Plant Water Relations QL. Write a note on transpiration indicating its various types. The dominant process in water relations of the whole plant is the on of large “quantities of water from the soil, its translocation through sant and its eventual loss to the surrounding atmosphere as water va total water taken up by the plant during a growing season. about 99 per lost to atmosphere in the form of water vapours and only 1 per cent is retained by the plant. Out of 1 per cent, roughly 0.9 per cent is retained as free water within the tissue and about 0.1 per cent enters into the plant's metabolism as a reactant in chemical reactions (e.g., photosynthesis). The process of water less in the form of vapours from the leaf surfaces of the plant is termed as transpiration. The loss of water is alarmingly very high. The daily water loss of a large. well-watered tropical plant such as palm may be as high as 500 L. Acorn plant may lose 3-4 Liday and a medium-sized elm tree may-lose more than a ton of water everyday. nspiration is not a purely physical process like evaporation (loss of water from the surface other than the plant, such as soil) but is a vital phenomenon controlled by the cells. Most of the transpiration takes place from the leaves and is known as foliar transpiration that includes types like: stomatal, cuticular and lenticular. Stomatal transpiration. Stomata are the primary portals of water loss during transpiration. It accounts for 90-95 per cent of water loss from leaves. Cuticular transpiration. It accounts for 5-10 per cent of total water loss and largely depends on the thickness of the cuticle. Although the cuticle is composed of waxes and other hydrophobic substances and is generally impermeable to water, small quantities of water vapour can pass through. Lenticular transpiration. About 0.1 per cent of the total loss of water vapour occurs through lenticels present on fruits and woody stems. Q.2. Which are the different theories put forward for the mechanism of ascent of sap? Discuss root pressure theory in detail. Ans. A number of theories have been put forward to explain the machanism of ascent of sap. These are broadly classified as: 1. Vital theories. These consider living cell to be responsible for the ascent of sap. 2. Physical Theories. These consider the dead cells of the plant to be onsible for the ascent of sap. 7 8. Root pressure theory. If a stem is cut near its base or incisions or borings are made into a plant, xylem sap is seen to flow out through them. The 6. mester IV) 6 Amar : BSc. (Prog.) Botany H Year Jooding, Priestley was one of the fy, Jntion to be due toa hydro," The hydrostatic p, hhe roots is entleg led phenomencn is known as exudation oF uw explain the process of upward flow ofwaterin exud pressure which is developed in the root system tleveloped due to the accumulation of water absorbed by t a treat Tube is attached to a bleeding stump, # column of venient to measure the pressure by m¢ the stump (Fig.). Stephen Hales who co, ‘ethod in 1727 and recorded presen root pressure. Ifa ¥ will rise in it, Usually it is most com " a mercury manometer attached to the term root pressure, described this m of oven one atmosphere. Water Rubber band Stem - Fig. An apparatus for the measurement of root pressure Root pressure seems to be largely an osmotic phenomenon for it disapears! the roots are watered with a solution having an osmotic pressure equal to” greater than that ofa sap in the xylem, Root pressure is, however, affected by oxygen supply and by poisons which would not be expected if the root ts." ‘were behaving as a pure osmotic system. These factors are known to affect" release of energy in the respiration of the living cells rather than semipermeable properties of the protoplasm. Stocking (1956), therefore, believ* the root pressure to be an active process. He has defined root pressure “ost pressure developing in the tracheary elements of the xylem as a result of metabolic activities ofroots” Since the living roots are essential for the occur"™"Unit-1 : Plant Water Relations 7 of root pressure, it seems most reasonable to think that though root pressure is purely a matter of diffusion pressure gradients, it is maintained by the activity of living cells. It is true that root pressure is a dynamic process, but in itse!f it is not sufficient to drive water to a distance of 400 ft in the trunks of tall trees as evidenced by the following findings (1) The magnitude of the root pressure has been generally found to be under 2 atmospheres while a pressure of about 20 atm is needed to raise water to the tops of tall trees. (2) There are many species in which the phenomenon has never been observed. (3) The rate of sap exudation is not adequate to compensate for the known rates of transpiration. (4) Root pressure has been found to be the lowest during summer when the rate of transpiration is very rapid and the need for upward conduction of water is very high. On the other hand the root pressure is highest in spring when the rate of transpiration is quite slow. (5) .Water continues to rise up even in the absence of root pressure. (6) Finally, the observation that xylem sap, under normal conditions is under tension instead of pressure proves that root pressure is not an important factor in the upward translocation of water. Root pressure is today considered to be of little importance for the ascent of sap. At the most it may be significant only in very young plants before the leaves are developed. It may be said that root pressure accounts for ascent of sap in certain small plants under absolute wet conditions. The root pressure may provide a mechanism for filling the xylem vessels of plants with water. The occurrence of air gaps in the xylem vessels of many herbaceous plants due to shortage of water in the soil during the hot summer season poses a serious problem during ascent of water Root pressure developing during night eliminates these air gaps and restores the continuity of the water column. Q. 3. What are the advantages of transpiration? Ans. Advamtages of Transpiration 1. It creates suction force and helps in the ascent of sap. 2. It affects the diffusion pressure deficit, thereby indirectly helping diffusion through the cells. 3. It affects the absorption of water and minerals by roots. 4. It helps in evaporating excess amount of water. 5. Itis supposed to play a necessary role in translocation of food from one porion of the plant to the other. 6. It maintains a suitable temperature for the leaves 7. It brings about opening and closing of stomata which influence photosynthesis and respiration Q. 4. Explain the factors affecting transpiration. Ans. Factors Affecting Transpiration. The rate of transpiration is affected by a number of factors, both external and internal. External Factors:8 Amar :B Se. (Prog.) Botany I Year (Semester-1V) o— a transpiration depends upo, 1. Atmospheric humidity : ere eer hiNaee ia : capacity ofthe tsoepher to ake UP more ei at prec upon the difference between the ; amount of water necessary to complete, the air (absolute Det a between the two variables is cal 7 ae ede ‘More the saturation deficit, more rapid is the transpiration, its effect on the saturation deficit of the air. An increase in temperature bring, about decrease in “relative humidity of the air thus increasing the rate of transpiration. - 8. Wind : Wind has a direct effect on atmospheric humidity. Dry winds lower the amount of air moisture by removing moist air from the boundary layer (a layer of undisturbed air on the surface of the leaf) and thus increase rate of transpiration. Boundary layer is a zone immediately adjacent to the leaf wherein air velocity is modified by the leaf itself. It consists of two layers . Laminar sublayer and Turbulent layer. Diffusion of water vapours and other gases occurs readily through both the layers (Figure ). In the still air, the thick boundary layer prevents the loss of water vapours from the leaf. With increasing wind speed, the thickness of the boundary layer at the leaf surface decreases and the vapour pressure gradient steepens thereby increasing the rate of transpiration. This relationship, however, holds true at lower wind speeds. As wind speed increases, it tends to cool the leaf and may cause sufficient desiccation to close the stomata. Either one of these factors tends to lower the rate of transpiration. Therefore, high wind speeds will have less effect on transpiration rate than expected on the basis of thickness of boundary layer alone. Besides wind speed, the thick: by various anatomical and shape, orientation of the le; ness of the boundary layer is also determined the leaf, such as leaf siz ind direction, the presenceant Water Relations 9 5. Available soil water : Transpiration is directly linked to availability of soil water. High concentration of salts in the soil water reduces transpiration probably by increasing the osmotic pressure of plant cells. Besides external factors, some of the internal factors like stomatal apparatus of the plant, water content of mesophyll cells and structural peculiarities of the leaves also affect the rate of transpiration. Q. 5. Briefly discuss the significance of transpiration. Ans. Significance of Transpiration. Water is of vital importance to the plant and yet out of the total amount of water absorbed, 99 per cent is lost in the form of water vapour. Transpiration has been described as a necessary evil Though the leaf structure with thin-walled mesophyll cells, intercellular spaces and the stomata is so built as to make maximum absorption of CO, by leaf cells and gaseous exchange between the leaf and its surroundings but this leaf architecture at the same time makes water loss inevitable. Transpiration is regarded as being advantageous to the plant in many ways: 1. Circulation of water within the plant : Transpiration establishes a continuous water stream from the roots to the topmost parts of the plant, thus increasing therapidity of water translocation and playing a critical role in photosynthesis, growth and development. : 2. Absorption and translocation of minerals : Transpiration stream brings about a far more rapid transport of mineral nutrients by the mass flow of water through the dead xylem ducts than would be possible by a cell to cell diffusion of the salts. . 3. Development of mechanical tissues: Increased transpiration also favours the development of mechanical tissues in the plants, making them more tough and resistant to mechanical injury by wind/rain and pathogens like fungi and bacteria. The cell walls become thick and highly cutinised thereby increasing the resistance of plants to pathogenic fungi and bacteria. 4, Regulation of temperature : Evaporative cooling of leaves is an important consequence of transpiration. Through its effect on water relations of plant cells and tissues, transpiration has significant indirect effect on the metabolic processes of the plant. Q. 6. Indicate the differences between transpiration and evaporation. Ans. S.No. Transpiration [ Evaporation 1. It is a modified physical | It isa physical process and takes place phenomenon found in plants | on any free surface 2. Tt is regulated by the acivity | No such mechanism is found in of guard cells. ___ evaporation _ 3. In this process, only living | It can occur from both living and non- cells exposed to the | living surfaces atmosphere are involved.0 Amar ; BSc. (Prog.) Botany HI Year (Semester TV) f In this process no gu Phis involves different types 4 This involves In thi . of pressures such as vapour pressure, diffusion pressure and osmotic pressure ete. Tt helps in keeping the surface of leaf and yound stem wet to protect from sun burning. Teeauses dryness oF the Fre 5 : hae, Q.7. “Transpiration is a necessary evil”. Comment, Ans, Transpiration has been very rightly described as a necessary Curtis (1926). ‘The leaf anatomy with well-saturated, thin-walled mesophyil cel}, wit intercellular spaces and stomata is primarily built for absorption of ex) dioxide and exchange of gases during photosynthetic and respiratory process Such a gaseous exchange is essential for the synthesis of carbohydrates 4, other organic compounds that are vital for growth and development (or for th weil-being of plants). Incidentally, such a leaf structure or architecture wily, be able to prevent the loss of water which has become inescapable or inevitas, This loss of water is alarmingly very high. A medium-sized elm tree loses Near} 1 ton of water even day. . Then the question arises why the plants are expending so much energy ir developing ways and means for increased absorption of water, out of which on, 1 per cent is used or enters into the plant’s metabolism and the remaining per cent is lost through transpiration. The energy so spent on absorbing wate merely goes as a wastage. That is why it is considered an evil. Even unde unfavourable conditions, the deciduous trees have to shed their foliage t conserve water even at the cost of cutting off their photosynthetic activity. Q. 8. Briefly describe the processes of Guttation and bleeding. Ans. Plants also lose water in liquid form via ‘guttation’ and ‘bleeding’ Guttation is quite common in plants like garden Aasturtium, colocasia, o# leaves, etc. It is the oozing of drops of water from the uninjured tips or edgeso the leaf where a major vein terminates. It occurs under conditions of acti absorption of water and low water loss (in moist, humid conditions) just befor dawn. The water of guttation contains a variety of dissolved solutes lik carbohydrates, nitrogenous compounds, organic acids and mineral salts. 