UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Prof. Dr. John W. Lund

Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR, USA
Past President, International Geothermal Association

ABSTRACT

Geothermal energy has been used for centuries for bathing, cooking and space heating. More recently district
heating and industrial processing along with geothermal heat pumps have become part of the direct-use mix.
Geothermal electric power generation was started in Italy in 1904, with the first commercial plant on line in 1913.
Presently, the total installed capacity for direct use is 29,000 MWt producing 76,000 GWh/yr in 72 countries, and
the installed capacity for electric power is 9,700 MWe generating 60,000 GWh/yr in 24 countries. Recent trends are
to maximize the use of a geothermal resource in a combined heat and power project. Geothermal resources around
100o have been used in binary (organic Rankine) cycle plants and then cascaded for district heating. Geothermal
energy is considered to be both renewable and sustainable as part of the “green energy” resources.

INTRODUCTION

Early humans probably used geothermal water that occurred in natural pools and hot springs for cooking, bathing
and to keep warm. We have archeological evidence that the Indians of the Americas occupied sites around these
geothermal resources for over 10,000 years to recuperate from battle and take refuge. Many of their oral legends
describe these places and other volcanic phenomena. Recorded history shows uses by Romans, Japanese, Turks,
Icelanders, Central Europeans and the Maori of New Zealand for bathing, cooking and space heating. Baths in the
Roman Empire, the middle kingdom of the Chinese, and the Turkish baths of the Ottomans were some of the early
uses of balneology; where, body health, hygiene and discussions were the social custom of the day. This custom has
been extended to geothermal spas in Japan, Germany, Iceland, and countries of the former Austro-Hungarian
Empire, the Americas and New Zealand. Early industrial applications include chemical extraction from the natural
manifestations of steam, pools and mineral deposits in the Larderello region of Italy, with boric acid being extracted
commercially starting in the early 1800s. At Chaudes-Aigues in the heart of France, the world’s first geothermal
district heating system was started in the 14th century and is still going strong. The oldest and still operating
geothermal district heating project in the United States is on Warm Springs Avenue in Boise, Idaho, going on line in
1892 and providing space heating for up to 450 homes.

The first use of geothermal energy for electric power production started in Italy with experimental work by Prince
Gionori Conti between 1904 and 1905. The first commercial power plant (250 kWe) was commissioned in 1913 at
Larderello, Italy. These developments were followed in New Zealand at Wairakei in 1958; an experimental plant at
Pathe, Mexico in 1959; and the first commercial plant at The Geysers in the United States in 1960. Japan followed
with 23 MWe at Matsukawa in 1966. All of these early plants used steam directly from the earth (dry steam fields),
except for New Zealand, which was the first to use flashed or separated steam for running the turbines. The former
USSR produced power from the first true binary power plant, 680 kWe using 81oC water at Paratunka on the
Kamchatka peninsula – the lower temperature ever report used in the world for power generation from geothermal
energy. Iceland first produced power at Namafjall in northern Iceland, from a 3 MWe non-condensing turbine.
These were followed by plants in El Salvador, China, Indonesia, Kenya, Turkey, Philippines, Portugal (Azores),
Greece and Nicaragua in the 1970s and 80s. Later plants were installed in Thailand, Argentina, Taiwan, Australia,
Costa Rica, Austria, Guatemala, Ethiopia, with the latest installations in Germany and Papua New Guinea.

TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Geothermal energy comes from the natural heat of the earth primarily due to the decay of the naturally radioactive
isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. Because of the internal heat, the Earth’s surface heat flow averages 82
mW/m2 which amounts to a total heat loss of about 42 million megawatts. The estimated total thermal energy above
surface temperature to a depth of 10 km, the limit of the deepest exploration drilling, is 1.3 x 1027 J, equivalent to

1
burning 3.0 x 1017 barrels of oil. Since the global energy consumptions for all types of energy, is equivalent to use
of about 100 million barrels of oil per day, the Earth’s energy to a depth of 10 kilometers would supply all of
mankind’s energy needs for six million years (Wright, 1998).

On average, the temperature of the Earth with depth increases about 30˚C/km above the surface ambient
temperature. Thus, assuming a conductive gradient, the temperature of the earth at 10 km would be over 300˚C.
However, most geothermal exploration and use occurs where the gradient is higher, and thus where drilling is
shallower and less costly. These shallow depth geothermal resources occur due to: (1) intrusion of molten rock
(magma) from depth, bringing up great quantities of heat; (2) high surface heat flow, due to a thin crust and high
temperature gradient; (3) ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of several kilometers and been heated
due to the normal temperature gradient; (4) thermal blanketing or insulation of deep rocks by thick formation of
such rocks as shale whose thermal conductivity is low; and. (5) anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of
radioactive elements, perhaps augmented by thermal blanketing (Wright, 1998).

Geothermal resources are usually classified as shown in Table 1, modeled after White and Williams (1975). These
geothermal resources range from the mean annual ambient temperature of around 20˚C to over 300˚C. In generally,
resources above 150˚C are used for electric power generation, although power has recently been generated at Chena
Hot Springs Resort in Alaska using a 74˚C geothermal resource (Lund, 2006). Resources below 150˚C are usually
used in direct-use projects for heating and cooling. .Ambient temperatures in the 5 to 30˚C range can be used with
geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps which provide both heating and cooling.

Table 1. Geothermal Resource Types

Resource Type Temperature Range (˚C)

Convective hydrothermal resources

Vapor dominated ≈240˚

Hot-water dominated 20 to 350˚+

Other hydrothermal resources

Sedimentary basin 20 to 150˚

Geopressured 90 to 200˚
Radiogenic 30 to 150˚

Hot rock resources

Solidified (hot dry rock) 90 to 650˚

Part still molten (magma) >600˚

Convective hydrothermal resources occur where the Earth’s heat is carried upward by convective circulation of
naturally occurring hot water or steam. Underlying some high-temperature convective hydrothermal resources are
temperatures of 500 to 1000˚C from molten intrusions of recently solidified rocks. The lower temperature resources
results from deep circulation of water along fractures. Vapor dominated systems (Fig. 1) produce steam from
boiling of deep, saline waters in low permeability rocks. These reservoirs a few in number, with The Geysers in
northern California, Larderello in Italy and Matsukawa in Japan being ones where the steam is exploited to produce
electric energy. Water-dominated systems (Fig. 2) are produced by ground water circulating to depth and
ascending from buoyancy in permeable reservoirs that are a uniform temperature over large volumes. There is
typically an upflow zone at the center of each convection cell, an outflow zone or plume of heated water moving
laterally away from the center of the system, and a downflow zone where recharge is taking place. Surface
manifestations include hot springs, fumaroles, geysers, travertine deposits, chemically altered rocks, or sometimes,
no surface manifestations (a blind resource).

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 Water table Region of
condensation

Recharge
Vapor Recharge
Boiling subsurface water table
Convecting hot water

Heat

Figure 1. Vapor dominated geothermal system.

10oC at Hot spring

surface or geyser

Boiling begins

Rocks of low
permeability

Figure 2. Hot water dominated geothermal system.

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Hot dry rock resources (Fig. 3) are defined as heat stored in rocks within about 10 km of the surface from which
energy cannot be economically extracted by natural hot water or steam. These hot rocks have few pore space or
fractures, and therefore, contain little water and little or no inter-connected permeability. In order to extract the heat,
experimental projects have artificially fractured the rock by hydraulic pressure, followed by circulating cold water
down one well to extract the heat from the rocks and then producing from a second well in a closed system. Early
experimental projects were undertaken at Fenton Hill (Valdes Caldera) in northern New Mexico and on Cornwall in
southwest England; however both of these projects have been abandon due to lack of funds and poor results.
Projects are currently underway in Soultz-sous-Forêt in the Rhine Graben on the French-German border, in
Switzerland at Basil and Zurich, in Germany at Bad Urach, several locations in Japan, and in the Cooper Basin of
Australia (Tenzer, 2001).
Surface plant

Heat exchanger

Hot water
supply
Control building

Cooled water return

High heat flow

area

Directionally drilled
Hydraulic to intercept fracture
fracture
zone

1,000 m2

Figure 3. Hot dry rock exploitation.

UTILIZATION IN 2005

Based on 68 country update papers submitted to the World Geothermal Congress 2005 (WGC2005) held in Turkey,
the follow figures on worldwide geothermal electric and direct-use capacity, are reported. A total of 72 countries
have reported some utilization from WGC2000 and WGC2005, electric, direct-use or both (Lund and Freeston,
2001; Lund, et al., 2005a; Bertani, 2005 and 2007) (Table 2).

