HILLSIDE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Koteshwor, Balkumari, Kathmandu

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

Strength of Materials
BEG256CI

Year: II Semester: I

PREPARED BY:
Er. Nitesh Shrestha
Lecturer

2079(2022)
Experiment no: Date:

TENSILE TEST ON MILDSTEEL SPECIMEN

AIM: To determine the yield strength, ultimate strength, fracture strength, % elongation & % of
reduction in area.

APPARATUS: 1) Universal Testing Machine

2) Gripping devices
3) Scale, screw gauge, punch and hammer.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS: The UTM consists of a testing unit and control unit. The
testing unit is equipped with hydraulic piston & cylinder. This piston has two cross heads, a
bottom and a top cross head are rigidly fixed. There is another cross head called adjustable cross
head can be raised or lowered by the rotation of screw spindle. The control unit has an oil tank
from which oil under pressure is delivered to the cylinder of the testing unit by means of a
hydraulic pump. The rate at which oil is pumped can be controlled, which means that the rate of
application of load can be controlled. When the oil under pressure enters the cylinder in the
testing unit it lifts the piston up due to the upward force. Along with the piston the bottom and
top cross heads also move up. Since the adjustable cross head will be stationary, during the test,
the specimen held between the top cross and the adjustable cross head will be pulled apart and
the specimen will be subjected to tension.
THEORY: -
1. Stress: Stress is the resistance offered by the body to external load. It will be measured
force per unit area.
2. Strain: when the load is applied on a body, it tends to change the shape of the body in its
direction the change effected is called deformation. The deformation expressed on the
basis of the unit dimensions is called strain.
3. Gauge length: It is the reference length over which extension is measured.
4. Yield stress: Stress at which considerable elongation occurs without increase in load.
5. Ultimate Tensile stress: The max. load reached in a tension test divided by the original
cross section. This is also termed as tensile stress.
6. Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of normal stress to the axial strain with in the elastic
limit. This also termed as young modulus.
7. % Elongation: The permanent elongation of the gauge length after breaking expressed as
% of the original gauge length. If the % is >15% it can be classified as ductile material.
8. % Reduction area: The change in the cross-section area, which has occurred at the neck,
expressed as a percentage of the original cross-section.

Figure: Tension Test on Steel Rod Arrangement on UTM

PROCEDURE:
1. The diameter of the given specimen in found out with the help of the Vernier caliper at
two or three places.
2. The center point of the specimen is located and half the value of gauge length set off on
either side of it using the scale.
3. Punch marks are made at these extreme points to facilitate mounting of the specimen.
4. The test specimen is fixed at its upper end in the top crosshead by operating the hand
wheel and locking lever. The adjustable cross head is moved up to the necessary height,
by operating the motor and screw with the help of push button located on the machine.
The lower end of the test specimen is gripped in it and locked.
5. Start the pump that operates the piston with the help of push buttons located on the
machine. Slowly turn the hand wheel, which controls the load on specimen. Set the wheel
at a position, which gives a gradual increase in load. Observe the readings.
 i. The load at the point where it momentarily stops. This indicates yield point. At this point
without increase in load, the component elongates.
ii. The maximum load indicated is to be observed carefully, because after the point the
component deforms at a faster rate and breaks. This load indicates ultimate load.
iii. The load after component breaks. This is load at fracture. Release the load by operating
load release hand wheel. Unlock the jaw and remove the specimen. Measure and note the
final diameter and final length.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

S.No. Load (P) Elongation () Stress (P/AO) Strain ( / L )

1. Initial diameter of the specimen:

1st 2nd 3rd Average

Length of the specimen between the grips = ________

Final diameter of the specimen at the neck

1st 2nd 3rd Average
 1. Gauge length=l0 =

2. Yield load =

3. Ultimate load =

4. Fracture load =
5. Final diameter df =

Calculations:

1. Initial area of specimen A0 = d o 2
4

2. Final area of cross section at neck = d 
f
2

4
3. Final length lf =
 l f  lo 
4. % Elongation =   100
 o l
 Ao  A f 
5. % Reduction in area =    100
 Ao 
yield load
6. Yield stress = N / mm 2
area

7. Ultimate stress =

8. Fracture stress =

RESULTS : Yield strength of the material (from graph) =

% of elongation =
% of reduction in area of cross – section =
Experiment No: Date:

TORSION TEST ON SIMPLE SHAFT

AIM: To study the behaviors of mild steel when subjected to a gradually increasing torque and
to determine
i) Modulus of rigidity of the material
ii) Yield point in shear
iii) Modulus of rupture (torsion)
APPARATUS:
i) Torsion testing machine
ii) Troptometer
iii) Micrometer, scale.
Torsion testing machine:
The machine consists essentially of a drive unit, a weighing head, a torque
indicator and a dial from which the angle of twist can be read.
The base is a rigid frame made up of the drive unit frame, two columns and the
weighing head. The machine can be operated either manually or mechanically by an
electrical motor. In manual operation, the machine is driven by means of a crank. The
selector switch should be set in the intermediate position so as to disable the gears which
operate the mechanical operation. In mechanical operation, the electric motor actuates the
warm gear, through a V belt which drives the screw lead and the lower grip.
The twisting angle may be read from the dial, which is graduated in degree for
one full revolution.
The purpose of the weighting head is to balance the torque of the drive unit. At
the bottom end the weighing head receives the upper grip. The balancing torque is
provided by a sector that is flexibly coupled with a pendulum.
The pendulum is suspended from a bush and is linked with a rack and the dash pot
of the torque indicator. The pendulum has loose weights which are chosen in accordance
with the torque indicator range to be used in a test.
 The torque indicator employed in the machine is of the pendulum type. The
torque applied to the upper grip through the specimen causes the pendulum in the
weighing head to deflect until the torque built up by the pendulum balances the torque
applied to the specimen by the motor. In deflecting, the pendulum actuates the toothed
rack which in turns drives the pinion seated on the shaft of the main pointer of the
circular torque dial.
The machine can build up three ranges of torque, 0-10 kg-m, 0-20kg-m, 0-50 kg-m.
Troptometer:
This instrument is used to measure twist to an accuracy of one minute. It consists
of two collars secured to the specimen at a given distance or gauge length apart. A steam
of length equal to the gauge length and fixed to the bottom collar projects towards the top
collar. A dial gauge is fixed to the top collar such that its spindle moves tangential to the
collar. An inextensible string is lied from the steam to the spindle of the dial gauge. Due
to the relative twist of the specimen under torsion, over the gauge length, the steam pulls
the string and hence the spindle of the dial gauge, which records the movement in mm.
The radius of the collar is so chosen that one mm reading of the dial gauge corresponds to
one minute twist of the specimen over the gauge length.

Figure: Torsion Testing Machine

THEORY:
A circular bar, when subjected to torque, will be twisted. Shearing stresses are
developed in any cross-section of the bar whose value increases linearly from zero at the
center of a maximum at the outer periphery. The relation between the applied torque, the
 T f s C
developed stresses and the angular twist is given by the equation   where T
J r L
is the applied torque J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section of the bar, fs is
the magnitude of shear stress at radius r, C is the modulus of rigidity and  is the angle of
twist over a length L of the bar.
Therefore the modulus of rigidity can be computed from the equation C =
T   L  T
    . is the slope of the graph of the torque vs twist. The yield point stress
   J  
TY
shear is calculated from the equation (fs) =  R where TY is torque at the yield point
J
and R is the outer most radius.
Tfailure R
Modulus of rupture is the stress at failure and computed from the formula (fs) =
J
PROCEDURE:
The diameter of the bar is measured at two or three place in the average value
obtained. The parallel length of the bar is also measured. A straight line is drawn, parallel
to the axis of the bar, with a piece of chalk. This is to study how the specimen twists
when subjected to the torque.
The specimen is fixed in position in the torsion testing machine. For the elastic
range torque is applied manually, and the twist recorded at regular intervals from the
troptometer. After the yield point, the required torque is applied by the electric motor.
The twist of the free end of the bar, as indicated by the dial is noted for regular
increments of supplied torque. The specimen is tested till fractures noting down the value
of the torque, which causes the fracture, and also the nature of the fracture.

OBSERVATION TABLE
1) Diameter of the micrometer =
Least count of the micrometer =
2) Gauge length =
 3) Torque-twist observations:
CALCULATIONS:

S.No. Torque in Kg-m Angle of twist in degrees


1) Polar moment of inertia = d4
32

Yield load
2) Yield stress = N / mm 2
Area
Tfailure R
3) Modulus of rupture (torsion) = fs =
J
T.L
4) Modulus of rigidity = C=
J
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The test piece should, as far as possible, be straight and of sufficient length to
provide the desired length between the grips.
2. Any straightening should be done by hand without damaging the test piece.
3. If the failure of the specimen takes place within twice the diameter of the grips,
the test should be considered as invalid and should be repeated.
4. The surface of the test piece after failure should be examined so that it is free
from cracks.