0° evaporation, these solutes get concentrated on the leaf margins and may caus iohry to the leaf. Guttation takes place through hydathodes or water stomat! Se earere Structure with a pore at the tip, which always remains oP Bleeding is eee eee frot lation 5 . 5 tc aed pre be pt eden i exuded shows great variations in diff Blenin neat creat econo importance, The exud ferent plants. Bleeding is of great eco! pala (Cn ca? from sugar maple (Acer sacharum) yields 3%,Unit-1 : Plant Water Relations an Q. 9. Compare transpiration with Guttation. _ Transpiration —_ Guttation It is the loss of water inthe form | 1. It is the loss of water in the form of water ‘vapours’ from the aerial of liquid from the leaves. It parts of the plant. It does not contains dissolved substances like contain dissolved solutes. sugars, minerals, organic acids and amino acids, enzymes, proteins. The water evaporates as the day passes by, leaving behind acrust. 2. It occurs all through the day. 2. It occurs in the wee or early hours | of morning before sunrise 3. It is of three types, mainly | 3. It occurs through hydathodes or stomatal (through the stomates) ‘water stomata’present at the leaf or cuticle (cuticular) endings or where the principal or lenticles (lenticular). vein ends. : 4. Stomata show opening and | 4. The terminal pore of hydathode closing. remains permanently open (i.e., incapable of opening and closing). 5. Controlled by water potential | 5. Controlled by positive ‘root (y) gradient in the mesophyll pressure’ originating in the root cells and is at the expense of cortex. The water is literally forced solar energy. out of leaf through the opening. 6. a is a rapid process, e.g. | 6, It is relatively a slower process. ithania somnifera. e.g, many grasses, garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum) leaves, Colocasia, potato, tomato. Q. 10. What are plant antitranspirants? Ans. Plant Antitranspirants. Conservation of water is of prime importance for efficient agriculture. Antitranspirants are the materials applied to plants for the purpose of retarding transpiration. The objective of using them is to check huge losses of water via transpiration by artificial means in the cultivation of high-valued field crops or in seedling transplantation in nurseries. Antitranspirants fall in two categories: 1. Sealants like colourless plastics, silicone oils and low viscosity waxes. When sprayed on fruits/root stocks/propagules, these form a film permeable to CO. and O, but not to water. So they prevent excessive water loss during storage and transportation for which CO, uptake is not an important consideration. 2. Compounds like phenylmercuric acetate (PMA), abscisic acid (ABA), metabolic inhibitors result in partial closure of stomata and lead to reduction in transpiration relatively more than net photosynthesis. Generally, these are used for ornamentals, ground covers and other utility plants. CO, is an effective antitranspirant. A little rise in CO, concentration (from 0.03 to 0.05 per cent) induces partial closure of stomata.‘Amar : B.Sc. (Prog) Botany 11 Year (Semester-IV) 12 Amar : BS : ductivity have been adopted Several strategies to IPT qomatal physilORy to PY tn, and plant physiologists. The opal mh by spraying antitranspirants has given e! : What is “Ascent of SAP”? i sn the plant can be considered a continuous hydra iy he water in the soil with the water vapour in the atmos connecting the war sorbed water i transpired, it must be conducted yp." ee a I the force of gravity.’The distance to bee to the transpiring surfaces against the 4 aap © VER, is sometimes very large, especially in tall trees and exceeds 300 ft ag in iC ‘Australian eucalypts (Eucalyptus amygdalina) and some conifers. This upy,, movement of water is called the ‘ascent of sap (sap includes water as wel), minerals). ‘There are two aspects of the problem namely, the pathways or channel, goverriing the ascending stream of water and the forces that are responsible, raising water to the top of 200-300 ft tall plants. Q. 12. Discuss briefly the pathway of water stream. Ans. Pathway of Water Stream. The upward translocation of water ir the plant takes place through the lumen of xylem elements. The tracheids ani vessel elements are structured to be good conduits for water transport. This can be readily demonstrated by a simple experiment. A cabbage leaf or a twig of balsam (Impatiens balsamina) with semi-transparent stem is cut under water and placed in a weak solution of basic fuchsin. After sometime, red streaks in veins of the leaves indicate the involvement of xylem elements in the ascent! sap. Transverse sections of the stem or petiole cut at different levels also revee! that only xylem (tracheids and vessels) has turned red while the phloem remains colourless. It may be further confirmed from the ringing or girdling experimet! conducted by the Italian scientist Malpighi (1679). Bark and wood were cut = separate trials. The plant with the xylem cut and phloem intact will wit indicating that upward transport of water is through xylem. However. whea the bark is cut and xylem intact, the plant remains fresh and the downw®! translocation of nutrients stops, leading to swelling above the girdle and eve? formation of adventitious roots because of accumulation of sugars (Figure®" ih \ { | —— Wihed pine ——- | | Xslem eon ‘ar ew No wil me — Cy » Fig. Girdling e: imei mn (O) experiment demon: invol of xe iy the involver 'strating (a) the involvement O} i 1e involvement of phloem in translocation of eter and nutrients respe' eeu jt-1: Plant Water Relations 13 Besides the vertical movement of wator through the xylem lumen/lateral transport also occurs from cell to cell. A water column within a single conduit along the length of a tall tree would, not be very stable, the lateral connections between the cells give fabiiity to the conducting system From time to time, various theories have been put forward to account for the ascent of sap in plants. These fall iitto two categories: Vital and Physical theories, According to the vital theories, ascent of sap takes place through the activities of living cells, However, in physical theories, it occurs through dead cells due to certain physical ...rces like capillarity, imbibition, atmospheric pressure, root pressure, transpiration ull, etc. Q. 13. What is Root pressure? significance. cuss briefly its magnitude and Ans. Root pressure is a vital phenomenon, depending upon the activity of living cells of the roots. During ‘active absorption’, water is forced into the xylem elements by the surrounding cortical cells of the roots with a certain force which induces a pressure sufficient enough to raise the water to many feet in the xylem. This pressure is called ‘root pressure’. Root pressure can be positive or negative depending upon environmental conditions. Positive root pressure is exhibited by plants growing under well watered and lowly transpiring conditions while negative root pressure is often found under xeric and highly transpiring conditions. The magnitude of root pressure is usual small (1-3 atm) under favourable conditions, and the higher magnitudes reported bv Molisch and White are of rare occurrence. The xylem is under positive pressure as a result of osmotic forces generated by the roots. Guttation is a consequence of positive root pressure. A large quantity of fluid is forced out of the vein endings through hydathode. Root pressure is a potent force that ‘pushes’ the water from below upward in small herbaceous plants rather than a ‘pull’ from above (as in passive absorption). Root pressure, although usually small, may function as a refilling mechanism in herbaceous plants such as grape vine (Vitis) in spring, forcing air out of embolized xylem conduits causing it (gases) to enter the solution Q. 14, Write a short note on Transpiration Ratio. Ans. Transpiration Ratio. It is the ratio between the amount of water _ lost and the amount of CO, gained through stomata Moles of Water (Hy 0) lost Moles of CO, gained This ratio has been measured in a number of C, plants and the ratio has been found to be approximately 500 molecules of water transpirated for one molecule of CO, taken up in photosynthesis. In C, plants the ratio has been found to be 250. Cy plants lose lesser amount of water as compared to C, plants. In cam plants this value is 50 only.II Year (Semester-V) Q.15. Briefly discuss the importance of water for plants Ans, Water is an essential element of plants. Water constitutes 80.95, the mass of growing plant tissues. Dead cells have a muc wer water The seeds have only 5 to 15% water. In plant cells the vacuole which 'sfiteg with water constitutes upto 95% the cell volume whereas the Peripher, cytoplasm constitutes only 5 to 10% of the volume of the cell. The liquid medium of water is ideal for the mobility of molecules wit cells as well as between one cell and another cell. The structure of components of the cell including enzymes, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, prota, ete. are affected by water. A large number of biochemical reactions anj ,, metabolites occur in the medium of water. Water is absolutely essential for th. protoplasm. The hydration of the protoplasm is essential for its Proper organization and for the correct functioning of the organelles it contains, Wate, Conten,, hin th Various « is a medium for the movement of various dissolved substances like gas., minerals, organic substances ete. in the xylem and phloem. Water takes direg part in many metabolic reactions taking place in the cell e.g, photolysis of water during photosynthesis. Water takes part in numerous condensing ang hydrolysing reactions such as the formation and breakdown of starch. Water present in the vacuoies and the cytoplasm helps in maintaining the Tigidity of cells and hence of the plant as a whole. Thin layers of water surround the cells and arepresent in between the cell walls. Water thus forms a continuous network throughout the plant through which movement of dissolved substances takes place. Q. 16. Discuss water potential and its components, Ans. According to thermodynamics the chemical pctential of water denotes the free energy of water expressed in a quantitative manner. According to law of thermodynamies the free energy represents the potential to do work. The Potential energy of water is termed "water pu - They defined as the difference hetween the of water in the system under consideration and of free, pure water at the same temperature. Water potential is measured u in terms of pressure and the unit o! vepeenscment in pascal. Pa (1 Megapascal MPa = 10 bars). Water potentials represented by the Greek letter, Psi (y). tential”. The term water potential partial specific Gibbs free energ) There are three factors which affect the water potential of a cell. They &” concentration, press I tre and gravity. These factors affect the free energy af Wat {ihe symbols of water potential, the effects of solutes pressure and gravity 3 enoted by Ww, Ws, Yp and the following will aptly cure up thei role i Yw = ¥5+ p+ Vg n pure water the value of watey i i: ‘Additio" of solutes reduces the free energy ot wate are meek Le, i is zero ¢ energy ot water. The term Ws is used for denotiNé'™ so J| Unit-1 : Plant Water Relations 15 _— | or turgor pressure. Which is now called pressure potential Wp. If the pressure | potential is positive it will add to the water potential but if it is negative it | reduces the value of water potential, The term Vg termed gravity potential denotes the effect of gravity on the water potential of a water column in a vertically growing plant. It’s magnitude depends on the height of the plant from the ground level as well as on the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity, In plants of small height (less than 5 meters) the ‘g is negligible and is. therefore, not taken into account. |The prevalent equation is thus Ww = Ys+¥p Since osmotic potential is either zero or negative and the pressure potential is positive, the water potential is negative in a solution (when pressure potential is less negative than the osmotic potential), zero in pure water (when pressure potential is equal to osmotic potential), or positive in pure water (when pressure potential exceeds osmotic potential) Differences in amounts of free energy per unit volume of a substance is eliminated by transfer of a part of the substance from the region of its higher to the region of its lower free energy. Water, therefore, moves from a place of higher Water potential (less negative) to a place of lower (more negative) water potential. Water potential is decreased by factors which reduce the relative water vapour viz., by addition of solutes, negative pressures or tensions, reduction in temperature T and by metric forces. Water potential