Table 2. Total Geothermal Use in 2005

Installed Annual
Power Energy Use Capacity Countries
Use MW GWh/yr Factor Reporting
Electric Power 8,933 56,786 0.73 24
Direct-Use 28,268 75,943 0.31 72

The figures for electric power capacity (MWe) appear to be fairly accurate; however, several of the country’s annual
generation values (GWh) had to be estimated which amounted to only 0.5% of the total. The direct-use figures are
less reliable and probably are understated by as much as 20%. The author is also aware of at least five countries,
which utilize geothermal energy for direct-heat applications, but did not submit reports to WGC2005. The details of
the present installed electric power capacity and generation, and direct-use of geothermal energy can be found in

4
Bertani (2005), and Lund, Freeston and Boyd (2005). More recently, Bertaini (2007) has revised the electric power
capacity figures which he estimates at 9.732 MWe installed capacity and 8,590 MWe running capacity. These data
are summarized as follows:

Table 3. Summary of Regional Geothermal Use in 2005

Electric Power Direct-Use

Region % MWe % GWh/yr %MWt %GWh/yr
Africa 1.5 1.9 0.7 1.1
Americas 43.9 47.0 32.3 16.7
Asia 37.2 33.8 20.9 29.4
Europe 12.4 12.4 44.6 49.0
Oceania 5.0 4.9 1.5 3.8

A review of the above data shows that in electric power generation each major continent has approximately the same
percentage share of the installed capacity and energy produced with North America and Asia having over 80% of
the total. Whereas, with the direct-use figures, the percentages drop significantly from installed capacity to energy
use for the Americas (32.3 to 16.7%) due to the high percentage of geothermal heat pumps with low capacity factor
for these units in the United States. On the other hand, the percentages increased for the remainder of the world
due to a lesser reliance on geothermal heat pumps, and the greater number of operating hours per year for these
units.

Electric Power Generation

Geothermal power is generated by using steam or a hydrocarbon vapor to turn a turbine-generator set to produce
electrons. A vapor dominated (dry steam) resource (see Fig. 1 and 4) can be used directly, whereas a hot water
resource (see Fig. 2 and 5) needs to be flashed by reducing the pressure to produce steam. In the case of low
temperature resource, generally below 150˚C, they requires the use of a secondary low boiling point fluid
(hydrocarbon) to generate the vapor, in a binary or organic Rankin cycle plant (see Fig. 6). Usually a wet or dry
cooling tower is used to condense the vapor after it leaves the turbine to maximize the temperature drop between the
incoming and outgoing vapor and thus increase the efficiency of the operation. The worldwide installed capacity
has the following distribution: 29% dry steam, 37% single flash, 25% double flash, 8% binary/combined
cycle/hybrid, and 1% backpressure (Bertani, 2005).

Turbine Generator Air& Water

Vapor
Condenser
Cooling
Tower
Steam
Air
Air
Water
Water

Condensate

Production Geothermal Reservoir Injection

Well Well

Figure 4. Steam plant using a vapor or dry steam dominated geothermal resource.

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 Turbine Generator Air& Water
Vapor
Condenser
Cooling
Tower
Steam
Air
Air
Water
Steam Water
Separator
Waste
Water Water Condensate

Direct Heat Users

Production Geothermal Reservoir Injection

Well Well

Figure 5. Flash steam plant using a water-dominated geothermal resource with a separator to produce steam.

Air & Water

Turbine Generator Vapor

Condenser
Cooling
Tower

Air
Air
Heat Exchanger Water

Cooled Water

Pump

Production Geothermal Reservoir Injection

Well Well

Figure 6. Binary power or organic Rankin cycle plant using a low temperature geothermal resource and a secondary
fluid of a low boiling –point hydrocarbon.

