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Cognitive Training for Military Application: a Review of the Literature and

Practical Guide

Article in Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · March 2019

DOI: 10.1007/s41465-018-0076-1

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0076-1

REVIEW

Cognitive Training for Military Application: a Review of the Literature

and Practical Guide
Kara J. Blacker 1,2 & Joseph Hamilton 3 & Grant Roush 1,2 & Kyle A. Pettijohn 1,2 & Adam T. Biggs 2

Received: 3 October 2017 / Accepted: 10 April 2018

# This is a U.S. government work and its text is not subject to copyright protection in the United States; however, its text may be subject to foreign copyright
protection 2018

Abstract
In recent years, the potential to improve cognitive skills through training has captured the attention of academic researchers, the
commercial market, and the general public. Numerous clinical and healthy populations have been identified as targets for cognitive
training, and military personnel are one particular group that may be able to uniquely benefit from cognitive training interventions.
Military operations involve a wide range of human performance skills, many of which are cognitive in nature. Use of cognitive training
to improve these critical everyday skills for service members represents an untapped potential resource by which to improve operational
readiness and warfighter performance. While much of the cognitive training research to date has been circumscribed within basic
science pursuits, here we propose ways in which this research may start to be applied in a military setting. In the current review, we
examine instances of military operations that may readily lend themselves to cognitive training. Further, we examine the existing
literature from academic endeavors and pinpoint areas of exemplary efforts that can serve as a guide for military research to follow, as
well as pitfalls to avoid. In particular, we identify and review evidence from the video game, working memory, and executive function
training literatures. Finally, the goals of basic and applied science often differ, and that is certainly the case when comparing outcome-
based research in a military context with mechanism-based research in an academic context. Therefore, we provide a guide for best
practices when conducting cognitive training research specifically in a military setting. While cognitive training has attracted much
controversy in both academia and commercial markets, we argue that utilizing near transfer effects in a targeted, outcome-based
approach may represent a powerful tool to improve human performance in a number of military-relevant scenarios.

Keywords Cognitive training . Military research . Human performance . Transfer

Military operations stretch the gamut of human performance already been linked to the likelihood of inflicting either a
and tap into many different cognitive abilities. The possibility civilian casualty (Biggs et al. 2015) or a friendly fire incident
of using cognitive training to improve those diverse sets of (Wilson et al. 2013). One cognitive training study has already
cognitive skills relevant to military operations represents an demonstrated the potential to improve shooting performance
exciting practical application. Cognitive training represents a through inhibitory control training by reducing civilian casu-
substantial opportunity to improve the performance of military alties inflicted during simulation (Biggs et al. 2015). Other
service members if the right cognitive training is provided for forms of cognitive training could have widespread military
the right circumstances. For example, inhibitory control has applications, including how visual search training might im-
prove security screening or raw intelligence processing, work-
ing memory (WM) training might have applications for high
cognitive workload tasks such as flying modern military air-
* Kara J. Blacker
[email protected] craft, and attention training might have applications for
watchstanding duties. The cognitive training opportunities
1
are almost endless given the need for accurate and quick de-
The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military
Medicine Inc, Bethesda, MD, USA
cisions in some of the most high-intensity scenarios
2
imaginable.
Naval Medical Research Unit Dayton, 2624 Q Street Building 851,
Area B, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433, USA
Recent reviews have assessed the accumulated empirical
3
evidence and made some detailed recommendations about the
Randolph-Macon College, Ashland, VA, USA
 J Cogn Enhanc

best cognitive training methods (e.g., Simons et al. 2016). to elicit improvements on another untrained task. This idea of
Still, these best case recommendations often discuss the gen- transfer from training originates from Thorndike’s theory of
eral viability of cognitive training and assume complete ex- identical elements (Thorndike and Woodworth 1901), which
perimental control. Cognitive training and field applications proposed that only when the knowledge components between
face significant uphill challenges when incorporating these two skills are identical can there be transfer between the two.
best methods into an active duty military population. Some Starting with the most rudimentary concept of transfer,
methodology issues become more important, some issues be- there is little doubt that practice improves performance or that
come less important, but all issues can be reviewed with the practicing one task (e.g., shooting a handgun) will lead to
specific goal of improving human performance for military more efficient learning of a closely related skill (e.g., shooting
operations rather than hypothetical generalities. The current a rifle). From practice, we can move along the transfer spec-
manuscript will therefore review the cognitive training litera- trum to what is typically referred to as near transfer. A repre-
ture with the stated and specific intent of evaluating these sentative example of near transfer comes from the WM train-
training initiatives for military purposes. Some examination ing literature. For example, if an individual trains on a spatial
will touch upon well-covered topics such as near transfer ver- n-back task, where the order and locations of stimuli must be
sus far transfer, but this discussion will differ because the remembered, it would be expected that performance following
focus will be on the relative value for military applications training would improve for an object n-back task, where the
or a military audience—not the general population or specific order and identity of stimuli must be remembered. The logic
clinical disorders. The goal is to provide a framework and here is that training on the spatial n-back version improves
understanding for any future research initiatives or applica- one’s ability to maintain and update visuospatial information
tions which may seek to provide a military benefit from cog- in WM and therefore this improved skill will result in better
nitive training. This review is oriented toward two groups of performance on an untrained n-back task that uses different
researchers: basic scientists studying cognitive training who stimuli. Near transfer has great potential for elucidating cog-
seek to find real-world applications for training and applied nitive mechanisms, as well as practical use in applied settings.
researchers working with military populations that seek to Despite the practical value of near transfer, the vast majority of
develop and test novel methods for improving operational research and its subsequent controversy has surrounded the
skills. We attest that the successful implementation of cogni- idea of far transfer.
tive training for improvement of military performance will Far transfer refers to training on a task and seeing improve-
require a collaborative effort between these two groups. The ment on an untrained task that does not necessarily share ele-
discussion will begin with a general overview of the cognitive ments with the trained task. Again, from the WM training
training literature before moving into practical applications literature, the typical example is examining whether training
and considerations for ongoing and future military operations. on a WM task like an n-back task will improve performance
on matrix reasoning tasks that are considered measures of
fluid intelligence (Gf). The logic here is that WM capacity is
Cognitive Training Overview a limiting factor for performing a wide range of cognitive
tasks. In particular, WM capacity is highly predictive of Gf
The beginning of the twenty-first century has witnessed an and therefore improving WM capacity via training may enable
explosion of interest in cognitive training both in basic science individuals to perform better on measures of Gf and/or a range
and applied settings. The overarching goal of cognitive train- of real-world outcomes. While far transfer is the Bholy grail^
ing is to improve specific or broad-ranging cognitive skills of cognitive training and the marketing foundation of com-
and numerous approaches have been examined with this goal mercial brain training products, evidence has proved
in mind, such as video game training (Green et al. 2016; inconsistent.
Powers et al. 2013), working memory training (Au et al. Here, we consider transfer to be a spectrum ranging from
2015; Morrison and Chein 2011; Shipstead et al. 2012), med- practice to far transfer. Thus, there are a variety of Bmid^ level
itation training (Chiesa et al. 2011; Lutz et al. 2008; Tang et al. transfer scenarios one can imagine. For example, WM training
2015), non-invasive brain stimulation (Berryhill et al. 2014; has shown mixed evidence for modality specificity, whereby
Parkin et al. 2015), aerobic exercise (Hillman et al. 2008), and visuospatial WM training may or may not elicit improvement
many others (for a comphrensive review see Simons et al. on untrained WM tasks in the verbal domain and vice versa
2016; Strobach and Karbach 2016). However, each of these (Buschkuehl et al. 2014; Jaeggi et al. 2014; Schneiders et al.
approaches to cognitive training has been surrounded by some 2011). This type of cross-modality, but intra-skill transfer,
degree of controversy, which typically stems from debate may be viewed as mid-level transfer. Alternatively, consider
about the effectiveness of training to Btransfer^ to perfor- an example where training on a task that requires inhibitory
mance on other untrained tasks. In the context of cognitive control, such as a go/no-go task, yields improvement on a very
training, transfer refers to the potential of training on one task different task that taps into an overlapping cognitive
J Cogn Enhanc

mechanism, such as the Stroop task. In this review, our pri- shoot performance (e.g., Biggs et al. 2015; Wilson et al.
mary focus will be on the spectrum of transfer with the goal of 2013).
informing the application of cognitive training in military op- In short, after reviewing the relevant literature on a partic-
erational outcomes. Human performance is a critical factor in ular application of cognitive training, particularly on a topic
military operations, and cognitive training represents a poten- where there is very little, a worthwhile next step is to consult
tial untapped resource for improving that performance. with the recognized Bexperts^ in the area that is being studied.
This process of starting from the Bground^ up and incorporat-
Task Analysis ing qualitative data, such as in-depth interviews with SMEs, is
one that is often used in grounded theory and/or organizational
One critical consideration in the application of cognitive train- psychology (Brawley and Pury 2016; Creswell 2007).
ing to real-world outcomes is that of task analysis. Here, we However, while this technique may be less common in basic
aim to provide an overview of the cognitive training literature cognitive psychology, it may represent a necessary first step in
in a basic science setting, as well as provide a guide to using applied research especially when specialized populations are
cognitive training in applied settings—specifically the mili- being targeted. This notion may prove especially true in mil-
tary. Outcomes are of primary importance to military opera- itary applications.
tions, but especially important are outcomes for multifaceted
skills, as military operations inevitably require coordination of Cognition in the Military
multiple cognitive abilities. For example, there is not one spe-
cific laboratory-based task that encompasses all components Research on the improvement of cognitive function in military
of room clearing, piloting a military aircraft, or navigating a populations has been primarily focused on medical interven-
ship. With this in mind, determining what knowledge, skills, tions for service members recovering from traumatic brain
and abilities are required for a particular job is a critical step in injury (TBI; Bogdanova and Verfaellie 2012; Huckans et al.
determining what type of cognitive training may be benefi- 2010; Twamley et al. 2014) or psychological disorders such as
cial—otherwise known as a formal task or job analysis. There post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Bogdanova and
are several studies which address ways to conduct a formal Verfaellie 2012; Haaland et al. 2016; McDermott et al.
task analysis (e.g., Brawley and Pury 2016; Morgeson and 2016). For example, there is a wealth of research on the impact
Dierdorff 2011; Patrick and Moore 1985). However, for re- of TBI on cognitive performance in military populations, such
searchers conducting applied or Bfield^ research, there are less as the Vietnam Head Injury Study, which has followed 1221
formal steps that can be taken to integrate some of the princi- Vietnam veterans with mostly penetrating brain injuries pro-
ples used in a task analysis. spectively (e.g., Grafman et al. 1990; Grafman et al. 1996;
For example, in a recent study exploring the impact of Groswasser et al. 2002; Raymont et al. 2011). The prevalence
cognitive training on Bshoot/do not shoot^ performance, the of brain injuries continues to increase in the modern era, as
authors applied task analysis principles to help design a spe- The Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center estimates that
cific training program for military and law enforcement re- between 2000 and 2017 more than 375,000 service members
search (Hamilton et al., under review). The researchers con- have been diagnosed with TBI (BDoD Worldwide Numbers
ducted interviews with a group of 26 firearms training profes- for TBI,^ 2018). TBI is associated with a variety of cognitive
sionals including active federal Special Agents, special oper- impairments that include impaired attention, impaired
ations military personnel, state and local law enforcement of- visuospatial/verbal information processing, memory deficits,
ficers, and an elite group of national and world champion communication problems, poor judgment, and impaired exec-
competitive shooters. These subject matter experts (SMEs) utive functioning (Barman et al. 2016). The most common
provided insights into which cognitive abilities might apply cognitive impairments following TBI are related to attention,
to a shoot/do not-shoot decision, and this information was a memory, and executive functioning (Arciniegas et al. 2002).
critical factor in determining not only the cognitive training These deficits represent clear targets for cognitive training as a
regimen but the research design as well. Importantly, this rehabilitative tool. Further, the deficits seen following TBI
method also allowed them to incorporate feedback from ex- demonstrate the utility of potential training programs that elic-
perts in nearly every relevant occupation where individuals it near transfer (e.g., improving WM in a population that has
may be forced to make a Bshoot/do not shoot^ decision with suffered WM deficits following TBI).
a firearm. This approach started with the real-world applica- However, in addition to clinical applications following a
tion to create a cognitive training regimen rather than design- physical or psychological injury, improvements or enhance-
ing a cognitive training regimen and then trying to fit it into a ments in cognitive functioning could have several positive
real-world application. It should be noted that, in this situa- preventative implications for service members. Increased
tion, the SMEs suggested cognitive tasks that aligned with the combat readiness among healthy service members may help
limited amount of existing literature regarding shoot/do not to mitigate some Bavoidable^ combat injuries. An avoidable
 J Cogn Enhanc

combat injury could be described as an injury or incident that situations they encounter. Often the very nature of combat is
results from a cognitive processing error or Bmental mistake.^ unpredictable, hectic, and imposes an overload of information
Some examples could include friendly fire incidents, prevent- on an individual. Battle plans, call signs, routes, frequencies,
able civilian casualties, or incorrect relay of grid numbers and grid numbers are only a few of the factors that may change
during communication with air support or artillery units. several times over the course of a single mission—and almost
Furthermore, enhancing cognitive abilities may serve another certainly change upon contact with a hostile adversary.
preventative purpose by improving recovery prognosis fol- Keeping track of all these items is extremely taxing to an
lowing a TBI. individual’s WM, which is known to be capacity limited
One explanation for why there are differences in how indi- (Luck and Vogel 1997). To ensure mission success, it is crit-
viduals respond to brain injury or disease is cognitive reserve. ical that combat leaders constantly monitor and update new
The assumption underlying cognitive reserve is that pre- mission relevant information and discard old, irrelevant infor-
existing neurological differences underlie the differential re- mation. Individuals in specialty roles, such as medics and
sponse (Stern 2002). Cognitive reserve is broadly classified as forward observers, may be required to shift between very dif-
either passive or active. Passive reserve refers to gross ana- ferent mental tasks or sets such as calling for fire (e.g.,
tomical differences, such as brain size or cranial volume that radioing information to coordinate an artillery strike) to ma-
serve as protective factors. Active reserve refers to the neural neuvering to returning fire to rendering aid. Military personnel
mechanisms, such as more efficient networks or neural flexi- are expected to be able to perform these demanding tasks and
bility that protect cognitive function (Stern 2009). While nei- at the same time exercise enough inhibition to appropriately
ther of these types of cognitive reserve reduce the damage identify and engage the enemy while avoiding friendly fire or
caused by disease or injury, they may allow the individual to inflicting civilian casualties. Cognitively speaking, much is
compensate for the effects of the damage during recovery. demanded of members of our armed forces, particularly as
Several studies have shown that pre-injury measures of cog- the battlefield becomes more technologically advanced and
nitive reserve are associated with better clinical outcomes. For complex. Therefore, it is imperative that we investigate how
example, one study that examined cognitive functioning fol- specific cognitive functions impact service members and at-
lowing TBI found that total intracranial volume, a measure of tempt to find ways to improve their capability in those areas.
passive reserve, was associated with higher post-injury func- Unfortunately, this is an area in which relevant research and
tion (Kesler et al. 2003). Other research that has looked at the training is severely lacking.
effects of active reserve has shown that WM capacity (Sandry To illustrate the variety of potential cognitive training op-
et al. 2015), standardized test scores (Kesler et al. 2003), var- portunities that are relevant to military personnel, consider an
ious cognitive tests (Fay et al. 2010), and educational attain- example scenario that is often encountered in urban combat:
ment (Schneider et al. 2014) may protect against the effects of room clearing. Service members are often tasked with going
brain injury. These results raise the question of whether it may through a building or house and searching it for enemy com-
be possible to use training to increase cognitive reserve, thus batants. This type of situation is dynamic, unpredictable, and
reducing the impact of a potential future injury. While some extremely dangerous. Individuals must rely heavily on visual
factors that influence passive cognitive reserve (e.g., intracra- and auditory perception to see and hear necessary input.
nial volume) are fixed, others that affect active reserve might Deployment of visuospatial attention is key, as the entire rel-
be improved through training. One example of using cognitive evant area must be attended to and then quickly searched for
training in a preventative manner with military personnel has potential threats. Individuals must be able to quickly and ac-
shown some initial promise. Jha et al. (2010) found evidence curately identify potential threats as hostile or non-hostile. If a
that mindfulness training served to protect WM capacity dur- hostile target is identified, that individual must decide on a
ing a high-stress pre-deployment interval. The authors con- course of action (e.g., shoot or do not shoot) and then execute
cluded that while stress is known to reduce WM, the service the necessary motor response (i.e., aim and pull the trigger).
members who received mindfulness training were less suscep- All of this is accompanied by procedural and declarative
tible to the functional impairments associated with those high knowledge that is learned during combat training, such as
levels of stress during pre-deployment. This approach of what order individuals in a team enter a room or building
boosting cognitive resources and skills prior to insult/injury/ and which individuals are responsible for which specific tasks.
stress is in line with the work on cognitive reserve as a pro- Finally, all of these cognitive efforts are compounded by ad-
tective factor. In addition to serving as a preventative ap- ditional variables such as perceptual and attentional distrac-
proach, enhancement in cognitive functioning may also rep- tions (e.g., a dog barking in the background or smoke obscur-
resent a method for improving warfighter performance and ing one’s vision), psychological stress (e.g., anxiety), and
efficiency in a number of other tasks, scenarios, and domains. physiological stress such as heat or muscle fatigue from car-
There are several areas of cognitive functioning that likely rying a heavy pack. Each of these relevant skills may represent
impact military personnel and specifically apply to the unique a potential trainable target. While academic endeavors in
J Cogn Enhanc

cognitive training have focused heavily on far transfer, as how to best ensure the greatest degree of transfer from one
illustrated in this example, the military may be able to capital- context to another, which may require targeting the underlying
ize on near transfer of these specific perceptual, attentional, cognitive mechanisms thereby underscoring the value of cog-
and higher-order cognitive abilities. In this review, we will nitive training. In this sense, the value of cognitive training
focus on the effectiveness of particular forms of cognitive can be seen in the relationship between the Soldier and the
training to elicit near transfer to skills that are operationally combat environment. It is impossible to fully prepare an indi-
relevant to military personnel. vidual for all possible situational variations that he or she may
encounter. This functional challenge makes combat training
Critical Factors in Cognitive Training Application complicated; however, it is possible to train the cognitive abil-
ities of the individual that are likely to be utilized in combat.
When considering application of cognitive training in the real- Put another way, it may be impossible to train for precisely
world, such as use with military personnel, it is critical to not where an individual will be driving a car—but, we can im-
only consider range of transfer but other components of train- prove the type of car he or she will be driving.
ing. In particular, learning theories suggest that both content Meaningful training-related improvements in cognition are
and context of learning or training are key to a learner’s out- almost certainly underscored by neural plasticity. Knowing
come. Content is highly related to the concept of transfer which conditions are conducive to plasticity helps to establish
discussed above, as we typically consider content to be the the circumstances under which we should begin to train and
knowledge and skills practiced in a training paradigm. Thus, the types of training initiatives to explore. Lovden et al. (2010)
the degree of similarity or overlap in content between the argue that a fundamental prerequisite for successful cognitive
training task and any untrained task dictates what degree of training is a mismatch or imbalance between environmental
transfer we might expect. Cognitive training can be designed demands and actual brain supply. Thus, plasticity denotes a
to focus on a singular task (e.g., spatial n-back), a singular prolonged mismatch between cognitive resources and
content (e.g., multiple WM tasks), or multiple content areas situational demands. To create this prolonged mismatch,
(e.g., WM, inhibitory control, and task switching tasks). cognitive training tasks must be challenging but manageable
However, it is also important to recognize the influence of with a high degree of effort. This balance between keeping a
context on training outcomes as well. The context of training task difficult enough to ensure the participant is not bored
or learning can vary along multiple dimensions, including while easy enough to ensure the participant does not get
knowledge domain, physical location and circumstances, frustrated is typically achieved through adaptive paradigms
intended purpose, and whether the trained skill involves only that keep the effort and feasibility level consistent for each
the individual or involves other people. In a cognitive training individual participant. Lovden et al. (2010) delineate two
environment, additional context variables to consider are mo- manifestations of plasticity: changes to representations and
tivation (e.g., intrinsic vs. extrinsic) and compliance. changes to processes and their efficiency. For example,
Furthermore, there can be a multitude of interactions be- training-induced plasticity could alter representation or
tween content and context (Barnett and Ceci 2002) that the knowledge, which is similar to the concept of crystallized
cognitive training field has only begun to consider—and some intelligence (Horn and Cattell 1966) and relies on procedural
of these issues may only arise in military, law enforcement, or or declarative knowledge and abilities. On the other hand,
security situations. For example, one important issue involves training-induced plasticity could alter the process or efficiency
the transfer of effects when using simulators versus live am- with which one completes a task. WM training relies on the
munition for training purposes. There is always a push to logic that training-induced plasticity will either increase the
create realistic circumstances during training, but military op- capacity of WM or enable an individual to more efficiently use
erations are often dangerous in nature, which complicates the their existing capacity (e.g., improving distractor filtering; C.
possibility of creating realistic content and context for transfer. H. Li et al. 2017), which represents an alteration to process or
For example, shooting simulators commonly used by military efficiency, which in turn benefits performance on other WM
units can only provide a limited amount of realism because tasks.
eventually a service member must carry a live weapon with Perhaps the greatest challenge in applying cognitive train-
live ammunition during the course of his or her duties. ing to the military is the lack of understanding regarding the
Unfortunately, there is no comparable substitute for this con- specific links between cognitive processes and human perfor-
text other than placing a live weapon into his or her hands. mance in military operations. Specifically, it is easy to assume
Meaningful transfer thus becomes a critical issue because that WM is necessary in aviation operations, where a pilot
transferring the learned training procedures to a combat situ- must coordinate information from the control tower, other
ation can literally mean the difference between life and death. aircraft in the vicinity, various instruments, and the skies
It also means overcoming the anxiety of using a weapon and around the aircraft. Some recent evidence has started to ex-
the fear involved in facing combat. The challenge becomes plore these links while also using cognitive training to
 J Cogn Enhanc

demonstrate that these links are causal in nature rather than idea that playing video games may serve as a useful tool to
purely correlative (e.g., Biggs et al. 2015). Still, these links are improve cognitive and motor functioning dates back to the
more exploratory than anything else. Cognitive training re- early 1970s, when the game Pong was first released and re-
search will need to build upon the most established links or searchers tested whether playing Pong could improve func-
provide foundational efforts first to provide the largest and tional outcomes following a stroke (Cogan et al. 1977).
most efficient expenditure of military resources in pursuit of Modern research has focused specifically on first-person
improved training initiatives. shooter, Baction^ video games. A seminal paper by Green
and Bavelier (2003) showed using both cross-sectional and
training study designs that action video game experience
Lessons from Commercial and Academic was related to enhanced performance on measures of the spa-
Efforts tial distribution and temporal resolution of visual attention.
This initial paper sparked an explosion of research into the
There has been exponential increase in the for-profit brain effects of action video game experience.
training industry in recent years. Unfortunately, there is lit- The most robust and replicated findings surround action
tle—if any—convincing evidence to support the claims made video game training (AVGT) improving visual perception
by these brain training companies (e.g., Federal Trade and attention. For example, AVGT has been shown to improve
Commission 2016). These companies tend to make claims visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and perceptual learning
of vertical, far transfer based on weak or non-existent evi- (Bejjanki et al. 2014; R. Li et al. 2009; R. Li et al. 2010).
dence and with no clear path between training and application Several studies have found and replicated an enhanced spatial
(for a detailed review of the commercial brain training distribution of attention following AVGT as measured by the
literature, see Simons et al. 2016). Conversely, when dealing useful field of view (UFOV) or flanker tasks (Green and
with a pre-defined area of interest such as specific military Bavelier 2003, 2006, 2007). Further, AVGT has been shown
operations, the well-defined application provides a rigid stan- to improve the temporal resolution of attention and visual
dard of comparison in the effectiveness of any cognitive train- speed of processing more generally (Dye et al. 2009; Green
ing. Put another way, far transfer is not necessarily the end and Bavelier 2003).
goal. We are not looking for one single training task or even In addition to effects on perception and attention, several
one group of training tasks that will improve warfighter per- studies have found evidence for AVGT improving a broad
formance on all job-related tasks. While this one-training-fits- range of other skills that are mechanistically related to visual
all approach would be ideal, it seems far-fetched and unlike- perception and attention. For example, AVGT has been shown
ly—especially given that operational military performance to increase visual working memory performance (Blacker
can range from room clearing to combat casualty care to avi- et al. 2014), to enhance mental rotation ability (Feng et al.
ation operations. Instead, the military has specific tasks and 2007), to reduce attentional capture (Chisholm et al. 2010;
problems that it needs to solve and training could be designed Chisholm and Kingstone 2012), and to improve selective at-
for specific audiences. Previously in this review, we have used tention (Mishra et al. 2011). Finally, the effects of action video
shoot/do not shoot performance in the context of room clear- game experience on higher-order executive functions have
ing as an example of a singular problem. While this task has been explored but less so, and with less consistent results.
many interleaved cognitive processes involved, it is one high- These specific findings will be reviewed below in the section
priority task for which the military aims to improve perfor- on Executive Function training.
mance. In this context, practice effects or near transfer are The AVGT literature provides a good example of the use of
appropriate outcomes in improving shoot/do not shoot effi- methodologically rigorous experimental designs that include
ciency. Near transfer is a suitably reliable effect, having been training studies and adequate control groups. While not every
demonstrated in several training formats, and these types of action video game study adheres to these standards, there are
enhancement programs are certainly worth a military invest- higher proportions of studies with these designs compared to
ment. Next, we will review these examples of positive near other areas of cognitive training. Indeed Simons et al. (2016)
transfer from the basic science literature as models that are noted that studies on the benefits of action video game training
useful and may shed light on how training can be used in a are Bamong the best designed^ in the cognitive training liter-
military context. ature. The inherent qualities of video games (e.g., adaptive,
engaging) make them a desirable training vessel for real-world
Action Video Game Training application. AVGT improves a core set of visual perception
and attentional skills that are critical in many everyday tasks.
One of the most consistent and robust findings within the One such clinical application of this work is the attempt to
cognitive training literature comes from the effects of action improve vision in individuals with amblyopia, which is a de-
video game training on perceptual and attentional skills. The velopmental disorder that results from physiological
J Cogn Enhanc

alterations in visual cortex early in life (Ciuffreda et al. 1991). transfer issues among such different environments.
Individuals with amblyopia experience a wide range of visual Moreover, shipboard duties for Sailors might differ substan-
deficits including reduced contrast sensitivity, high levels of tially from urban combat duties of Marines, yet some Sailors
spatial uncertainty, spatial disorientation, and impaired read- may have responsibilities that include both shipboard opera-
ing ability. However, early work has demonstrated that AVGT tions and close-quarters combat operations if they have to
in individuals with amblyopia can enhance a variety of visual board an enemy ship. In short, the scope of military duties is
functions compared to a control training group (Vedamurthy complicated, far-ranging, and the same individual may be re-
et al. 2015a, b). While this work is in its early stages, it repre- quired to engage in many different types of duties throughout
sents a practical and focused use for AVGT. a career. If learning to learn is a primary component of cogni-
In this review, we have focused on near transfer and quan- tive training in general or AVGT specifically, then these train-
tifiable outcomes following training. Both near transfer and ing initiatives offer immense value to current and ongoing
quantification are critical aspects of training with practical military operations.
value for military applications. The action video game litera-
ture is an interesting case in this regard. Is an improvement in Working Memory Training
visual perception and attention reasonably considered near
transfer following AVGT? Indeed, identifying the exact com- Unlike AVGT, WM training specifically emerged on the scene
ponents of action video games that produce transfer is an with the hopes of achieving broad-ranging far transfer. A sem-
emerging area of research and will likely be a critical future inal study in 2008 sparked much excitement and ensuing con-
direction for the field (Dale and Green 2017). However, an- troversy by demonstrating that training on a dual n-back task
other potential advantage of AVGT is the likelihood that it is improved performance on Raven’s progressive matrices, a
tapping into a range of skills, which are all being trained si- measure of Gf (Jaeggi et al. 2008). While WM training has
multaneously. This notion has led Bavelier et al. (2012) to been surrounded by the most controversy due to its initial
propose that transfer from AVGT may reflect what is known focus on far transfer, it may also bear the greatest potential
as Blearning to learn^ (also reviewed in, Green et al. 2016). for informing application of cognitive training. A full review
The learning to learn model proposes that complex training of the entire WM training literature is beyond the scope of this
environments, like action video games, actually foster brain review (however, for reviews see Konen et al. 2016; Morrison
plasticity and learning. The idea here is that training on BTask and Chein 2011; Shipstead et al. 2012; Simons et al. 2016;
A^ may not necessarily produce immediate transfer to BTask also see Au et al. 2015 for a recent meta-analysis). Therefore,
B,^ but instead the training on BTask A^ allows BTask B^ to here, we will focus on two major aspects of WM training: the
be learned more quickly. Indeed, several studies have found logical link between training and outcome and near transfer
evidence that action video game players and non-video game effects.
players start out at the same performance level, but action WM capacity is limited, varies widely across individuals,
video game players improve their performance more rapidly and is highly related to many other cognitive skills, including
throughout the course of the new task (e.g., Bejjanki et al. Gf (e.g., Engle et al. 1999). Many theories have emerged
2014; Gozli et al. 2014). This theory of cognitive training, if about the nature of the relationship between WM and Gf,
supported, avoids the curse of specificity whereby learning is but consistent evidence for several decades has demonstrated
typically specific to a single task. This so-called curse of spec- that WM capacity and performance on measures of Gf like
ificity is a primary limiting factor in most practical applica- matrix reasoning tests have a high, positive correlation (e.g.,
tions like job training, education, or rehabilitation. Given the Ackerman et al. 2005; Conway et al. 2003; Kane and Engle
myriad duties and tasks that military personnel are asked to 2002; Mogle et al. 2008; Unsworth et al. 2014). The ability to
learn and execute, a training approach that increases the speed improve Gf via training is particularly intriguing because the
at which new skills can be acquired is particularly appealing. construct is highly predictive of many real-world skills such as
Indeed, learning to learn is already a high military priority. academic performance, creativity, reading comprehension, job
Admiral John Richardson is the current U.S. Chief of Naval performance, and even mortality (Dreary 2008; Kuncel et al.
Operations—the senior leader of the U.S. Navy—and he re- 2004). The logic of WM training states that WM capacity is a
leased a document entitled BA Design for Maintaining limiting factor for performing a wide range of cognitive tasks,
Maritime Superiority^ (Richardson 2016). In this document, including Gf, and thus if WM capacity can be improved with
he outlined the need to achieve high velocity learning at every training, then all of these other related skills may also reap the
level as a key line of effort for current and future naval oper- benefits. While WM training’s efficacy in eliciting far transfer
ations. This need fits with the general challenge of naval ser- to Gf has been inconsistent (for reviews and recent meta-anal-
vice in the high variety of tasks and duties required of so many yses, see Au et al. 2015; Morrison and Chein 2011; Shipstead
personnel. Sailors and Marines have to deal with challenges et al. 2012; Simons et al. 2016), the logical link between WM
on sea, air, and land, which creates context and content and Gf represents a laudable approach. The goal is to find a
 J Cogn Enhanc

process or system that (a) underlies cognitive skills and abil- speed, and/or higher precision of maintained representations.
ities, (b) is malleable or sensitive to training, and (c) may It is also a possibility that WM training improves both capac-
benefit other skills if it can be improved. ity and efficiency. To use an oversimplified analogy, if WM
While far transfer associated with WM training has been were a suitcase, training could allow you to increase your
inconsistent, near transfer effects have been far more consis- Bphysical capacity^ by using the extra expandable zipper;
tent. A number of recent meta-analyses and reviews agree that training could simply provide you with a method for more
WM training produces significant improvements to untrained efficiently packing your items into the same, non-expanded
WM tasks across the lifespan (e.g., Karbach and Verhaeghen space; or finally, training could achieve both, more space by
2014; Melby-Lervag and Hulme 2013; Schwaighofer et al. use of the expandable zipper plus a more efficient packing
2015). For example, training on one type of n-back task trans- approach. Understanding how WM training influences perfor-
fers to improvements on untrained versions of the n-back task mance on this mechanistic level is of great interest in
(Blacker et al. 2017; Colom et al. 2013; Jaeggi et al. 2010; S. laboratory-based investigations of cognitive training and sure-
C. Li et al. 2008). Similarly, training on one type of complex ly represents a critical next step in advancing the field.
span WM task transfers to improvements on other complex However, in a real-world application such as military training,
span tasks (Chein and Morrison 2010; Richmond et al. 2011). the end goal of packing more items into that suitcase is suffi-
Given the critical nature of WM to everyday functioning, this cient and how it occurs is less pertinent as long as human
evidence of near transfer represents a promising step in utiliz- performance is improving. These distinct goals embody the
ing WM training in an applied setting such as the military. difference between basic science done in academia and ap-
Further, there are also other methods for improving WM itself plied work done in military research. Both lines of research
through training that would be considered near transfer. For and communication between entities will help to move the
example, a commercial training program called NeuroTracker entire field forward as a whole.
can be used to have participants complete adaptive 3D multi- A particularly relevant example of the use of WM training
object tracking training, which heavily involves WM storage near transfer comes from clinical application. In a clinical
and updating processes. In fact, one study in particular has setting, both rehabilitation (e.g., from stroke) and psychother-
demonstrated in a military population that this form of training apy rely on the engagement of viable and healthy systems to
can improve WM span performance (Vartanian et al. 2016). compensate for or re-innervate function that is lost due to
We propose that the military value of this type of near transfer illness or injury (Light and Swerdlow 2015). Understanding
is clear and overwhelming. In a military setting, any human an individual’s assets, in turn, can be leveraged in the service
performance improvement could translate to lives saved on of therapy or treatment. For example, individuals with schizo-
the battlefield and thus the distance of transfer from training phrenia often exhibit a deficit in WM (e.g., Goldman-Rakic
task to outcome measure becomes less of a concern. This 1994; Lee and Park 2005; Silver et al. 2003), but cognitive-
outcome-focused approach stems from the inherent need for behavioral therapies used to treat schizophrenia place de-
military operations to achieve tangible goals for the safety of mands on WM with the goal of helping the individual to
our population. Thus, military training may be able to utilize develop compensatory strategies for learning and applying
WM training itself, which has shown reliable near transfer information. Indeed, previous work has shown that WM train-
results or use WM training as a model training approach that ing can produce significant near transfer and changes to neural
yields consistent improvements on a critical cognitive skill. activity in prefrontal cortex among individuals with schizo-
One interesting aspect of WM training is the relative ob- phrenia (Haut et al. 2010).
scurity of what general behavioral or neural mechanisms un- A future step in this line of research may be to test the
derlie training-based improvement or transfer to untrained efficacy of WM training or other types of cognitive training
tasks. Two general and not mutually exclusive mechanisms as a supplement to typical cognitive-behavioral therapy. By
are typically discussed. First, it may be the case that WM boosting one’s initial ability, subsequent training or therapy
training simply enhances the capacity of WM, meaning it may end up being more effective or result in a faster rate of
allows for more information to be stored than prior to training. improvement. This notion, while untested to the best of our
Second, it may be that WM training enhances the efficiency knowledge, bears resemblance to Bavelier and colleagues
with which information is stored in WM. This second option Blearning to learn^ model from the action video game litera-
could be achieved through strategy use, such as rehearsal or ture. Perhaps boosting a critical ability like WM will allow an
chunking, or through an improvement in underlying process- individual to benefit more from a subsequent learning or ther-
es, such as selective attention. For example, individual differ- apy opportunity. For example, cognitive training that focuses
ences in the ability to select task-relevant and filter out task- on WM improvement prior to training on a specific operation-
irrelevant information is highly predictive of individual WM al task like aviation could dramatically reduce the time needed
capacity (Vogel et al. 2005). Improved WM efficiency could to train a new pilot or immediately increase his or her opera-
take the form of better distractor filtering, faster encoding tional efficiency. Pilot training costs millions of dollars and
J Cogn Enhanc

takes months or years—per pilot—which makes any improve- shifting training. In the gaming literature, action video game
ments to the training process highly advantageous. Training players have demonstrated smaller task-switching costs
that increases the spatial distribution of attention prior to train- (Colzato et al. 2010; Green et al. 2012; Strobach et al.
ing could likewise aid pilots in reducing spatial disorientation, 2012). However, in a separate study, these smaller costs were
which is the number one cause of Class A mishaps in military attributed to action gamers’ specific benefit in controlling se-
aviation. These predictions have yet to be tested but may re- lective attention, rather than better task switching-related cog-
flect critical and practical ways for cognitive training to be nitive control processes (Karle et al. 2010).
applied to standard military training procedures. The second approach has typically compared training that
involves switching between two disparate tasks in random or
Executive Function Training predictable order and training that involves the same two tasks
but practiced in single blocks or sessions where no shift or
While WM is considered a higher-order executive function in switch must occur (Minear and Shah 2008). This rigorous
many influential models, training WM has received more at- design allows for strong conclusions on the effects of training
tention than all other forms of executive function training the skill of shifting specifically. There is substantial evidence
combined. Here, we will briefly review the state of the training for the successful improvement of shifting following this type
literature for executive functions other than WM that have not of training in a range of populations, including older adults
yet been covered. Different theories propose different catego- (for a meta-analysis, see Karbach and Verhaeghen 2014), chil-
ries of executive functions, but here we will adhere to the dren and adolescents (for a review, see Karbach and Unger
theory put forth by Miyake et al. (2000). Thus, we will con- 2014), and in individuals with ADHD (Kray et al. 2011).
sider WM or Bupdating^ as already discussed above and con- These findings typically involve practice effects, whereby
tinue our discussion focused on the remaining two functions: the cost shifting between tasks is reduced as training pro-
shifting and inhibition. Although there is also a burgeoning gresses. However, there is also promising evidence for near
literature on training of dual task performance, we will not transfer following shifting training, whereby training on one
include this topic here as it was not identified as one of the shifting task also reduced switch or shift costs in an untrained
three core components of executive function by Miyake and task (Blacker et al. 2017; Karbach and Kray 2009; Minear and
colleagues (however, for a review on dual task training see, Shah 2008). For example, after 4 weeks of training on an
Strobach et al. 2014). Finally, we will review of a specific adaptive, rapid rule learning and switching task, participants
form of inhibition training that may be particularly relevant saw a significant reduction in switch costs on an untrained
to the military, response inhibition training. These different task that used distinct stimuli, compared to two active control
forms of executive function training may represent an un- groups that completed four weeks of WM training (Blacker
tapped potential for improving human performance in the mil- et al. 2017). Thus, training shifting through action video
itary. Notably, these executive functions control one’s behav- games or directed training seems to produce robust and con-
ior when performing in demanding and/or complex situations sistent practice and near transfer effects that may be useful to
in which the management of different tasks or task sequences military personnel who are consistently placed in environ-
is required. ments that require rapid and numerous shifts between key
operational tasks.
Shifting Mental set shifting or task switching involves
switching back and forth between multiple discrete tasks, op- Inhibition Inhibition or inhibitory control refers to the ability
erations, or mental sets (Monsell 2003). Throughout this re- to deliberately inhibit or stop a dominant, automatic, or pre-
view, we will simply refer to this function as Bshifting.^ potent response (e.g., Hallett 1978; Logan 1994; Stroop
Shifting is a critical skill for service members, particularly 1935). In the basic science realm, tasks that are often used to
those in an infantry or maneuver role. Some examples of this measure inhibition broadly include go/no-go (GNG), stop sig-
are first line leaders coordinating movements, a forward ob- nal reaction time (SSRT), flanker tasks, and Stroop tasks.
server calling for artillery support, or a combat medic render- Fratricide, or Bblue on blue^ incidents, is one readily apparent
ing aid. These individuals must be able to not only perform military implication for this category of executive functioning.
these specialized roles but to also shift their focus to another Interestingly, despite tremendous advances in military tech-
task—such as someone calling in for artillery support may nology, the rate of these incidents has increased since WW2
need to return small arms fire until the artillery strike is com- (Rasmussen 2007). Even as individual weapons systems be-
pleted. This type of shifting may occur dozens or even hun- come more advanced and more effective, they are still ma-
dreds of times during a prolonged engagement with the chines that lack the ability to discern or discriminate between
enemy. targets. Ultimately, the role and efficacy of the weapon relies
Two major approaches have been used in the training of on decisions made by the individual employing it. With that in
shifting in basic science: video game training and direct mind, the most effective way to mitigate fratricide seems to be
 J Cogn Enhanc

increasing the individual performance of military operators as but the converse was also supported whereby participants re-
it pertains to their ability to make accurate friend or foe deci- ported drinking more following training that involved a go
sions. Importantly, recent research suggests that a lack of in- responses to photos of alcohol (Houben et al. 2011).
hibitory control may contribute to friendly-fire or other inci- The SSRT task differs from a traditional GNG task in that
dents of unintended casualties (Biggs et al. 2015; Wilson et al. every trial begins with a go signal and may or may not change
2015). This important issue for military personnel makes the to a stop signal at a variable duration. This stop signal delay
possibility of improving inhibitory control via training an ex- varies based on an individual’s performance and allows for an
citing avenue for exploration. individualized measure of how long it takes for one to stop an
Studies examining inhibitory control training are scarce initiated response. This type of task has also been used as a
and mostly done in young children. For example, Thorell training paradigm with the goal of improving inhibitory
et al. (2009) trained preschoolers on three different inhibition control. However, Allom and Mullan (2015) were unsuccess-
tasks (i.e., GNG, SSRT, and a flanker task) and found signif- ful in producing a difference in eating behavior for a food-
icant practice effects on two of the three training tasks, but specific stimuli condition. Likewise, Jones and Field (2013),
found no evidence of near transfer to untrained inhibition when using photos of beer, showed no difference in consump-
tasks. On the other hand, an earlier study of inhibitory control tion rate for heavy drinkers. Guerrieri et al. (2012) adjusted the
training in 4–6 year olds found that training yielded far trans- SSRT to compare different proportions of go and stop trials
fer to a matrix reasoning test that is thought to measure Gf and the results indicated no change in caloric intake for the
(Rueda et al. 2005). Further, studies with younger and older inhibitory (more no-go stimuli) group, but resulted in an in-
adults have typically involved training on a Stroop task, which crease in intake for the impulsivity (more go stimuli) group.
a body of work has demonstrated that training results in prac- As such, it is possible that inhibition training from the SSRT
tice effects whereby response times (RT) are reduced for in- task does not apply well to a stimulus-specific training design
congruent trials, effectively decreasing the magnitude of the such as reducing consumption behaviors.
interference effect (i.e., incongruent RT–congruent RT; Verbruggen and Logan (2008) argued against distinct func-
reviewed in Strobach et al. 2014). However, evidence for tionality of cognitive tasks attributed to top-down inhibition
transfer tends to be non-existent or highly stimulus-specific (SSRT) and bottom-up control (GNG) respectively, and others
(e.g., Reisberg et al. 1980). While this area of research does have suggested that combinations of training might work best
not provide many leads in the effective use of inhibitory train- (Jones and Field 2013). In general, there seems to be a con-
ing in applied settings, there is a related but notably distinct sensus that inhibition training using stimuli associated directly
area of research that specifically examines response inhibition with the targeted inhibitory action elicits better results than
training as it relates to appetitive stimuli such as unhealthy using general stimuli. Although the SSRT obtains a measure
foods, alcohol, and drugs. of individual differences in stopping time, the GNG task has
yielded more consistent results in training inhibition.
Response Inhibition Training Response inhibition training Indeed, at least one recent training study has directly ex-
techniques include cognitive tasks that require a stopping ac- amined the effects of inhibitory training on an operationally
tion or elicit an avoidance response. This approach is frequent- relevant issue—specifically, shoot/do not-shoot performance.
ly used for intervention with individuals exhibiting overindul- Using a simulated shoot/do not-shoot scenario via a video
gence and impulsive behaviors such as those struggling with game, Biggs et al. (2015) tested participants’ performance
obesity and/or addiction. GNG and SSRT paradigms are ex- before and after response-inhibition training (i.e., GNG and
amples that have been used for this form of response inhibi- SSRT tasks) or a visual search training paradigm. The re-
tion training. A common strategy is to use cue-specific stimuli, sponse inhibition training group showed a significant reduc-
such as pictures of snack foods for those dieting or photos of tion in civilian casualties post-training compared to the active
glasses of beer for those attempting to control drinking. control group (i.e., visual search training). Moreover, these
The GNG task, when designed to include stimulus-specific findings have been replicated—albeit using a different train-
stopping responses, has shown to be effective in dietary inhi- ing design—by having trained police officers fire live ammu-
bition treatment for decreasing chocolate intake (Houben and nition at images holding either guns or cell phones (Hamilton
Jansen 2011, 2015), decreasing portion sizes (van et al., under review). Both training studies demonstrated sig-
Koningsbruggen et al. 2014), resisting unhealthy foods nificant improvement in shoot/do not-shoot decision making
(Veling et al. 2013), devaluation of food items (Chen et al. through inhibitory control training, and each did so with vary-
2016), decreasing food intake (Lawrence et al. 2015), as well ing degrees of realism in the shooting tasks.
as overall weight loss (Veling et al. 2014). Further, similar These findings are potentially relevant to military person-
efforts have demonstrated that alcohol intake can be reduced nel when engaged in room clearing. As mentioned previously,
with a GNG task modified to include a no-go response to room clearing is one of the most dangerous and dynamic tasks
photos of alcohol (Houben et al. 2012; Houben et al. 2011), that a soldier can participate in and is often unavoidable in
J Cogn Enhanc

