4

SEPARATION AND
PROCESSING

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Some accumulations furnish natural gas of very high purity (almost

methane, CH4). Natural gases of this composition do not require any
processing; they only require a dehydration treatment before being
conveyed to the transportation pipeline. Hydrocarbon streams as
produced from other reservoirs are complex mixtures of hundreds of
different compounds. A typical wellstream is a high velocity, turbulent,
constantly expanding mixture of gases and hydrocarbon liquids,
intimately mixed with water vapor, free water, solids, and other
contaminants. As it flows from the hot, high-pressure petroleum reservoir,
the wellstream undergoes continuous pressure and temperature
reduction. Gases evolve from the liquids, water vapor condenses, and
some of the wellstream changes in character from liquid to bubbles,
mist, and free gas. The high-velocity gas carries liquid droplets, and the
.liquid carries gas bubbles.
In most cases, the gas, liquid hydrocarbons, and free water should be
separated as soon as possible after bringing them to the surface; these
phases should be handled and transported separately. This separation
 Gas and Liquid Separation 107

of liquids from the gas phase is accomplished by passing the wellstream

through an oil-gas or oil-gas-water separator.
Field processing simply removes undesirable components and
separates the wellstream into salable gas and hydrocarbon liquids,
recovering the maximum amounts of each at the lowest possible overall
cost. Field processing of natural gas consists of four basic processes:
1. Separation of the gas from free liquids such as crude oil,
hydrocarbon condensate, water, and entrained solids.
2. Processing the gas to remove condensable and recoverable
hydrocarbon vapors.
3. Processing the gas to remove condensable water vapor which,
under certain conditions, might cause hydrate formation.
4. Processing the gas to remove other undesirable compounds, such
as hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide.

4.2 GAS AND LIQUID SE PARA TION

Separation of wellstream gas from free liquids is by far the most common
of all field-processing operations and also one of the most critical of the
processes.
Composition of the fluid mixture determines the design criteria for sizing
and selecting a separator for a hydrocarbon stream. In the case of low-
pressure oil wells, the liquid phase will be large in volume compared to
the gas phase. In the case of high-pressure gas-distillate wells, the gas
volume will be higher compared to the liquid volume. The liquid
produced with high-pressure gas is generally a high API gravity
hydrocarbon, usually referred to as distillate or condensate. However,
both low-pressure oil wells or high-pressure gas-distillate wells may
contain free water.
Separators are also used in many locations other than at wellhead
production batteries, such as gasoline plants, upstream and
downstream of compressors, liquid traps in gas transmission lines, inlet
scrubbers to dehydration units, and gas sweetening units. At some of
these other locations, separators are referred to as scrubbers, knockouts,
and free liquid knockouts. All these vessels serve the same primary
purpose: to separate free liquids from the gas stream.
A properly designed wellstream separator must perform the following
functions:
1. Cause a primary-phase separation of the mostly liquid
hydrocarbons from those that are mostly gas.
2. Refine the primary separation by removing most of the entrained
 108 Separation and Processing

liquid mist from the gas.

3. Further refine the separation by removing the entrained gas from
the liquid.
4. Discharge the separated gas and liquid from the vessel and ensure
that no reentrainment of one into the other takes place.
Sivalls has presented an excellent discussion of oil and gas
separation. This development is taken largely after his paper.

4.2.1 Internal Construction of Separators

The principal items of construction that should be present in a good
liquid-gas separator are the same, regardless of the overall shape or
configuration of the vessel. Some of these features are as follows:
1. A centrifugal inlet device where the primary separation of the liquid
and gas is made.
2. A large settling section of sufficient length or height to allow liquid
droplets to settle out of the gas stream with adequate surge room
for slugs of liquid.
3. A mist extractor or eliminator near the gas outlet to coalesce small
particles of liquid that will not settle out by gravity.
4. Adequate controls consisting of level control, liquid dump valve,
gas back pressure valve, safety relief valve, pressure gauge, gauge
glass, instrument gas regulator, and piping.
The bulb of the gas-liquid separation occurs in the inlet centrifugal
separating section. Here, the incoming stream is spun around the walls
of a small cylinder, which would be the walls of the vessel in the case of a
vertical or spherical separator. This subjects the fluids to a centrifugal
force up to 500 times the force of gravity. This action stops the horizontal
motion of the free liquid entrained in the gas stream and forces the liquid
droplets together where they will fill to the bottom of the separator into
the settling section.
The settling section lets the turbulence of the fluid stream subside
and allows liquid droplets to fall to the bottom of the vessel because of
the difference in the gravity between the liquid and gas phases. A large
open space in the vessel is adequate for this purpose. Introducing
special quieting plates or baffles with narrow openings only complicates
the internal construction of the separator and provides places for sand,
sludge, paraffin, and other materials to collect and eventually plug the
vessel and stop the flow. The separation of liquid and gas using the
centrifugal inlet feature and a large, open settling section produces a
more stable liquid product, which can be contained in atmospheric or
 Gas and Liquid Separation 109