is increased by factors which increase the negative vapour pressure, mechanical pressure and increase of temperature T. Leaves of mesophytes usually have a water potential of 10 bars while those of xerophytes have 15 bars. Q. 17. What is Osmosis? Indicate its role in various processes of plants. Z Ans. When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by means lof a semi-permeable membrane, solvent (or water) diffuses from the solution of lower concentrations to the solution of higher concentration until an equilibrium. is attained. This process is known as osmosis. The diffusion of the solvent particles linto a living cell or structure because of the latter's higher osmotic pressure (hypertonic solution) is known as endosmosis. ‘The diffusion of the solvent out of @ living cell or structure because if its loner osmotic pressure (hypoteonic solution) is known as exosmosis. There will be no diffusion once the equilibrium is attained Role of Osmosis in Plants (a) Plants absorb large amount of water from the soil-through the root hairs by the osmotic mechanism. (b) The movement and distribution of water across the cells of the plant take place by the process of osmosis. (¢) Osmotic concentrations of plant cells cause absorption of water by osmosis. The osmotic diffusion of water is thus responsible for theSe. (Prog.) Bot Semester-IV) 6 Amar : B.Sc (Prog.) 8 tany II Year (Semester-1V) ells leaves. wers and st : nt cells. The lea es, the flowers and stem tips req, taining their form. cells is al turgidity of pla turgor for main’ (a) The turgor of the guard stomata. (©) Growth of the young and turgor pressure 0} (f) High osmotic concentration increa' id desiccation freezing temperature an' ; Osmotic pressure is basically responsible for the creation of tury, : sure in the root xylem: ‘This positive hydrostatic pressure is ter, root p onsible for the rise of water to some heigh, plants is determined by osmosis psolutely essential for opening cells is brought about by the osmotic pres,, f these cells : ses the resistance of the plany,, root pressure and is resp’ (h) Certain turgor movements of the i 7 nth Q.18. Define Osmotic pressure and explain osmotic potential, ‘Ans, The osmotic pressure of a solution may be defined as * The exca pressure which must be applied to it in order to make its water potential equ, to that of pure water it is susally denoted by % When a solute is added to th water in a chamber, an amount of water is removed to keep the Pressure constan and mole fraction (concentration of water molecules) of water in the solution thus decreased. If such a solution is separated from pure water by semipermeable membrane a gradient of water potential is created and osmot diffusion of water starts taking place from the chamber of higher water potent: to that of lower water potential. If a mechanical pressure is applied to the late solution and is gradually increased it will raise the water potential of the solutic until the gradient no longer exists. The external mechanical pressure applie on a solution to stop endosmosis provided the solution is separated from pur water by means of a semipermeable membrane is termed the osmotic pressur Osmotic quantities are usually measured ia terms of atmospheric pressure. The following equation formulated by Vant Hoff relates the osmotic pressur | to the concentration of the solute in the solution. a oer oH fom pressure. V is the volume of the solvent, n the mole phere eee ere (0.0820 litre atm degree mole), and T ist Value for n of 22.4 att-This equating neo ot solvent at 273 K Bie ee atm. is equation is. however, not applicable to electroly® Te cheng, phigh become hydrated or bind water molecules. tnpeme aha ny rece to resure mut int temperature. Again itis not proper ta sented Viz, OFC, 20°C, oF ambit isotonic solutions are cae me that the osmotic pressure of like urea and large one like sucrose hy quimolar solutions of a small mole se have very differen] osmotic pressures 1. A molal solution is 1 s 1 gm molecular 2. Amalar solution contains 1 gram fen weight ete ofotUnit-1 : Plant Water Relations 17 Osmotic potential is numerically equal to the osmotic-pressure but is negative in sign, which indicates decrease in pressure that occurs due to addition of the { solute. Addition of more solute makes the osmotic potential increasingly more negative. Dilution of the solution with the solvent decreases the value of osmotic {potential (less negative). In a pure solvent tle value of osmotic potential is zero | The unit of osmotic potential is bars (1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01 bars). It is | given a negative (-) sign. Q. 19. Briefly Explain the follwoing terms : (i) Turgor pressure and wall pressure { (ii) Chemical potential (iii) Matrix potential Ans. (i) Turgor pressure and wall pressure. The pressure which | develops in a cell from time to time due to the osmotic diffusion of water is called the turgor pressure. The turgor pressure is variable unlike the osmotic pressure, which is always constant. During endosmosis the turgor pressure increases gradually in a solution and when it has reached its maximum limit it is equal to the osmotic pressure, provided the other liquid with which it is in a state of equilibrium is pure water or pure solvent. Turgor pressure is responsible for growth of the young cells. In mature cells it results in the development of an equal and opposite force termed the wall pressure. (ii) Chemical potential. The pressure which develops in a cell from time to time due to the osmotic diffusion of water is called the turgor pressure. The turgor pressure is variable unlike the osmotic pressure, which is always constant. During endosmosis the turgor pressure increases gradually in a solution and when it has reached its maximum limit it is equal to the osmotic pressure, provided the other liquid with which it is in a state of equilibrium is pure water | or pure solvent. Turgor pressure is responsible for growth of the young cells. In mature cells it results in the development of an equal and opposite force termed the wall pressure. Water in a system has a potential of zero if the vapour pressure of water is + equal to that of pure water. In systems where the vapour pressure is less than that of pure water the potential is less than that of water and is indicated by a negative sign. The chemical potential of water in a solution is reduced by the addition of solutes. eB The chemical potential increases with temperature since it increases the kinetic energy of the molecules. It also increases with increase in pressure. (iii) Matrix