urban warfare. Perhaps unsurprisingly, in an urban the consequence of wasted training opportunities is that a less-
environment, the most dangerous areas are generally those er prepared unit could mean increased battlefield casualties.
that are more densely populated by enemy fighters. The grave importance of these field applications makes it nec-
However, the enemy fighters themselves are not the only essary to consider all potential aspects of cognitive training so
risk. Research done by Wilson et al. (2015) suggests that this that the eventual training opportunities provided to military
type of Btarget rich^ environment can also lead to a prepotent personnel will fully prepare them for the challenges to be
response to fire that is very difficult to inhibit. Obviously, faced.
failure to withhold an inappropriate response (such as firing Here, following the suggestions of Simons et al. (2016) and
at friendly personnel) places coalition forces at great risk to other cognitive scientists, we outline what we view as the most
one another. In Wilson and colleagues’ study, increased speed critical best practices for military researchers investigating po-
and high proportions of foe targets during friend-foe room tential cognitive training uses to improve human performance.
clearing tasks had a significant, negative impact on perfor- We also describe some salient individual differences that may
mance. This issue is of particular concern when enemy com- influence training efficacy especially in a military population
batants may be mixed among civilian non-combatants and such as baseline performance and motivation. These discus-
other friendly forces. Friend-or-foe or shoot/do not-shoot sions will also address the advantages of using each method to
training research among military populations is scarce. evaluate cognitive training for military purposes, and potential
Given the urban nature of modern warfare combined with workarounds for those instances when the best empirical con-
constant increases in weapon lethality, it is more important trols cannot be implemented. Finally, we end this section with
than ever that soldiers are equipped to mitigate collateral dam- a brief description of methods that may be able to boost the
age and friendly fire incidents. Response inhibition training, effects of traditional cognitive training approaches.
like that used by Biggs et al. (2015), may represent a viable
method for improving friend-foe decision making in room Control Groups and Expectations
clearing scenarios often encountered in urban warfare. With
these ideas in mind, it is critical that research into cognitive Standard cognitive training designs need to differentiate be-
training application in the military build on the existing basic tween simple practice or placebo effects and tangible improve-
science and utilize the best practices for experimental design ments due to cognitive enhancement. Military training bene-
and evaluation of training efficacy. fits are no different—particularly if one objective is to deter-
mine whether the finding involves only a practice effect, or a
sufficient warfighter performance improvement to justify sig-
Practical Considerations for Military nificant military investment. Adequate control groups are one
Application critical step to evaluation of training efficacy. Control groups
are generally approached one of two ways: passive or active
Thus far in this review, we have detailed many potential areas control groups. In passive control designs, the control group
of cognitive training that might be useful for military applica- does not receive any training and generally does not have any
tion. The ultimate goal involves improving warfighter perfor- contact with the experimenters. For example, participants
mance, but doing so requires rigorous experimental design might not be contacted during the data collection period, or
and evaluation of efficacy. In a recent thorough review of they may be told that they are on a waitlist and will receive
the cognitive training literature, Simons et al. (2016) included training when it becomes available. While these designs pro-
several best practices or suggestions for conducting and eval- vide a comparison group to detect any effects of test-retest
uating cognitive training research for researchers, reviewers, practice effects or the passage of time, they do not equate
policymakers, and funding agencies. However, the goals of contact with the experimenters or the expectations of the two
the military are often different from those of basic scientists groups. Simply participating in some form of training may
in academia or individuals working in for-profit commercial cause the experimental group to expect that they should see
or industrial settings. There are also numerous practical con- an improvement in performance, much like a placebo.
siderations when evaluating cognitive training or Active control groups are one way to better match the
implementing cognitive training designs into active duty mil- groups’ expectations. In these designs, the control group per-
itary training. Under normal circumstances, cognitive training forms a similar task as the experimental group but without the
for clinical issues can be carefully designed and controlled critical component of the training. Active control groups come
when administered to a clinical population. An ineffective in several forms. Two groups may receive identical training
training method primarily risks wasting time. For military tasks, but the experimental group will experience adaptive
training, especially as far as combat training is concerned, training that gradually gets more difficult, whereas the active
there are rigorous schedules to consider and wasted time could control group will perform the same task at the same (easy)
mean wasted alternative training opportunities—in combat, difficulty level throughout training. As an example, a task that
 J Cogn Enhanc

trains visual search might present increasingly difficult arrays either suggestive content (e.g., referred to Bcognitive
as a participant improves (e.g., more distractor objects, in- enhancement^ and Bfluid intelligence^) or neutral content
creased spatial jitter). The active control group would perform (e.g., BParticipate in a study^) and then received the same
the same task for the same amount of time but without any training on a dual n-back task. Those who responded to the
increase in difficulty. Another approach is to have an active suggestive flyer showed a significant improvement on two
control group that trains on a similar task that simply lacks the measures of Gf, but those who responded to the neutral flyer
critical Bingredient(s)^ thought to drive the experimental train- did not (Foroughi et al. 2016). These points may be particu-
ing. An example of this approach comes from the video game larly salient when using a military population who may have
training literature. It has been proposed that action video game very specific and deep-rooted expectations about their train-
training improves visual cognitive skills at least in part be- ing—be it cognitive, or otherwise. Our recommendation for
cause of the fast-paced nature of the games and the use of best dealing with expectations in a military population is two-
first-person perspective. For example, a typical study might fold: (1) when possible, record subjective measures of expec-
compare training on an action game that is fast-paced and tations before and after training has occurred as basic scientists
first-person perspective with a strategy game that is slower are starting to do in laboratory-based cognitive training, and
paced and third-person perspective. Use of active control (2) attempt to maintain similar expectations for cognitive
groups helps to equate participants’ expectations about the training as a service member would have when completing
outcome of training, as well as the amount of contact partici- any other required training (e.g., physical training, marksman-
pants have with experimenters. This type of design is partic- ship training, etc.).
ularly useful in elucidating mechanistic features of training
paradigms in elicited transfer. A final approach is to choose Blinding
an active control training program that is expected to improve
a different set of skills. For example, a WM training group The gold-standard approach in intervention research is to uti-
would be expected to improve on an untrained WM task, lize a double-blind study design, which involves having both
whereas a task shifting training group, the active control, the participants and the experimenters unaware of what con-
would not be expected to improve on the WM task. dition or training group each participant is enrolled. However,
Similarly, in the same design, the task shifting training group in cognitive training research, it is not possible to completely
would be expected to improve on an untrained shifting task, blind a participant to their training because they are actively
whereas the WM training group would not be expected to engaged in it and therefore know what it entails. While a drug
improve (for an example of these results, see Blacker et al. study can give a participant a pill and keep them unaware
2017). This type of outcome allows for a robust interpretation whether it is an active dose or a sugar pill, cognitive training
of the results that reduce the possibility of external effects like research does not allow this level of blinding. Thus, it is pru-
expectations and practice effects. We would argue that this dent for experimenters to be blind to group assignment in
design is most effective at evaluating training efficacy and order to ensure equal treatment and reduce any potential de-
therefore is most suitable for military research, which focuses mand characteristics. On the participant’s end, it is possible to
on outcome more often than mechanism. This design also has ensure that any one participant is at least unaware of the alter-
the potential to test two distinct forms of training with two native training program being used and if possible, unaware
distinct operationally-relevant outcomes in one single study, that there is any other training group.
thus conserving military personnel’s time and research funds. In a military setting, this is particularly relevant because if a
As cognitive training continues to pervade public aware- training study is implemented within a unit or group of service
ness, the need to control for and be aware of the effects of members that work closely together, it may be tempting for
expectations becomes critical. One recent study related to vid- individuals to discuss their training with other members of the
eo game training required participants to view clips of two group, which can undermine the blinding procedure. Military
video games, one game that is typically used as an experimen- participants should be given strict instructions to not discuss
tal training game (e.g., an action game) and the other a typical their study participation or the nature of their training with
control training game (e.g., a non-action game). Even after a other members of the group until everyone has completed
relatively short exposure, people expected differences in per- the study. Still, the assumption should be that all training par-
formance on measures of visual attention following training ticipants will be discussing the training despite experimenter
on each of the two types of games (Boot et al. 2013). While instructions. One important workaround may be to use units
the action video game training literature is lauded for its rig- from different bases—but with the same basic training—when
orous use of active control groups, expectations remain an comparing active and control groups. The point is that some
important area to be explored. A related point is that the way further consideration will be necessary to ensure that partici-
participants are recruited may also effect expectations. For pants are not discussing study procedures. Finally, one recom-
example, two groups were recruited with flyers that contained mendation that can alleviate the lack of blinding of
J Cogn Enhanc