GRAPHS: Torque Vs angle of twist.

RESULT: The modulus of rigidity of specimen is obtained.

Experiment No: Date:

Test on column behavior and buckling

Objective: To determine the critical load with various end conditions
To verify Euler formula of critical load
To compare the influence of different end conditions
Apparatus: Buckling device, Dial gauge, Scale, Vernier calipers

Figure: Buckling Apparatus

Theory: When a long slender column subjected to direct compressive load, they bend suddenly,
deflect laterally and buckle. Sudden buckling is characteristics of instability and therefore
buckling under axial load is considered to be stability problem.

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿𝑒 2

Pcr = Critical load, E= Modulus of elasticity, I= least moment of inertia, Le= effective length of
column

A compression member does not fails entirely by crushing, but also by buckling. It happens in
case of long columns. If a long column is subjected to a compressive load, it is subjected to
compressive stress. If the load is gradually increased, the column will reach a stage when it will
start buckling. The load at which the column just buckles is called buckling load, critical load or
crippling load and the column is said to have developed an elastic instability.
Procedure:

1. The test device was set up in horizontal position and thrust piece with V notch or guide
bush of load cross bar was inserted into attachment socket. It was fastened with clamping
screw.
2. Top long thrust piece with V-notch was inserted and firmly held
3. Load cross bar was clamped on guide column (with 5 mm gap approx.). Specimen was
aligned so that its buckling direction pointed direction of lateral guide column
4. Low non-measurable force was applied and measuring gauge was aligned at middle of
specimen
5. The specimen was slowly subjected to load using load nut.
6. Deflection was noted from measuring gauge at every 0.25 mm upto 1 mm and at every
0.5 mm upto 5 mm.
7. The procedure was repeated with change in end conditions

OBSERVATIONS:

Length of column:

Breadth:

Thickness: Modulus of Elasticity:

Case I: Both end hinged

Deflection
(mm)

Load (N)

Case: II Both end fixed

Deflection
(mm)

Load (N)
Case III: One end fixed, one end hinged

Deflection
(mm)

Load (N)

Graph: Plot load vs. deflection for all 3 cases

Determine the critical load

CALCULATION:

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Critical load (Pcr) for case I=
𝐿𝑒 2

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Critical load (Pcr) for case II =
𝐿𝑒 2

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Critical load (Pcr) for case III=
𝐿𝑒 2

Effective length for

Case I: Le = L=

Case II: Le = L/2=

Case III: Le = L/√ 2=

Result :

Conclusion:

Discussion:
Experiment No: Date:

DETERMINE DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH

POINT LOAD AT ITS CENTRE
OBJECTIVE: To establish load-deflection characteristics of a simply supported beam.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Beam, Dial gauge, Weights, Scale, and Vernier Calipers

Figure: Beam Apparatus

Procedure:

1. First the support was fixed at required span length.

2. Both supports were maintained at same level with the help of dial gauge.
3. Then beam was placed over the support and load gauge was placed at the centre of the
span.
4. The dial gauge was set at middle of span and initial loading of dial gauge was taken.
5. Loads were placed on load hanger and successive gauge readings were noted. After
optimum load readings were taken in descending order.
6. Average deflection was then calculated.
7. The whole process was repeated for different span length and thickness of beam.

OBSERVATION

Span length L =

Breadth of beam =

Depth of beam =

Modulus of Elasticity = E=
Moment of Inertia = I =

Load (N) Increasing order Decreasing order Average Theoretical value

(mm) (mm) deflection (mm) mm
5
10
15
20
25

CALCULATION:

For span of mm

For mm thick beam with width of mm

𝑤𝑙3
δ=
48𝐸𝐼
Calculate

δ1= w1l3/48EI=

δ2= w2l3/48EI=

δ3= w3l3/48EI=

δ4= w4l3/48EI=

δ5= w5l3/48EI=
Graph: Plot load vs. deflection graph

Observed Deflection (mm) Theoretical deflection (mm)

Results:

Conclusion: