Chapter -7

Evolution
Evolution:
Biological evolution is descent with modification ; is the formation of newer types of organisms
from the pre-existing ones through modification.
Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.
Origin of life:
❖ The origin of life is considered unique events in the history of universe.
❖ Huge clusters of galaxies comprises the universe.
❖ Galaxies contains stars and clouds of dust and smoke.
❖ Bing Bang Theory attempts to explain the origin of universe.
❖ According to this theory, a huge explosion occurs that forms the different galaxies.
❖ In solar system of Milky Way galaxies, earth has been supposed to be formed about 4.5
million years ago.
❖ There was no atmosphere in early earth. Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and
ammonia released from molten mass covered the earth surface.
❖ UV rays from sun splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen.Life appeared 500 million
years after the formation of earth.

There are different theories regarding the origin of life on earth-

➢ Theory of special creation : This theory says that life was created by some
supernatural power either once or at successive intervals. It’s states that :1. Some
supernatural power, called God formed living organisms. 2. Living organisms were
formed all of a sudden. 3. They have not undergone any change since their
formation. All these ideas were strongly changed during the nineteenth century.
➢ Theory of Cosmozoa OR panspermia : It was put forth by Ritcher in 1865which
believes that life on earth come from distant planet in the form of life spores or
microorganisms called Cosmozoa Or panspermia which were preserved within the
meteorites.
➢ Theory if spontaneous generation OR Theory of Abiogenesis: According to this
theory, it was believed that life came out of decaying and rotting matters like straw,
mud, etc. This theory was supported by ancient Greek Philosophers. In ancient
Egypt, it was believed that the mud of Nike river could give rise to fishes, frogs,
crocodiles etc., when warmed by sun. Helmont held that human sweat and wheat
grains could give rose to organisms.
➢ Theory of Biogenesis: 1) Louis Pasteur by careful experimentation demonstrated
that life comes only from pre-existing life. He showed that in Pre-sterilized flasks, life
did not come from killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new living
organisms arose from ‘killed yeast'. 2) Experiments of Francesco Redi, Lazzaro
Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur, etc., supported the theory of biogenesis and
disproved the Abiogenesis. Spontaneous theory was dismissed once and for all.
➢ Chemical-theory of origin of life( oparin -Haldane theory) : Oparin of Russia and
Haldane of England proposes that the first form of life could have come from pre-
existing Non-living organic molecules like RNA, protein, etc. And that formation of
life was preceded by chemical evolution . According to Oparin- Haldane theory: 1)
spontaneous generation of life under the present environmental conditions is not
possible. 2) Earths surface and atmosphere during the first billions years of it’s
existence were radically different from today’s conditions. Oparin's theory is also
known as chemical theory or naturalistic theory which was published in his book
‘The origin of life'.
➢ Big bang theory:
1. A specific theory called Big bang theory explains that, the unimaginable large
explosion created the universe.
2. AS a universe expanded and cooled, the temperature came down band
materials condensed under the influence of gravitation to form present day
galaxy.
3. Our galaxy is called Milky Way formed 4.5 billion years back.
4. There was no atmosphere on early earth.
5. Water vapours, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from
molten mass covered the surface.
6. The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen band Oxygen band
the lighter H2 escaped.
7. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and
others.
8. The ozone layer was formed as it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain, to fill
all the depressions and form oceans.
9. Rain water dissolved in ammonia and methane and flowing water contained
salts and minerals.
10. Volcanic eruptions increased mineral content of the sea.
11. Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, I. e., almost
Four billion years back.
12. Micro molecules in colloid found in the primitive sea was called hot dilute
soup.
13. As chemical evolution progressed the micro molecules combined due to
dehydration to form organic macro molecules such as proteins band nucleic
acids .
 14. The nucleic acids combined with inorganic and organic substances formed
protobiont Or pre cell which was the first form of life.
Miller’s Experiment:

❖ In 1953, Stanley Miller and Herold Urey designed an electric discharge closed flask
experiment stimulating primitive atmosphere, using an apparatus. This experiment is
evidence in support of chemical evolution of life.
❖ Miller designed a glass apparatus called Spark discharging apparatus.
❖ The air from the apparatus was removed by using vacuum , cork and it sterile.
❖ The mixture of gases like methane, ammonia and hydrogen were taken in the ratio 1: 2:
2 in the spark discharging chamber which was provided with electrodes to discharge
electrical sparks at 800° C.
❖ Mean while water was boiled in the other part of the apparatus so that the steam was
circulated within the apparatus.
❖ At the same time, electrical sparks were produced by the electrodes I the sparking
chamber provided energy for the chemical reaction.
❖ Later, the products moving down from the sparking chamber was cooled by using
cooling jacket(condenser) .
❖ The products of the sparking chamber were collected in the ‘U-shaped tube called trap.
❖ This experiment was allowed to run for a week and then products collected in the trap
was analysed.

Observation:
This experiment yields several amino acids, few other simple organic compounds like
Hydrogen, cyanide, fatty acids etc.
 Inference : The Miller’s experiment was designed to produce the same condition that
existed in prebiotic earth. The formation of organic compounds as the product of
experiment suggested that these substances could be formed under the conditions that
prevailed in the pre-biotic earth. Thus this experiment successfully proved the first step
of simple organic substances from single chemical substances.

Evolution of lifeforms – A theory :

• According to this theory of special creation given by conventional religions, it has 3

explanation:
1. Living organisms that we see today were created as such.
 2. The diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future.
3. The earth is about 4000 years old.

• The theory of special creation was strongly challenged by Charles Darwin based on
observation made by during a sea voyage in a ship calked H. M. S. Beagle. He proposed
the theory of Natural selection , the principles of Natural selection are as follows:
1. Over production : All organisms tend to produce more offspring’s that can actually
survive.
2. Struggle for existence : Due to over production there will be competition among
themselves for different necessities such as food, shelter, light, mate etc.
3. Occurrence of variation: The individuals of a population show difference between
themselves. The variations can be useful, harmful or neutral. However useful variations
are important for evolution.
4. Survival of fittest :When there is a struggle for existence, that are better fir in an
environment leave more progeny than others.
5. Natural selection: The one who survive more and are selected by nature hence called
natural selection which form the mechanism of evolution.
6. Speciation : The individual having useful variation reproduce and pass on the variation
to offspring’s . As a result large number of variation get accumulated. This results in the
formation of new species is called Speciation.
• Alferd Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also cone to similar
conclusions around the same time. All the existing life forms share similarities and share
common ancestors . However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the
history of earth.
• A final conclusion is that, earth is not thousand years old as was thought earlier, but
billions of years old.

Evidence for evolution:

Evolution is incredibly and unimaginably a slow process, it is difficult to observe the process
during ones lifetime. The evidence are as follows:

• Palaeontology
• Comparative Morphology and Anatomy
• Physiology and Biochemistry
• Natural selection
• Molecualr Biology etc.

Palaeontology: The study of fossils are called palaeontology. Fossils are remains of hard parts
of life forms found in rocks. Sediments contain fossils of different life forms who probably died
during the formation of a particular sediment.
Comparative Morphology and Anatomy : Comparative anatomy and morphology of plants and
animals show similarities and differences among organisms of today and those that existed
years ago. Such similarities help us to understand common ancestor.