participants in cognitive training studies is to assess expecta- complicate training designs, and even placebo effects may
tions whenever possible (Boot et al. 2013). If a full blinding have significant value if those effects can be sustained.
procedure is not possible, then expectations management be- Our suggestion for achieving adequate sample sizes when
comes the next reasonable mitigation technique. addressing operationally relevant questions about training ef-
ficacy is two-fold. First, if care is taken to equate experimental
Randomization and Sample Size procedures across locations and times, then multiple units can
be tested. This may involve using separate groups of individ-
Random assignment is imperative for a controlled design. uals who rotate through a training facility and collecting data
Each individual enrolled in a training study should have an over multiple time periods. It also may involve recruiting vol-
equally likely chance of being assigned to any one training unteers from disparate military groups, including all branches
group in that study. One goal of randomization is to ensure of the military, both standard operators and special forces. A
that all training groups have equivalent baseline performance. second recommendation is to consider non-military popula-
Acquiring a large sample size increases the effectiveness of tions that often engage in the same task of interest. For exam-
this procedure. The military has the benefit of utilizing collab- ple, in studying lethal force decision making, a law-
oration of research units if only small samples are available at enforcement group could be used in addition to a military
each location. Further, when multiple locations are being used group. Furthermore, groups such as air traffic controllers or
to achieve a larger sample size, every effort should be made to commercial airline pilots may have overlapping duties with
equate study procedures and expectations across locations and those of interest to military operations.
testing site should always be included as a covariate in any
analyses. When selecting a sample size, it is important to Outcome Measures and Multiple Comparisons
consider the number of measures implemented so that after
correcting for multiple outcomes there is sufficient statistical The outcome measures utilized by military researchers may be
power to observe the expected effect size. very different from those used by basic scientists. For exam-
Still, several practical challenges exist with respect to sam- ple, a study may include a form of neurofeedback training to
ple size and expectations. It is a defining aspect of elite forces improve a pilot’s ability to identify symptoms of hypoxia dur-
that there are fewer elite operators than regular operators. For ing flight. This type of outcome measure is very different than
example, an infantry unit may have sufficient numbers to pro- assessing improvement on a computer-based n-back task fol-
vide training groups and control groups, but a special opera- lowing WM training. However, some of the same principles
tions unit may not have the sample sizes necessary unless apply to these real-world outcome measures. Outcome mea-
every member of the unit agrees to participate in training. In sures should be reliable, meaning that if you test someone on
these instances, the population itself might be an issue to con- that measure multiple times, the end results should be compa-
sider—where both groups receive the same training, but one rable. In the example here, hypoxia symptoms are known to
group includes special operations personnel, and one group be reliable, meaning that each individual tends to experience
includes regular infantry personnel. The critical issue is that an the same symptoms each time they are hypoxic (i.e., a hypoxia
experimenter simply may not be able to design a fully double- signature). While there is wide inter-individual variability in
blind, randomized-controlled design with limited numbers of symptoms, intra-individual differences are small, making it a
potential participants with results that may or may not apply to reliable outcome measure to study in a training study (Singh
operators outside of special forces. Likewise, expectations et al. 2010; Smith 2008). The improvement tasks should in-
management is a critical consideration about how individuals corporate some operational aspect to gauge the training effec-
regard the training and how experimenters interpret the value tiveness. For example, some assessments may include pure
of said training. For example, a cognitive training design may cognitive tasks to assess changes in the underlying cognitive
induce nothing more than a placebo effect that improves con- mechanism, but these tasks should be paired with operation-
fidence among personnel and improves post-test performance. ally relevant tasks based upon the intended field improvement.
This outcome would lead many cognitive scientists to dismiss Cognitive training to improve RTs may then want to include
the training as nothing important or valuable, yet for military simple vigilance task measurements as well as marksmanship
purposes, a sustainable and repeatable placebo effect could tasks to determine the time needed to fire the first shot. This
prove invaluable. The difference again becomes an emphasis operational link will improve any evaluation of the training
on the end state performance. The goal is to improve human efficacy and help training officers make determinations about
performance, and even training that merely improves confi- when and how to utilize these training opportunities. One
dence could be of substantial use in military training. Whether concrete suggestion for choosing appropriate training tasks
sample size issues or expectations management, it is important that are likely to improve the specific outcome measure of
to remember that operational circumstances may prevent a interest is using a task analysis approach, as detailed above.
perfectly designed training experiment, sample sizes may Consulting SMEs and breaking down a complex outcome
 J Cogn Enhanc

measure into its constituent tasks or jobs is a recommended toward how wide a particular training can be administered.
first step for applied researchers. Likewise, there could be issues of homogeneity with certain
The use of multiple outcome measures is also an issue that populations. The particular concern here is among special op-
needs to be taken into consideration. Some researchers argue erations forces, where the requirements become so extreme
that cognitive training outcomes should be evaluated at the that individual skills and competencies are more homogenous
construct level, where multiple tests of one cognitive construct than among the general military population. However, the
should be used. For example, instead of simply administering corresponding advantage is that training can be tailored to
Raven’s Progressive Matrices before and after a training inter- specific populations if special operations personnel are the
vention, a study should administer multiple tests all thought to intended training recipients.
assess Gf, and then the outcome should be evaluated for the
construct of Gf, not the individual tests (Shipstead et al. 2012). Baseline Performance Baseline performance is likely the area
While this may be a robust approach to elucidating mecha- that has received the most attention in cognitive training be-
nism and degree of transfer, this approach does not fit partic- cause it can be investigated without any additions to the typ-
ularly well with the goals of military research. It may be useful ical study design. In a cognitive training study, individuals
to evaluate a specific training paradigm on multiple measures perform an assessment task or often a battery of tasks before
of operational readiness, such as friend-or-foe shooting per- training, then train for a period of time, and then are re-tested
formance, marksmanship, and performance in prolonged on those assessment tasks to look for improvement. However,
room clearing simulations, but these measures are distinct there is great individual variation at baseline before training
from looking at construct level transfer in basic science. One begins (e.g., Blacker et al. 2017; Jaeggi et al. 2014). Let us
consideration that military researchers should note is the need consider a typical WM training study that measures Gf as a
to correct for multiple comparisons when using multiple out- transfer measure to illustrate two influences of baseline per-
come measures. While military outcomes tend to be more formance. There are at least two possible scenarios for seeing
specific, it is still possible that multiple outcome measures will improvement following training: magnification or compensa-
be tested. Given this stringent need to correct for multiple tion. Magnification is often conceptualized as the Brich get
outcome measures, these measures should be chosen carefully richer^ outcome, whereby individuals who have higher initial
based on operational relevance and reliability of the measure. Gf scores will show the most improvement following training
(assuming they are not at or near ceiling during baseline as-
Individual Differences sessment). The notion here is that individuals with more re-
sources will either learn more or learn more quickly during
The current approach used in the cognitive training field is to training, thereby magnifying the effects of training. For exam-
implement a Bone-size-fits-all^ training program and have a ple, in a study with older adults using WM training paired with
sizable group of participants train on that program, and then transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), there was evi-
compare group level improvement pre- and post-training com- dence that more educated participants experienced greater
pared to an active control group. However, as this review and benefits from training and brain stimulation than those with
others have detailed, these results can be inconsistent or weak. less education (Berryhill and Jones 2012).
These shortcomings have initiated a recent turn toward under- On the other hand, compensation represents a scenario
standing individual-level effects and responsivity to training. where individuals with lower initial Gf show greater improve-
As with physical exercise, psychotherapy, or any other formal ments because they have more Broom to improve.^ Indeed,
intervention, it may be unreasonable to expect that every in- several studies have shown evidence for compensation, such
dividual will respond in the same way to a cognitive training as two studies by Zinke and colleagues demonstrating that
intervention. Indeed, there is a rich literature spanning multi- individuals who performed worse at baseline across multiple
ple decades focusing on individual differences in a number of training paradigms experienced larger training gains on the
cognitive functions like WM, attention, and cognitive control training tasks themselves (Zinke et al. 2012; Zinke et al.
(e.g., Braver et al. 2007; Cantor and Engle 1993; Daneman 2014). Similarly, multiple studies have shown that the amount
and Carpenter 1980; Machizawa and Driver 2011; Shamosh of improvement on the training task itself is related to the
et al. 2008; Tuholski et al. 2001; Vogel et al. 2005). Thus, amount of transfer gains seen following training (Chein and
individual differences like baseline performance, motivation, Morrison 2010; Jaeggi et al. 2011; Schmiedek et al. 2010).
and expectations may be key to applying cognitive training in However, none of these studies directly tested or manipulated
the real world. The individual differences consideration is es- how baseline performance on an untrained task influences
pecially important when considering the wide array of training training transfer. Blacker et al. (2017) found that low WM
needs of military missions. Drone operators have different individuals, as measured by a pre-training untrained n-back
training needs from combat medics and front line infantry. task, improved more following training on that same task fol-
Differences between roles should be considered with an eye lowing both dual n-back training and complex span training,
J Cogn Enhanc

compared to their high WM counterparts. On the other hand, Sager et al. 1997). However, a hurdle to implementing the
Foster and colleagues recently showed that individuals with MCt was that one of the requirements of the ASVAB is that
high WM at baseline showed greater gains from training com- any assessment that is included must not be susceptible to
pared to their low WM counterparts (Foster et al. 2017). These cheating, compromise, practice, or coaching. As we have de-
opposite findings may result from differences in study popu- tailed in this review, there are numerous methods for improv-
lations (e.g., where the study was conducted, whether all un- ing WM skills through practice and training. To date, the MCt
dergraduates were used, age of the sample). Finally, there is has been included in the ASVAB, but only for Navy appli-
evidence that the type of training used matters, whereby cants. The state of the ASVAB and its inclusion/exclusion of
process-based training results in greater gains for individuals measures of fluid cognitive skills have the potential to change
with lower initial performance, but strategy-based training re- personnel selection criteria and ultimately the applicability of
sults in greater gains for individuals with higher initial perfor- cognitive training for specific jobs within the military.
mance (Karbach and Unger 2014). These findings suggest that Baseline performance levels can influence training outcome
baseline performance can have a wide range of effects on the and further work into their effects would benefit from more
outcome of training. nuanced methods of personnel selection criteria.
This issue is particularly salient in a general military pop- Both magnification and compensation represent important
ulation, which is more diverse than the typical university un- considerations in cognitive training, and either could have
dergraduate sample. For example, the first formal requirement military use. Magnification could mean that special operations
for applying to enlist is to complete the Armed Forces personnel are the ideal recipients of the training.
Qualification Test (AFQT), which is comprised of four tests Compensation could mean that cognitive training is a poten-
from the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery tial method to prevent individuals from washing out during
(ASVAB), including Arithmetic Reasoning, Mathematics training (i.e., failing to complete the necessary training re-
K n o w l e d g e , Wo r d K n o w l e d g e , a n d P a r a g r a p h quirements). Either could create useful training opportunities,
Comprehension. The ASVAB was renormalized in 2004 but each potential would alter the manner in which the training
(Moore et al. 2000) and the minimum percentile score needed opportunities are provided. A hybrid possibility is that cogni-
to enlist is a 31 (Chu 2007). However, there are exceptions, tive training could help individuals who may want to become
whereby individuals who score between the 10th and 30th special operators, but they may narrowly fail a particular train-
percentile may be admitted if they have completed a high ing requirement. This possibility is especially important given
school diploma. All of this is to say that any particular military the high costs involved in selecting and training special oper-
sample recruited for a cognitive training study could poten- ators and the operational value they bring to ongoing military
tially span 90% of the population as it relates to performance operations. For example, consider a special operations group,
on this standardized test, which we would speculate encom- like the U.S. Navy SEALs. Like other special operations
passes a much larger range of cognitive skills than a typical groups, they substantially contribute to operational efficiency
academic study conducted on undergraduate students. of the military, but among those individuals who qualify to
Further, it has been suggested that the ASVAB is largely a train as a SEAL, fewer than one in five complete the training
measure of crystallized intelligence and that the battery would (Waller 1994). If cognitive training can help reduce the attri-
benefit from the addition of tests that tap into Gf and/or WM tion rate, then it could prove to be an invaluable asset to spe-
(National Research Council 2015). The ASVAB also serves as cial operations training.
a method for personnel selection for specific jobs. For exam- In sum, the variability in individual differences in cognitive
ple, there is evidence that WM capacity and multitasking abil- ability in a military population is bound to be greater than that
ity are linked (Redick 2016) and thus jobs that require multi- of a typical university sample. Given this consideration, re-
tasking may benefit from a measure of WM capacity as a search into cognitive training effectiveness in military popu-
means of personnel selection. One such attempt to broaden lations should consider both group-level and individual-level
the scope of skills assessed in military personnel was the de- analysis approaches. While group-level improvements may be
velopment of the Enhanced Computer-Administered Test of greater interest to the military, identifying individual factors
(ECAT) battery, which aimed to improve the validity of the that interact with training may allow for personnel selection
ASVAB. The ECAT is comprised of nine tests designed to criteria and further refinement of training for specific sub-
measure non-verbal reasoning, spatial ability, psychomotor groups of service members.
skill, and perceptual speed (Alderton et al. 1997). One such
measure, the Mental Counters test (MCt), was accepted for Motivation Potentially one of the most salient factors to con-
possible inclusion in the ASVAB with the goal of increasing sider when applying cognitive training to a military popula-
the validity of predictors for military occupations and mini- tion are contextual factors such as compliance, motivation,
mizing minority difference in testing performance (Alderton and expectations about outcome or efficacy of training. The
et al. 1997; Larson and Saccuzzo 1989; Russell et al. 2014; types of real-world tasks that military personnel encounter
 J Cogn Enhanc