Electric power has been produced from geothermal energy in 27 countries; however, Greece, Taiwan and Argentina
have shut down their plants due to environmental and economic reasons. Since 2000 the installed capacity in the
world has increased almost 1,000 MWe. Since 2000, additional plants have been installed in Costa Rica, France on
Guadeloupe in the Caribbean, Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, and Philippines. In 2004 Germany installed a
210-kWe binary plant at Neustadt Glewe and a 6-MWe plant has been installed on Papua New Guinea to generate

6
electricity for a remote mine. Russia has completed a new 50-MWe plant on Kamchatka. More recently, a 200 kW
binary plant using 74˚C geothermal water and 4˚C cooling was installed at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska
(Lund, 2006). The operating capacity in the United States has increased since 1995 due to completion of the two
effluent pipelines injecting treated sewage water at The Geysers. In an attempt to bring production back, the
Southeast Geysers Effluent Recycling Project is now injecting 340 l/s of treated wastewater through a 48-km long
pipeline from Clear Lake, adding 77 MWe. A second, 66-km long pipeline from Santa Rosa was placed on-line in
2004, injecting 480 l/s that are projected to add another 100 MWe to The Geyser’s capacity. Table 4 lists the
leading countries producing electric power.

Table 4. Leading Countries in Electric Power Generation (>100 MWe) (Bertani, 2005)

Country Installed Running Annual Energy Running Number of Units

Capacity Capacity Produced Capacity Operating
MWe MWe GWh/yr Factor

United States* 2534 2133 17,840 0.95 209

Philippines 1930 1838 9,253 0.57 57
Mexico 953 953 6,282 0.75 36
Indonesia 797 838 6,085 0.83 15
Italy 791 699 5,340 0.87 32
Japan 535 530 3,467 0.75 19
New Zealand 435 403 2,774 0.79 33
Iceland 202 202 1,483 0.84 19
Costa Rica 163 163 1,145 0.80 5
El Salvador 151 119 967 0.93 5
Kenya 129 129 1,088 0.96 9

* USA figures revised based on (Lund, et al. 2005b)

One of the more significant aspects of geothermal power development is the size of its contribution to national and
regional capacity and production of countries. The following countries or regions lead in this contribution with
more than 5% of the electrical energy supplied by geothermal power based on preliminary data from WGC2005
(Bertani, 2005)(Table 5):

Table 5. National and Regional Geothermal Power Contributions

% of National or % of National or
Country or Regional Capacity Regional Energy
Region (MWe) (GWh/yr)
Tibet 30.0 30.0
San Miguel Island, Azores 25.0 n/a
Tuscany, Italy 25.0 25.0
El Salvador 14.0 24.0
Iceland 13.7 16.6
Philippines 12.7 19.1
Nicaragua 11.2 9.8
Kenya 11.2 19.2
Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea 10.9 n/a
Guadeloupe (Caribbean) 9.0 9.0
Costa Rica 8.4 15.0
New Zealand 5.5 7.1
Direct Utilization

Direct-use of geothermal resources is primarily for direct heat and cooling. The main utilization categories are: (1)
swimming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating and cooling including district energy systems; (3) agricultural
applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4) aquaculture application such as pond and raceway water

7
heating; (5) industrial applications such as mineral extraction, food and grain drying; and, (6) geothermal (ground-
source) heat pumps, used for both heating and cooling. Direct-use of geothermal resources, normally uses
temperatures below 150˚C as illustrated in Figure 7. The main advantage of using geothermal energy for direct use
projects in this low- to intermediate-temperature range is that these resources are more widespread and exists in at
least 80 countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there are no conversion efficiency losses and projects can
use conventional water-well drilling and off-the-shelf heating and cooling equipment (allowing for the temperature
and chemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line in less than a year. Projects can be on a small scale
(“mom and pop operations”) such as for an individual home, single greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be
a large scale operation such as for district heating/cooling and for food and lumber drying, and mineral ore
extraction.

It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Care must be
taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system (geothermal water normally is oxygen free), and dissolved gases
and minerals such a boron, arsenic, and hydrogen sulfide must be removed or isolated as they are harmful to plants
and animals. On the other hand carbon dioxide, which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted and used
for carbonated beverages or to enhance growth in greenhouses. The typical equipment for a direct-use system is
illustrated in Figure 8, and includes, downhole and circulation pumps, heat exchangers (normally the plate type),
transmission and distribution lines (normally insulated pipes), heat extraction equipment, peaking or back-up plants
(usually fossil fuel fired) to reduce the use of geothermal fluids and reduce the number of wells required, and fluid
disposal systems (injection wells). Geothermal energy can usually meet 95% of the annual heating or cooling
demand, yet only sized for 50% of the peak load. Geothermal heat pumps include both open (using ground-water or
lake water) and closed loop (either in horizontal or vertical configuration) systems as illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 7. Geothermal energy uses (Geothermal Education Office).

