systems
are being developed much faster than old ones that are being resorbed.
In adulthood, when the epiphyseal plates close and bone growth has been attained.

Bone must be resorbed from one area and added to another to meet changing stresses placed on it
(e.g., weight, posture, fractures).
Remodeling - removes injured bone, replacing it with new bone tissue
- may be triggered by exercise and changes in diet
The adult skeleton is renewed by remodeling throughout life.
47
 The repair of a bone fracture

1.Formation of fracture 2.Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

hematoma. - Fibroblasts from the periosteum
Blood vessels -a mass of blood invade the fracture site and produce
(a fracture hematoma) 6 to 8h. collagen fibers.
-nearby bone cells die -In cells from the periosteum develop
-Swelling and inflammation - into chondroblasts to produce
cellular debris fibrocartilage lead to the development
-Phagocytes and osteoclasts of a fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus
begin to remove the dead or that bridges the broken ends of the
damaged tissue (several weeks) bone (3 weeks)
48
The repair of a bone fracture (continue)

3 . Bony callus formation. 4. Bone remodeling.

osteogenic cells develop into Bone remodeling of the callus:
osteoblasts, which begin to produce Dead portions of broken bone
spongy bone trabeculae. The are gradually resorbed by
trabeculae join living and dead osteoclasts.
portions of the original bone fragments Compact bone replaces spongy
fibrocartilage spongy bone bone around the periphery of
(a bony callus) (3 to 4 months) the fracture. 49
 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Aging and Bone Tissue
1. The principal effect of aging is demineralization, a
loss of calcium from bones, which is due to reduced
osteoblast activity.
2. Decreased production of extracellular matrix
proteins (mostly collagen fibers) makes bones more
brittle and thus more susceptible to fracture.

Osteoporosis
-Binding of estrogen to specific receptors on osteoblasts activates the cells to
manufacture and secrete bone matrix.
-With diminished secretion of estrogen (menopause woman), osteoclast activity
is greater than bone deposition, potentially reducing bone mass to the point at
which the bone cannot withstand stresses and breaks easily (bone fragility) .

Monitor bone formation by measuring the blood alkaline phosphatase level.

- During active bone formation, osteoblasts secrete high levels of alkaline
phosphatase.
50
 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

Osteopetrosis (high density bone/absent osteoclastic activity)

a genetic disorder(deficiency of cathepsin-K) that osteoclasts do not possess a
ruffled border cannot resorb bone
increased bone density
exhibit anemia (resulting from decreased
marrow space), as well as blindness, deafness, and cranial nerve involvement
(because of impingement of the nerves due to narrowing of the foramina)

Acromegaly occurs in adults

-excess of somatotropin, causing an abnormal increase in bone deposition without
normal bone resorption. This condition creates thickening of the bones, especially those
of the face, in addition to disfiguring soft tissue.

51
 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Rickets
a disease in infants and children who are deficient in vitamin D
-the intestinal mucosa cannot absorb calcium resulting in disturbances in
ossification of the epiphyseal cartilages and disorientation of the cells at the
metaphysis, giving rise to poorly calcified bone matrix
-display deformed bones, particularly in the legs (the bones cannot bear their weight)

Osteomalacia, adult rickets (prolonged deficiency of vitamin D)

-the newly formed bone in the process of remodeling does not mineralization of
osteoid properly.
- progressive softening and bending of bone

Scurvy (a deficiency of vitamin C)

-deficient collagen production, causing a reduction in formation of bone matrix
and bone development. Healing is also delayed.

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 Joint
Most of the joints of the extremities are diarthroses.
Articular surface of bones- covered by hyaline cartilage.

Ligaments maintain the contact between the bones of the joint,

which is sealed by the joint capsule.
- outer fibrous layer (dense connective tissue), which is
continuous with the periosteum of the bones
- inner cellular synovial layer (synovial membrane)
Two kinds of cells located in the synovial layer:
 Type A cells (macrophages) displaying a well-developed
Golgi apparatus and many lysosomes but only a small
amount of RER. They remove debris from the joint space.
 Type B cells (resemble fibroblasts) - abundant well-
developed RER, secrete the synovial fluid.

Synovial fluid
- a high concentration of hyaluronic acid and the
glycoprotein combined with filtrated plasma.
- a high content of hyaluronic acid and lubricin to
function as a lubricant for the joint
- supplying nutrients and oxygen to the chondrocytes
of the articular cartilage Type A cell Type B cell
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References
1. Ross Pawlina 2011. Histology A text and Atlas, Sixth edition, Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
2. William K. Ovalle, Patrick C. Nahirney 2008. Netter’s Essential Histology,
Elsevier Inc.
3. Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan Derrickson 2012. Principles of ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY 13th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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