often have life or death consequences. This fact along with the non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, neurofeedback,
mandated nature of military training make it likely that moti- and pharmacological interventions may boost the effects of
vation and compliance may be much higher than a typical cognitive training. While an extensive review of each of these
study in an academic setting. However, there are still several topics is beyond the scope of this review, we will briefly dis-
factors to consider such as beliefs about the flexibility of cog- cuss these three methods for enhancing the effects of cognitive
nition and expectations about whether training will benefit training and point the reader toward more topic-specific
real-world performance. For example, Jaeggi et al. (2014) literature.
found that individuals who endorsed the malleability of intel- Each of the following methods can be used in conjunction
ligence showed more transfer to Gf following WM training with cognitive training in an attempt to boost or enhance the
compared to individuals who endorsed the fixed nature of efficacy of cognitive training or to speed up the learning pro-
intelligence. cess. First, the most common form of non-invasive brain stim-
Motivation certainly impacts military training efficacy, but ulation that has been used in this capacity is transcranial direct
similar to the magnification and compensation issues, motiva- current stimulation (tDCS), which involves passing a small
tion challenges may differ based upon the personnel involved. electrical current through the scalp that alters the resting state
The motivation challenges may also differ from standard cog- of underlying neural populations (Nitsche and Paulus 2000,
nitive training investigations. It may be necessary to incorpo- 2001; Stagg and Nitsche 2011). Pairing tDCS with cognitive
rate cognitive training into other training (e.g., physical train- training has been shown to be effective in a number of cogni-
ing) to either increase motivation to train, increase transfer tive domains (for reviews see, Berryhill et al. 2014; Kuo and
effects, or ensure that the training itself is completed on a Nitsche 2012; Parkin et al. 2015). Second, neurofeedback has
regular basis. A larger issue involves how any cognitive train- also been used in conjunction with training, whereby individ-
ing would be implemented on a long-term basis, particularly if uals learn to control their own brain activity via systematic
any training is to be done during deployments. For example, feedback regarding their own internal states (Sherlin et al.
motivation is a challenge when trying to have any population 2011). This approach is most commonly done using EEG
complete computer-based training (Mohammed et al. 2017). paired with a variety of cognitive training tasks including de-
Different platforms use gamification to increase motivation clarative learning, episodic memory retrieval, mental rotation,
and willingness to engage in the training tasks (Deveau et al. and others (e.g., Enriquez-Geppert et al. 2014; Gruzelier 2014;
2015). During a military deployment, increased stress and Hanslmayr et al. 2005; Hoedlmoser et al. 2008; Keizer et al.
workload are likely to lower an individual’s motivation to do 2010; Klimesch et al. 2005; Zoefel et al. 2011). Finally, efforts
even more training, particularly if the task is boring. have been made to boost the effects of cognitive training with
Gamification may be one method to increase motivation to pharmacological interventions. For example, drugs such as
engage in the training tasks when individual willingness to Ritalin (e.g. Agay et al. 2010) or Modafanil (e.g., Battleday
participate is especially likely to wane (Deveau et al. 2015; and Brem 2015; Gilleen et al. 2014), and the amino acid ty-
Mohammed et al. 2017). rosine (Jongkees et al. 2015) have all been shown to enhance
the effects of cognition and cognitive training, specifically.
Methods for Boosting Cognitive Training These enhancing methods may be of particular interest to
military application insofar as they may allow for faster or
Two major limitations have blocked the immediate applica- more effective results following cognitive training.
tion of cognitive training in real-world settings: inconsistent
findings and small effects. Here, we have addressed some of
the inconsistencies, which primarily surround the potential of
training to elicit far transfer, such as improving Gf. Instead, we Conclusions
have focused on the mostly consistent effects of training on
near transfer because near transfer represents a sufficient out- As modern warfare continues to evolve and change with the
come for a real-world application like human performance in advent of new technological, biological, and nuclear threats,
military operations. However, the second limiting factor of one aspect of military performance persists: the ability of our
small effect sizes plagues both near and far transfer attempts service members to perform their operational tasks under a
alike. While improvements on untrained WM tasks following myriad of circumstances is critical. While technological ad-
WM training are consistently demonstrated, the degree or size vances now may allow for us to send in a drone instead of a
of improvement may not be meaningful in the real world. manned-aircraft, that drone still requires a human operator.
Interestingly, there have been several other areas of research The foreseeable future still has human performance as a key
that have tested alternative methods for improving cognitive element for military effectiveness and as new threats arise, our
function that may be able to be combined with cognitive train- service members will be asked to juggle increasing cognitive
ing to produce meaningful advances. There is evidence that demands in a variety of operational settings. Cognitive
J Cogn Enhanc

training may represent an exciting future step for improving recommendations provide a practical approach that can be
operational readiness and effectiveness in our military used to drive efforts forward in testing and implementing cog-
personnel. nitive training for military application.
To date, the majority of cognitive training research has The notion that we might be able to improve human cog-
been centered in basic science settings in academia, or in nition through training is not a novel idea that arose in the
for-profit settings like commercial brain training. As we de- twenty-first century. At least as long as modern psychology
tailed in this review, lessons can be learned from both of these has existed, the idea has been discussed and empirically test-
settings and can be harnessed to begin to develop an area of ed. However, the modern era of cognitive training research
applied research. A key factor to keep in mind is that the goals has built to a point where application may now be a reasonable
of the military differ greatly from those of academic or com- expectation. Military application in particular has great poten-
mercial entities. Military research is often focused on tial to not only improve the performance of our service mem-
outcome-based measures and improving warfighter perfor- bers but also to test the bounds of how far these skills can be
mance. For this reason, we have argued that many of the improved. The parallel investigation of basic questions about
instances of near transfer in the cognitive training literature the mechanisms driving cognitive training effects and the ap-
may be of great value to military application. Near transfer plied questions of how far cognitive performance can be en-
has received very little attention in basic science, likely be- hanced is likely to move the field forward in a fast-paced and
cause of the heightened focus and controversy surrounding far exciting way.
transfer results. However, when performance outcomes be-
come the key measure of training success, near transfer has
Acknowledgements The views expressed in this article are those of the
the potential to be a very powerful tool. author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the
Here, we have made several concrete suggestions that will Department of the Navy, Department of Defense, nor the U.S.
be critical in translating basic science into military application, Government.
as it relates to cognitive training interventions. First, the use of
Funding This work was supported by an Office of Naval Research award
active control groups can have two important implications: (1) H1602 to ATB.
an active control group provides a rigorous and acceptable
control by which to compare effects in the experimental group Compliance with Ethical Standards
and (2) if a second training effort is used as the active control,
two distinct training programs can be tested simultaneously in Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
the same study preserving military personnel’s time and re- interest.
sources. Second, the role of expectations in cognitive training
has been receiving much attention and is particularly salient in Copyright Statement LT Adam T. Biggs is a military service member.
This work was prepared as part of his official duties. Title 17 U.S.C. §105
a military population who may hold very firm beliefs about provides that BCopyright protection under this title is not available for any
the nature of their physical and mental training. We recom- work of the United States Government.^ Title 17 U.S.C. §101 defines a
mend that all training evaluations include measures of expec- U.S. Government work as a work prepared by a military service member
tations (i.e., what expectation(s) does a participant enter a or employee of the U.S. Government as part of that person’s official
duties.
study with and how does that change, if at all, through the
course of the training intervention). Third, given the close
interaction of military personnel who are likely to be enrolled
in the same training study, strict instructions should be given
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