1. Homologous organs: The organs that have similar anatomical structure and perform
different functions are called Homologous organs.
• Example : Forelimb of whales, bats, cheetah, humans.
• In all these animals the same structure developed in different directions due to
adaptations to different needs. This is called divergent evolution.
• Other examples of homologous organs are thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea
and Cucurbita.
• Other example :Vertebrate heart and brain.
• Homology has common ancestor.
2. Analogous organs: The organs that anatomically dissimilar but perform similar
functions re called analogous organs.
• The wings of Butterfly and bird are anatomically dissimilar, but they perform
similar function. Hence analogous organs as a result of convergent Evolution.
• The organisms in which different structures evolved for similar function is called
Convergent Evolution.
• They live in relatively sane way as each other. Eg: Ostriches, Rheas and Emu.
• Examples :eyes of Octopus and Mammals.
• Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
• In plants Sweet potato (root modification) and potato ( stem modification) is
another example for analogy.
Embryological evidences: Embryological evidences was proposed by Ernst Haeckel based on
the observation. According to Ernst Haeckel there are certain features during embryonic stage
that are common to all vertebrates, but absence in adults.
For example all vertebrates develop a row of vestigial gill slit behind the head.
Evidences from physiology and biochemistry : All organisms , from microorganisms to man
poses certain basic biochemical traits in common, while others are specific to one species or
individual. Such similarities provide considerable evidence in support if organic evolution.
Evidence in support of Natural Selection:
➢ Industrial Melanism:
➢ In support of Natural selection an interesting observation noticed in England.
➢ In England there was a month called Biston betularia commonly called peppered moth
in the early 19th century. It’s body colour was white and its wings were having pepper
like black spots.
➢ In the same period, another variety called Biston carbonaria commonly called melanic
form appeared with having black body and wings.
➢ In the early 19th century the population of peppered moth was 99% and melanic forms
was 1%.
➢ The reason is that, both the moth varieties took rest on the tree trunk covered by
lichens. The peppered moth camouflaged with the background both the tree trunks but
the melanic forms were visible to the predators like birds and ate them. As a result
peppered moth remained 99% and melanic form 1%.
➢ This indicates that nature has selected peppered moths with extermination of melanic
forms.
➢ During the middle of 19th century ,due to industrial revolution, the tree trunks were
covered by soot and other pollutants emitted by the industries.
➢ In this new and changed environment , the peppered moths were clearly visible to the
birds but the melanic forms were camouflaged with the tree trunk. As a result
population of peppered moths reduced to 1% and melanic forms increased to 99%.
➢ This indicates that nature has selected melanic forms with the examination of peppered
moths. But no variant at any time is completely wiped out but only the population
reduced.
➢ Herbicides , pesticides resistant : Excess of herbicides, pesticides etc., resulted in the
selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser time scale. Hence, resistant organisms /
cells are appearing in time scale of months or years but not centuries.
➢ Antibiotic resistant bacteria :
➢ Here a bacterial population was grown on an agar medium which contained
antibiotic Penicillin.
➢ It was found that, the colonies sensitive to penicillin died, whereas the others that
were resistant to penicillin survived.
➢ It was then concluded that probably the bacteria that survived underwent a chance
mutation thereby possessing a gene that contributed to their resistance to the
penicillin drug.
➢ The resistant bacteria was selected by the nature, multiplied faster than the non
resistant bacteria, thereby increasing their number and in course of time was
considered as fittest and established as new species.
➢ Long Necked Giraffe:
➢ According to Lamarck , ancestor of modern Giraffe was a short necked grazing
creatures.
➢ When the giraffe population increased (over population) there was scarcity of grass.
Among the giraffe population, some were slightly long necked than the others. So they
stood better chance of survival because they could reach the leaves which were at
higher level.
➢ The short necked giraffe could not reach the leaves which were at higher level hence
perished.
 ➢ The next generations were born with long necks survived and reproduced. So
generation after generation, nature selected long necked giraffe as the ancestors of
succeeding generation until the present day of long necked giraffe came into existence

Adaptive radiation : The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from its original character and radiating to other geographical area(habitats) is called
adaptive radiation.
The Darwin finches and Australian Marsupials are the best examples of this phenomenon.

1) Darwin Finches :
➢ During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands there he observed an
amazing diversity of creatures. He observed small black birds called Darwin’s
finches that were many varieties evolved on the same island itself.
➢ But those finches were diverse in their food habitats like original from seed
eating features to many other forms with altered beaks arose enabling them to
become insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
2) Australian Marsupials:
➢ A number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved from an
ancestral stock, but all within the Australian continent.
➢ When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an
isolated geographical area, one can call this convergent evolution.
Example: Tasmanian wolf, Tiger cat, Banded anteater, Marsupial rat, Kangaroo,
Wombat, Bandicoot, koala, Marsupial mole and sugar glider.
3) Placental mammals:
In Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties of such
placental mammals each of which appears to be similar to a corresponding
marsupial. Example: placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf- marsupial.