potential. It has already been seen that the water potential is affected by osmotic potential (solutes), pressure potential (hydrostatic pressure) and matrix potential. The term matrix potential indicates that component of the chemical or water potential which is determined by the attraction between water and the hydrating colloid or gel like organic molecules, cell wall ete. (collectively termed matrix). Matrix potential is also known as imbibition pressure. it is obvious that while osmotic potential is controlled by the solutes, the matrix the cells etc.Semester-IV) ) Botany II Year (Semester-IV) _ Amar : BSc. Prog.) Botany" 18 ma -awoling of soaked sed clilose, and gelatine in water indy ‘The swellin L ° ‘most negatiy, tial is maximum ( e) | ial. The matrix potent . matrix Se eel potential is low at the a Potential increas : material Me of ero when tis in equilibrium with water atthe atmo, maximum v t t on i signi of osmotic quantit; 7 Q. 20. Briefly indicate the significance ies, ‘Ans. Significance of Osmotic Quantities Component | Symbol | Sign in po Stenicag furgid | 1 _ cells _ i a | d force per Measure of sj, ‘ Onmaie mae] P / + | Untaren equcedto | omens | stop osmosis | Osmotic potential) - Water potential Degree of hyd, resulting from solutes | tion of proto. | plasm Turgor pressure Pt + Instantaneous actual Stretches cell wa, hydrostatic pressure and causes cell exerted on cell wall enlargement in young cells Wall pressure Pw + | Instantaneous back Increases free pressure by Wall on energy of water protoplast molecules Water potential | ~ | Chemical potential of | Indicates direetir water in system minus and relative that of pure water under | rate of diffusion standard conditions Q. 21. Explain the relationship between DPD, OP and TP. Ans, When certain solute particles are added to the pure solvent, th Giffusion pressure of the resulting solution is lowered. The amount, by whi? diffusi f. ion is | : he sam +e ant atmospheric pressure is called the diffusion pressure defit! (PD). It is incre of solutes, (surface forces), lowering introduced by Meyer in 193 but has now been found t0 n of water is explained in tet” he former indicates a potent® dient which is more appropris agaetadient. It should also be ne Telates only to vacuolal slated cells in which several other facsose cree the ft ater, Hy . e ater acteever the difusion pressure defiee wetter psi Potential is usually a nogative vate i ‘down” a gra: explains the diffusion “ . lation of DPD = Op. cell and not to non-vacu Sie energy status of w. value whereas w:Unit-1 : Plant Water Relations 19 a a ‘Assuming that a plant cell called A with an osmotic pressure of 20 units is separated from a cell B containing pure water, the initial absorbing power of the A cell will be exactly equal to its diffusion pressure deficit. The situation can be expressed as follows: DPD = OP=20 ‘Assuming that 5 ml of water has entered this cell in 5 minutes creating 5 units of turgor pressure there will be a corresponding development of wall pressure. This wall pressure will have a magnitude equal to that of the turgor pressure but will act in an opposite direction. The wall pressure acts on water and tries to force it back into cell B. There is, therefore, a corresponding neutralisation of the rate of diffusion of water of the absorbing power of thecell A. In the cell A therefore, DPD = OP-TP (WP) =20-5=15 99090Unit _ Mineral Nutrition n? What factors are Fespondiy ing of channels? s the cell membranes is facilitate n channels, Most ion channels , + of ion species or molecules, wo different conformations, referred to, Q. 1. How do ion channnels functio! for the opening and clos’ ‘Ans, The movement of ions across t transmembrane proteins referred to as 10) nighly specific for one or a limited numbe Channel proteins may exist in t fe i ‘open’ and ‘closed’. Solutes of appropriate size and charge may diffuse throyy only when the channel ‘gate’ is open. When the ‘gate’ is closed, the channe|' not available for ion diffusion. ‘Two types of gates are known - an electrical gated channel that opens in response to membrane potential. The other type,’ channel gate that opens in response to light,-hormones, or other stimuli. T), precise mechanism of gated channels is not yet known. ‘The channel protein is believed to contain a sensor—that responds to, number of stimuli, including voltage, light, hormone, and ion themselves, Thes, are known to influence the frequency or duration of channel opening. Q. 2. Comment upon the significance of H* pumping At Pase. ‘Ans. In plants, H*-pumping ATPase is the primary electrogenic transport: in both the plasma membrane and the tonoplast. When protons (H*) are extruded from the cytosol to the external mediur, ie., extracellular spaces or vacuole) by the H+-ATPase, both a pH gradient an a large interior or inside negative membrane potentials created (say -1 16m) This electrochemical H* gradient is termed as proton motive force. 1 ‘This negative interior electrical potential would result in the inward diffusio of positively charged ions such as K* but would repel negative ions such 87 chloride (Cl). 1 Some uncharged molecules such as sucrose move through the membran®* 7 caer with an ion, usually H*. This process, called ‘cotransport’ (sympo". > ie arly important in controlling the movement of sucrose in loading #", unloading in and out ofthe phloem, respectively. Loading is believed to invol, pH eae of oar and H’ ions through specific permeases in respons? ', ct i : cell {unloading) a ea Similarly, secretion of sucrose out of phleh gradient urs through permeases in response topH and electrochem'* : bh . 3. How is sit in , a ad ue different from facilitated diffusio™ a ake une simple process of diffusion. It ae by the roots takes place through diffusion pressure (tobe areca eee reeion of high concentration oy (to be more exact from high chemical i gion” low concentration or low diffu: igh chemical potential) to a 18, sion pressure, The process will continue unt! (20)Mineral Nutrition 2 equilibrium is attained between the external medium and the tissue (6 apoplastic component of cells, consisting of cell walls and the intercellular spaces of the cortex). The ions can move freely in and out of tissues down the \ concentration gradient, Metabolic energy is not involved. Diffusion of ions into the cytoplasm of cell is assisted or facilitated by 1g membrane transport proteins which can be grouped in two classes - ‘Carrier proteins (also known as carriers, transporters, or simply porters) and ‘Channel’ »y Proteins. In facilitated diffusion, the direction of transport is still determined ta by the concentration gradient (for uncharged solute) or electrochemical gradient for charged solutes and ions). 