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 1300F
(550C)

PLATE HEAT
EXCHANGER
ENERGY

USER
SYSTEM
1700F
(750C)

1800F GEOTHERMAL 1400F

(800C) (600C)
PEAKING/
PRODUCTION INJECTION BACKUP
WELLHEAD WELLHEAD UNIT
EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT

Figure 8. Typical direct use geothermal heating system configuration.

vertical
horizontal

direct

two well
pond

Figure 9. Examples of common geothermal heat pump installations.

The world direct utilization of geothermal energy is difficult to determine; as, there are many diverse uses of the
energy and these are sometimes small and located in remote areas. Finding someone, or even a group of people in a
country who are knowledgeable on all the direct uses is difficult. In addition, even if the use can be determined, the
flow rates and temperatures are usually not known or reported; thus, the capacity and energy use can only be
estimated. This is especially true of geothermal waters used for swimming pools, bathing and balneology. Thus, it
is difficult to compare changes from one report to the next. This was especially true of Japan and Hungary in the
WGC2000 country updates, as a significant portion of this use was not reported, and was obtained from other
sources. For this reason, the values reported in Lund and Freeston (2001), have been updated for this report based
on data for WGC2005 (Lund, et al., 2005a).

One of the significant changes for WGC2005 was the increase in the number of countries reporting use. Fourteen
countries were added to the list in the current report as compared to 2000. In addition, the author is aware of four

9
countries (Malaysia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia) that have geothermal direct-uses, but did not provided
a report for WGC2005. Thus, there are at least 76 countries with some form of direct utilization of geothermal
energy.

Another significant change from 2000 is the large increase in geothermal (ground-source) heat pump installations.
They increased by 198% (24% annual growth) in capacity and 272% (30% annual growth) over the five-year period
to the year 2005. At present (2005), they are the largest portion of the installed capacity (56.5%) and 33.2% of the
annual energy use. The actual number of installed units is around 1,700,000 in 33 countries, mostly in the United
States and Europe; however, the data are incomplete. The equivalent number of 12-kWt units installed (the average
size) is approximately 1,300,000. The equivalent number of full-load heating operating hours per year varies from
1,200 in the U.S., to over 6,000 in Sweden and Finland, with a worldwide average of 2,200 full-load hours/year.
A summary of direct-use installed capacity and annual energy use are as follows: geothermal heat pumps 56.5% and
33.2%; bathing/swimming/spas 17.7% and 28.8%, space heating (including district heating) 14.9% and 20.2%;
greenhouse heating 4.8% and 7.5%; aquaculture 2.2% and 4.2%; industrial 1.8% and 4.2%; agricultural drying 0.6%
and 0.8%, cooling and snow melting 1.2% and 0.7%; and others 0.3% and 0.4%. District heating is approximately
80% of the space heating use.

In terms of the contribution of geothermal direct-use to the national energy budget, two countries stand out: Iceland
and Turkey. In Iceland, it provides 86 % of the country’s space heating needs, which is important since heating is
required almost all year and saves about 100 million US$ in imported oil. Turkey has increased their installed
capacity over the past five years from 820 MWt to 1,495 MWt, most for district heating systems. A summary of
some of the significant geothermal direct-use contributions to various countries is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. National Geothermal Direct-Use Contributions

Iceland: provides 86% of country’s space heating needs;

Turkey: space heating has increased 50% in the past 5 years, supplying 65,000 equivalent
residences and 30% of the country will be heated with geothermal by 2010;
Tunisia: greenhouse heating has increased from 10 ha to 100 ha over the past 10 years;
Japan: over 2,000 hot spring resorts (onsens), over 5,000 public bath houses, and over
15,000 hotels, vested by 14.5 million quests per years use natural hot springs;
Switzerland: has installed 30,000 geothermal heat pumps = one/two km2, and 1,000
boreholes are drilled annually. Drain water from tunnel are used to heat nearby
villages and they have also developed several geothermal projects to
melt snow and ice on roads; and
United States: has installed 700,000 geothermal heat pump units, mainly in the Midwestern
and eastern states, with a 15% annual growth. Installation of these units is
around 50,000 to 60,000 per year.

Table 7. Top Direct-Use Countries

Country GWh/yr MWt Main Applications

China 12,605 3,687 bathing

Sweden 10,000 3,840 GHP
USA ` 8,678 7,817 GHP
Turkey 6,900 1,495 district heating
Iceland 6,806 1,844 district heating
Japan 2,862 822 bathing (onsens)
Hungary 2,206 694 spas/greenhouses
Italy 2,098 607 spas/space heating
New Zealand 1.969 308 industrial uses

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ENERGY SAVINGS

Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If we
assume that geothermal energy replaces electricity generation, the conversion efficiency is estimated at 0.35 (35%).
These savings using geothermal energy at this efficiency level is summarized in Table 6 (Goddard and Goddard,
1990). If the replacement energy for direct-use is provided by burning the fuel directly, then about half this amount
would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). Savings in the cooling mode of geothermal heat
pumps is also included in the figures in Table 6. The savings in fossil fuel oil is equivalent to about three days (1%)
of the world’s consumption.

Table 6. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Savings from Geothermal Energy Production

Fuel Oil (106) Carbon (106 t) CO2 (106 t) SOx (106 t) NOx (103 t)
Barrels Tonnes NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal
Electric 96 15 3 13 15 12 51 59 0 0.3 0.3 2.8 9.6 9.6
Direct-use 174 26 5 24 27 16 67 78 0 0.5 0.5 3.8 12.4 12.4
TOTAL 270 41 8 37 42 28 118 137 0 0.8 0.8 6.6 22.0 22.0

It should be noted when considering these savings, that some geothermal plants do emit limited amounts of the
various pollutants; however, these are reduced to near zero where gas injection is used and eliminated where binary
power is installed for electric power generation. Since most direct-use projects use only hot water and the spent
fluid injected, the above pollutants are essentially eliminated.

CONCLUSIONS

Geothermal growth and development of electricity generation has increased significantly over the past 30 years
approaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to
an economic slow down in the Far East and the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady
over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. The majority of the increase has been due to geothermal heat
pumps. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization
from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a
seven-fold increase in participating countries. At least another 10 countries are actively exploring for geothermal
resources and should be online by 2010.

Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using
lower temperature fluids down to 100oC. This low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics and
efficiency of these systems, such as shown by those installed in Germany and Austria and at Chena Hot Springs,
Alaska. Also, there is increased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve
products that might normally be wasted. Finally, the largest growth will include the installation and use of
geothermal heat pumps, as they can be used anywhere in the world, as shown by the large developments in
Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Germany and the United States.

REFERENCES

Bertani, R., 2005. “World Geothermal General 2001-2005 -- State of the Art.” Geothermics, Vol 34, No. 6 (Dec.),
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Bertaini, R., 2007. “World Geothermal Generation in 2007”, Proceedings of the European Geothermal Congress
2007, Unterhaching, Germany, 11 p. (also in Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 28, No.3 (Sept.), Klamath
Falls, OR.

Cataldi, R., S. Hodgson and J. Lund (editors), 1999. Stories from a Heated Earth – Our Geothermal Heritage,
Geothermal Resources Council, Davis, CA, p. 569

Goddard, W. B. and C. B. Goddard, 1990. “Energy Fuel Sources and Their Contribution to Recent Global Air
Pollution Trends.” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 14, Davis, CA, pp. 643-649.

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Lund, J. W., D. H. Freeston and T. L. Boyd, 2005a. “Worldwide Direct-Uses of Geothermal Energy 2005.”
Geothermics, Vol. 34, No. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 691-727.

Lund, J. W. and D. H. Freeston, 2001. “World-Wide Direct Uses of Geothermal Energy 2000.” Geothermics, v. 30,
n.1, Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 29-68 (updated and revised).

Lund, J. W., Bloomquist, R.G., Boyd, T. L., and J. Renner, 2005b. “The United States of America Country Update –
2005.” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 29, Davis, California (CD-ROM).

Lund, J. W. 2006. “Chena Hot Springs”, Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 3 (September), Klamath
Falls, OR, pp. 2-4.

Tenzer, H., 2001. Development of Hot Dry Rock Technology, Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 4,
(December), Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 14-22.

White, D. E. and D. L. Williams, Eds., 1975. Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States – 1975,
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 727, U.S., Government Printing Office, 155 p.

Wright, M., 1998. Nature of Geothermal Resources, in Geothermal Direct-Use Engineering and Design Guidebook,
edited by John W. Lund, Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 27-69.

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