Lamarck’s theory:
➢ Before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarck proposed use and disuse theory for
evolution of life.
➢ He explains this theory taking a Giraffes as example. Giraffes have to adopt by
elongating their neck to forage leaves on tall trees.
➢ The passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to the succeeding generations.
➢ As a result the Giraffes over the year acquired long necks.

Biological evolution :
➢ Evolution by natural selection started when cellular forms with difference in metabolic
originated on earth.
 ➢ Evolution by natural selection explained by Darwin can be explained with reference to
growth of microbes.
➢ A colony of Bacteria (Say A) growing on a given medium has built variation in terms of
ability to utilize nutrition multiply and produce millions of individual within hours.
➢ A change in the medium composition leads to survival of only part of population (Say B)
survive under the new conditions.
➢ In the course time the variant population i. e outgrows the other and appear as new
species.
➢ Thus we can conclude that the fitness of colony B is better than colony A under the new
conditions. So the ability of organisms to adopt is selected by nature and the fitness of
organism is thus genetically controlled.
➢ This theory of evolution by Darwin is based on two concepts – Branching descent –
Natural selection
➢ The members of populations show variation in their characteristics. Some Individuals
are better adapted to survive in the given environment. Accumulation of variation over
a period of time through a number of generations lead to change in population
characteristics . This is called branching descent.
Types of Natural selection of different traits in a population :
1.Stabilizing selection: In which more individuals acquire man character value. It occurs when
natural selection favours the intermediate states of continuous variation. Over time, the
intermediate states become more common and each extreme variation become less common
or lost. The bell shaped curve narrows due to elimination of extreme variants.
2. Directional selection: More individuals acquire value other than the mean character value. It
occurs when natural selection favours one extreme of continuous variation. Over time, the
favoured extreme become more common and the other extreme variation become less
common or lost. The bell shaped curve shift to one direction.
3. Disruptive selection : More individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of
the distribution curve. It occurs when natural selection favours both extremes of continuous
variation. Over time, the two extreme variation become more common and the other
intermediate variation become less common or lost.
Mechanism of Evolution :
➢ The process of evolution is due to variation.
➢ Hugo-de- Vries based on his work on plant called evening Primrose proposed that
variation is due to a process called Mutation.
➢ A mutation is random and directionless change in the genetic material which arise
suddenly in population which cause evolution.
➢ Hugo-de-Vries called mutation as Saltation i. e. Single step large mutation.
Hardy -Weinberg Principle(Genetic Equilibrium) :The allele frequency in a population are
stable and is constant from generation to generation. The gene pool remains constant.

Gene pool: Total genes and their alleles in a population.

➢ This law was proposed in 1908 by G. H Hardy , a British mathematician and the German
physicists E. Weinberg.
➢ The law attempts to establish a connection between evolution and gene frequencies. Since
evolution depends on change in the gen e frequency, they put forward a formula p+q=1
Or100% to calculate gene frequency .
➢ They demonstrated that gene frequencies do not depend on dominance or recessiveness
but remain constant from generation to generation under certain conditions.

Practical application of the Genetic Equilibrium :

The formula p+q=1 can be applied to any population to find out the gene frequency. Let us
consider two alleles ‘A' and ‘a' at a given locus. The possible genotypes in the population will be
‘AA', Aa, aa'. Let the gene frequency of the ‘A' allele represented by ‘p' and ‘a' allele is
represented by ‘q'.

Hence, according to Hardy -Weinberg law p+q=1 or 100%.