4g Channel proteins: These are commonly visualized as a charge-lined, water filled channels (aquaporins) traversing or spanning the membrane, Channels i, are normally recognized by ion species that is able to pass through the channel * which, in turn, is dependent upon the size of the hydrated ion and molecules » and its associated charge. The water molecule must diffuse in conjunction with the ions. Transport ions do not bind to or otherwise interact with the channel © proteins. The direction of movement of ions depend upon (i) their relative concentration on either side of the membrane and (ii) the voltage difference @ across the membrane (the inside of the cell is negatively charged). Each type of © channel is specific for a particular ion such as calcium (Ca‘*), potassium (K*) or chloride (Cl-) and many others. Channel proteins may exist in two different configurations, referred to as open and closed. r Carriers: These are another class of membrane proteins that transport ions as well as other solutes like sugars and amino acids across the membrane. q Lik ‘Channels’, carriers are specific for a certain type of solute and can transport 4 substances in either direction across the membrane. Unlike channel, however, they facilitate the movement of solutes across-the membrane by physically ' binding to them in a manner similar to enzyme-substrate interactions. Binding of the solute at the extracellular side of the cell induces a conformational change in the carrier protein which then delivers them on the other side. Thus, the net 5 movement always occurs from areas of high concentration to low, just as it does in simple diffusion, but carriers ‘facilitate’ the process. For this reason, the ; mechanism of transport is described as ‘facilitated diffusion’. Therefore, ‘facilitated diffusion’ has three essential features: (1) it is specific, any given carrier transports only certain ions or molecules, (2) it is passive, ., the direction of movement is controlled by the relative concentrations of the transported substance inside and outside the cells, (3) it saturates, i.e., if all relevant protein carriers are in use, increase in concentration gradient do not jincrease the transport rate. d i ) 1 Q. 4. What are the major deficiency symbols associate with zinc, Boron, molybdenum and copper? Ans. Zinc (Zn) 1. Typically, zinc-deficient plants have ‘shortened internodes’, with the result the plants display a rosette habit of growth having small (e.g., little leaf), stiff leaves at the ends of young shoots. Frequently, the shoots die off and the leaves fall prematurely.‘Amar : BSc. (Prog.) Botany I! Year (Semester-IV) mar : BS yl ’ | areas of the leay, 7 y 's to ‘chlorosis’ in the interveina _ a Sain ae a yellow or even white (due to a decline jp are phy iceynthesis), The leaves may also be small and distorteg dl sy with white necrotic spots. These disorders are. associated with ina gn acts asa cofactor in the synthesis of plant dequate synthesis of hormone IAA, hormone IAA (from the amino aciq rea fi for th required as a cofactor for e aa thel hhydration of CO, to form carbonic acid (H,CO,). an important role in CO, transport: Copper (Cu** Cu*) — Copper-deficient plants generally show stu! nted growth, distortion of young leaves particularly in citrus trees where there i loss of young leaves and ‘even curling (referred to as ‘dieback of citrus). The initial symptoms of Cu deficiency is the production of dark green leaves with some ‘necrotic spots’ that appear first at the tips of young leaves (or reclamation disease - chlorosis) and then extend along the leaf margins. The leaves may become twisted or malformed. Later, dead brown spots appear. In some trees, copper deficiency may cause blisters or deep slits in the bark from which exudes gums -’exanthema’. The browning of freshly cut apples and cut potato surfaces is due to the’ activity of copper-containing polyphenol oxidases (or phenolases). Polyphenol oxidases, a large group of copper-containing enzymes, oxidize phenols to quinones (Figure). oH 9° O-- O Phenol Quinong e enzyme carbonic anhydrase which The enzyme plays ; f Fig. The quinones undergo polymerization, forming the tannins Boron (B) In the absence of boron: 1. Meristematic activity is retarded and shoots and root apices die. Due G ae disintegration of terminal buds, the lateral buds start developing | ranches. The terminal buds of laterals in tur : n die, thus leading ; ° Se Production oflateral shoots. This results in a rosette-like habit ¢ roots become stunted and thickened and pro | root tubercles in leguminous plant fails to cea caer emes 3. The flower buds do not develop : 4. Inboron-deficient pl: lal ial ce : sarin plants, the cambial cells in the Srowing regions cease dislocation of xyl rendered non-fuUnit-2 : Mineral Nutrition 23 accumulation of carbohydrates and increase in anthocyanin formation that imparts purple colour to the leaves. 5. Stems become enlarged because of boron deficiency leading to various disorders like ‘stem cracks’ in celery, ‘heart rot’ of beets, ‘drought spot’ of apples, etc. Molybdenum (Mo) The symptoms of Mo deficiency depend upon the form in which nitrogen fertilizers ‘are applied, The plant grows satisfactorily when N is supplied in the form of ammonium salts or in organic form (urea). 1. In the absence of Mo, nitrates may accumulate because they are not converted to nitrite (NCK) by ‘nitrate reductase’ and hence no ammonia is produced. The protein synthesis is thus blocked and plant growth ceases altogether. Overall, the plants show stunted growth. 2. In the absence uf Mo, the root nodules in legumes fail to develop. The seeds remain poorly filled. 3. Deficiency symptoms consist of an interveinal chlorosis, first appearing in the older leaves, progressing upward to the younger ones. Mottling of leaves is followed by necrosis of leaf margins because of nitrate accumulation. 