The general relationship between gene and genotype frequency can be given by the algebraic
equation.
(P+q)2 = p2+ 2pq +2

Let us assume that frequency of the ‘A' gene and the ‘a' gene in the population is 50%.
Hence, p=50%= ½ = 0.5
q = 50%= ½ = 0.5
Using the above relationship, genotype frequency can be calculated as

(P+q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q 2
= (0.5) + 2 (0.5) ( 0.5) + ( 0.5)
= 0.25+ 0.5 + 0.25
=1

The above values can then be expressed as percentage vin terms of ‘p' and ‘q' as
= 25% p2 + 50% p q + 25% q2
=100%.
Factors affecting Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium :
There are five factors that affect Hardy -Weinberg equilibrium are : Gene flow, Genetic drift,
Mutation, Genetic recommendation, Natural selection

1.Gene flow ( gene migration) : The transfer of genes between the population of different gene
pool which differ genetically but can interbreed is called gene flow. This results in the
production of new combinations.

• The sum total of genes occurring in a sexually reproducing population in a geographical

area at given time is called “gene pool” .
• Gene flow is mainly brought about by migration and hybridization. The change in gene
frequency depends on the rate of gene flow.
• The rate of gene flow could be hindered by certain factors like isolation such as huge
mountain ranges, forest, seas etc.
Gene frequency:” The frequency of any given gene in a population relative to all it’s alleles
remains in the same locus “.
2.Genetic Drift ( Sewall Wright Effect) : It is the random changes in gene frequency in a small
population, purely as change is called genetic drift.

• It is an evolutionary mechanism observed in small populations was first described by

Sewall Wright in 1931. Hence it is called Sewall Wright effect.
• The change in allele frequency is so different in the new population that, they become a
different species. Hence the original drifted populations becomes founders for new
species and the effect is called “Founder Effect”.
• Founder effect: is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is
established by a very small numbers of individuals from a larger population.

3.Mutation: Mutations are the spontaneous and permanent change in the genetic make- up of
an individual.

• Though Darwin believed that evolution takes place due to slow and gradual change,
Hugo de Vries working on Oenothera lamarkiana believed that, large spontaneous
changes called mutations brought in speciation and called it saltation( single step large
mutation) .
• This change may produce an alternation in the character.
• There are two types of mutations namely , gene mutation ( point mutation) and
chromosomal mutation ( frame shift mutation) .
• Point mutation is due to change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene.
• Whereas chromosomal mutation is due to addition or deletion in the chromosome
number ( Klinefelter's Or Turner's syndrome).
4.Genetic recombination : Exchange of genes between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes during the formation of gametes.

• Recombination results in offspring that have a combination of characteristics different

from that of their parents.
• Recombination can also be induced artificially be genetic engineering techniques.

5.Natural selection : It is the process of selection of better adapted individuals with useful
variations by the nature OR Individuals less adapted to the environment are eliminated and
selecting those better adapted by the nature.

• The fittest or better adapted individuals survive, reproduce and reproduce and
contribute their genes to the next.
• Whereas the less adapted individuals fails to reproduce at a very slow rate and their
gene are eventually lost. This is called differential reproduction.
• Thus natural selection is ‘ the process of differential reproduction that leads to
differential contribution of genotypes to the gene pool of the next generation'. It brings
about change in allele frequencies of a population.

A brief account on evolution :

• About 2000 million years ago (Mya) first cellular form of life appeared on earth. Some of
the cells had the ability to release o2.
• By 500 million years ago invertebrates were formed and active.
• Jawless fish evolved around 350 million years ago.
• Sea weeds and few plants evolved around 320 million years ago.
• Fishes with stout and strong fins that could move on land and water evolved around 350
million years ago.
• These, animals called love fins evolved into first amphibians. These animals are
ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles which lay thick shelled eggs.
• In the next 200 millions years reptiles of different size and shape dominated the earth.
During this ear Giant Ferns were present.
• Some of the water reptiles were Ichthyosaurs about 200 mya . The land reptiles were
Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus rex was 20 feet in height.
• About 65 million years ago the dinosaurs disappeared from earth. The probable reasons
may be – Climatic change – may evolved into birds.
• Reptiles evolved into aves , Mammals.
• The first mammals were like shrews. Mammals were viviparous and protected new born
young ones inside mothers body. Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and
avoiding danger.
 • Some mammals such as whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples which
live in water completely.

Origin and Evolution of Man:

• It has been proved beyond doubt that man shares many characters in common both
lemurs, monkeys and apes, which are included under the group primates.
• There are evidences to show that both apes and man have a common primitive
ancestor.
• The word Hominidae is used to describe the total member species of the human
family that have lived since the last common ancestor of both man and the apes.
• The field of science which studies the human fossil record is called Palaeontology.
• Palaeontologists have collected only few fossils. It is assumed that human evolution
started 15 million years ago, but man appeared only 3 million years ago.
• The evolution of man can be understood only the availability of the fossils.
• The available fossils indicates that human beings originated first in East Africa . The
gradual evolution of man from ape like ancestor is fully supported by fossils.
• To study the evolutionary tree of man, the fossils are arranged in the order of
1. Ancestral ape and 2. Ape -men
3. Primitive man and 4. Modern man

Different Genus/ species Time period Brain Food habitat

forms capacity
Apes Dryopithecus 20 mya Not known Soft fruit and
leaves
Ape – men Ramapithecus 14-15 mya Not known Seeds and
nuts

Australopithecus 5 mya 450cc Herbivores

Primitive Homo habilis 2 – 1.7 mya 650-800 cc Carnivores
man (Handy man)

800cc - Omnivores
Homo erectus 1.7- 34000 1100cc
mya

Homo
Neanderthalensis 1 lakh – 1350 cc Omnivores
(Neanderthal 40000 years
man)
Modern man Homo sapiens 18000 years 1300-1600 cc Omnivores
fossils (Cro-
Magnon)

Homo sapiens
sapiens( Modern 1200- 1650 Omnivores
man) cc

1.Apes:
❖ Dryopithecus : It was an ancestral type. They lived in Miocene period about 15 million
years ago. They were found in Asia and Europe.
2.Ape- man:
❖ Ramapithecus : Dryopithecus found in Siwalik Hills of India are called as Ramapithecus
and Sivapithecus. They had slender limb bones and short arms. Jaws and teeth were
more common to human appearance. With a development of brain and forelimbs.
Ramapithecus could pick up and manipulate sticks and stones for simple tests such as
frightening his enemies.
❖ Australopithecus : This man like ape lived in Eastern and Southern African grasslands
about 5 million years ago. The fossil evidences show that Australopithecus is
intermediate between apes and man. They probability is that man might have arose
from Australopithecus like ancestors.
3.Primitive man :
❖ Homo habilis : The earliest known representatives of tr ye man probably lived in Eastern
Africa about two and half lakh years back. He was called the handy man because tools
were found with his fossils remains. Their brain capacity was 650-800 cc and was the
markers of crudely chipped stone tools. They probably did not eat meat.
❖ Homo erectus : Some Hominid fossils were found in Java and China in 1891 but they are
considered as a next stage and were placed under a single species called Homo erectus
arose about 1.5 mya. They had a brain size of 800-1100cc And probably they ate meat.
❖ Neanderthal man : These fossils collected from the Neanderthal valley of Germany
with a brain capacity of 1400 cc lived in East and central Asia between 10000- 40000
years back. They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead ones.
4.Modern man :
❖ Cro- magnon : Cro – magnon was fully erect, 6 ft. talk with a brain volume of about 1600
cc. His culture still belonged to the old stone age. In addition to the stone implements,
 he used bone tools, bone needles, which might have been used to stitch the animal skin
to garments. The dog became his companion, but he still did not domesticate food
animal. He did not practice agriculture and developed a remarkable art, which was
found on cave walls.
❖ Homo sapiens: Homo sapiens arose during ice Age between 75000-10000 years ago in
Africa and moved across continents. They developed cave art about 18000 years ago.
One such cave paintings by pre- historic humans can be seen at Bhimbekta rock shelter
in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. Agriculture came around 10000 years back and
human settlements started.