4. Lack of Mo in crucifers (such as cauliflower, broccoli etc.) induces a whip-tail disease, i.e., the partial or complete withering of leaf laminae, and the leaf thus appears like, ‘a whip’ and hence, the name ‘whip-tail’ disease. ‘Yellow spot’ disease of citrus is caused by Mo deficiency. Excess of molybdenum causes chlorosis (golden yellow shoot in tomato). Forage crops containing more of Mo seem to have a deleterious effect on animals (the ‘teart disease’ of livestock was first reported in UK). Q. 5. Why is foliar applications of mineral nutrients often preferred over direct use in the soil? comment. Ans. Mineral nutrients (such as iron, manganese, copper, zinc and others like urea and ammonium salts) can be applied to the surface of leaves as sprays, a process known as ‘foliar application’, It has many, advantages: (i) It gives quicker and better results than the application of chemical fertilizer to the soil. (ii)_Ttis more economical and less wasteful as compared to direct use where they are absorbed by soil particles and hence less available to the root system (iii) The practice is especially important in alkaline soils where micronutrients such as Mn, Cu, Zn and Fe are precipitated out into insoluble form. Hence, it is considered essential to spray soluble salts of the nutrients direct to the foliage, especially in the case of fruit and forest trees and annual crops. (iv) Foliar nutrition can reduce the ‘lag time’ (or time-lag) between application and uptake by the plants. The nutrient solution is absorbed throughjemester-TV) BSc. (Prog) Botany HT Year uM Ama - homes) or through rupture in the cuticle (breaks and crac, straw able to teach the target site before any damage sets in or caused (o the leaves. Hence, it is more efficient than application through the soil where it takes a much longer time (minerals first reaching the site of absorption in th, roots, their actual absorption and then upward translocation to the target Site), | To promote the formation of a thin film on the leaf surface, the nutrieny ¢ solution is often supplemented with surfactant chemicals such as oils that reduce y surface tension and inerease foliar absorption. Foliar spraying should be done on a cool day or in the evening as it will not 1 cause burning or scorching as it happens on a hot day where salts may accumulate on the leaf surface. Mineral salts in dilute concentrations are used s alone or along with fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, etc. during foliar spray Q. 6. Why is Potassium important in plant cell functions? i ‘Ans. “Potassium is a major mineral element required in many cell functions: 1. Potassium is an activator for a number of enzymes, involved in photosynthesis and respiration (for 40 or more enzymes). F 2. Important function in regulating the osmotic potential (osmoregulation) ‘ and ionic balance. 7 3. Controls many plant movements, such as opening and closing of - stomata; sleep movements (nyctinastic movements in Oxalis and 1 Touch-me-not (Mimosa pudica). 4. Maintains electroneutrality in plant cells. 5. Prevents lodging in plants. . Q. 7. Discuss briefly the techniques used for growing plants for nutritional studies or for determining essentiality. ‘Ans. By using the technique of water or solution culture, D.J. Amon and Pern” Stout (University of California, USA) in 1939 established three criteria that an element must fulfil in order to be classified as essential: 1. Anessential element is needed for completion of the life cycle of the plant right from seed germination, flowering to seed setting. 2. The element should be involved directly in playing a key role in plant metabolism. Its effect must not be indirect. , 3. The element should not be replaced by any other element with similar properties. Even though sodium has properties similar to potassium but it cannot replace potassium completely. Essentiality is based primarily on two criteria formulated by Epstein in 1972 and according to him, an element is considered essential (1) ifin its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, from seed germination t0 producing a viable seed, or (2) if that element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite such as magnesium isa constituent of the chlorophy!! molecule which is essential for photosynthesis. Similarly, chlorine is essent!™ because it is necessary for photolysis of water in light reaction of photosynthes!* minute haurs (trieMineral Nutrition 25 Q.8.L Ans, Mineral nutrition can be studied by using the following methods: * Solution culture (nutrient solutions) or hydroponic culture : In this technique. the plants are grown with their roots immersed in a nutrient solution containing inorganic salts, without any soil (hydroponics or soil-less growth) and air is bubbled through the solution. + Nutrient film technique: The nutrient solution is often recirculated ina thin layer, by using a pump. ist the criteria for determining the essentiality of minerals. + Aeroponic growth system: The plants are grown with their roots suspended over the nutrient solution which is whipped into a mist. + Ebb-and-flow system: The nutrient solution periodically rises to immerse plant roots and then recedes, exposing the roots to a moist atmosphere. Q. 9. Which are the minerals for electron transport chain? Ans. Copper and iron are components of electron transport carriers - plastoquinone, plastocyanin, cytochromes, and ferredoxin in the light reaction. While iron enters into the composition of cytochromes cyt b, cyt c, cyt a and cyt a, involved in ET chain in mitochondria (oxidative phosphorylation). Copper exists in two forms (Cut and Cu‘), manganese in three forms (monovaent, divalent and trivalent form) and iron occurs in Fe*** (Ferrous state) and | Fe***(Ferric form). ; They get alternately oxidized and reduced during oxidation-reduction | reactions taking place during ETS in photosynithesis and respiration. | Q. 10. Why fertilizers rich in phosphorous are often used when | transplanting perennials or propagules? Ans. An excess of phosphate in the soil stimulates the growth of roots over shoots, thus encouraging establishment of a strong root system which helps to absorb water and draw mineral nutrients effectively. The success of sugarcane cuttings during propagation depends upon the ease with which they can form roots and hence, phosphate-rich fertilizers (even growth hormones) promote rooting. | Q.11. Why excess of nitrogenous fertilizers are used in forage crops? Ans, Excess of nitrogenous fertilizer in the soil normally stimulate abundant growth of the shoot system, developing a high shoot over root ratio, and will often delay the onset of flowering. This is especially important in forage crops where more leafy growth is important. Applications of phosphate fertilizers reduces shoot growth but stimulates _ early flowering. Q. 12. List the minerals needed for functioning of the following— Ans. Nitrate reductase, dinitrogenase, glutamic acid dehydrogenase, plastoquinone, cytochrome a,, PEP carboxylase, mustard oil glucosinofates. | phosphopyruvie transphosphorylase, phosphoglyceric transphosphorylase, enolase, alcohol dehydrogenase, a-amylase, pyruvate kinase.