low-pressure storage tanks. Minute scrubbing of the gas phase by use of

internal baffling or plates may produce more liquid to be discharged
from the separator, but the product will not be stable since light ends will
be entrained in it, incurring more vapor losses from the storage system.
Sufficient surge room should be allowed in the settling section to
handle slugs of liquid without carryover to the gas outlet. This can be
accomplished to some extent by placement of the liquid level control in
the separator, which in turn determines the liquid level. The amount of
surge room required is often difficult, if not impossible, to determine from
well test or flowing data. In most cases, the separator size used for a
particular application is a compromise between initial cost and possible
surging requirements.
Another major item required for good and complete liquid-gas
separation is a mist eliminator or extractor near the gas outlet. Small
liquid droplets that will not settle out of the gas stream, due to little or no
gravity difference between them and the gas phase, will be entrained
and pass out of the separator with the gas. This can be almost eliminated
by passing the gas through a mist eliminator near the gas outlet, which
has a large surface impingement area. The small liquid droplets will hit
the surfaces, coalesce, and collect to form larger droplets that will then
drain back to the liquid section in the bottom of the vessel. A stainless
steel woven-wire mesh mist eliminator is probably the most efficient type
since it removes up to 99.9% or more of the entrained liquids from the
gas stream. This type offers more surface area for collecting liquid
droplets per unit volume than vane types, ceramic packing, or other
configurations. The vane mist eliminators apply in areas where there is
entrained solid material in the gas phase that may collect and plug a
wire mesh mist eliminator.

4.2.2 Types of Separators

There are four major types or basic configurations of separators,
generally available from manufacturers: vertical, horizontal single tube,
horizontal double tube, and spherical. Each type has specific
advantages, and selection is usually based on which one will
accomplish the desired results at the lowest cost.
Vertical
A vertical separator is often used on low to intermediate gas-oil ratio well
streams and where relatively large slugs of liquid are expected. It will
handle greater slugs of liquid without carryover to the gas outlet, and the
action of the liquid level control is not as critical (Fig.4.1). A vertical
separator occupies less floor space, an important consideration where
space might be expensive as on an offshore platform. Due to the
greater vertical distance between the liquid level and the gas outlet,
there is less tendency to revaporize the liquid into the gas phase.
However, because the natural upward flow of gas in a vertical vessel
opposes the falling droplets of liquid, it takes a larger-diameter separator
for given gas capacity than a horizontal vessel. Also, vertical vessels are
more expensive to fabricate and ship in skid-mounted assemblies.
Horizontal Single Tube
The horizontal separator (Fig. 4.2) may be the best separator for the
money. The horizontal separator has a much greater gas-liquid interface
area consisting of a large, long, baffled gas-separation section that
permits much higher gas velocities. This type of separator is easier to
skid-mount and service and requires less piping for field connections
and a smaller diameter for a given gas capacity. Several separators can
be stacked easily into stage-separation assemblies, minimizing space
requirements.
In operation, gas flows horizontally and, at the same time, falls
toward the liquid surface. The gas flows in the baffle surfaces and forms
a liquid film that is drained away to the liquid section of the separator. The
baffles need only be longer than the distance of liquid trajectory travel at
the design gas velocity. The liquid level control placement is more
critical than in a vertical separator, and surge space is somewhat
limited. Horizontal separators are almost always used for high gas-oil
ratio well streams, for foaming well streams, or for liquid-from-liquid
separation.
Horizontal Double Tube
A horizontal double-tube or double-barrel separator (Fig.4.3) has all the
advantages of a normal horizontal separator plus a much higher liquid
capacity. Incoming free liquid is immediately drained away from the
upper section into the lower section. The upper section is filled with
baffles, and gas flow is straight through and at higher velocities.
Spherical
Spherical separators offer an inexpensive and compact vessel
arrangement (Fig. 4.4). However, these types of vessels have a very
limited surge space and liquid settling section. The placement and
action of the liquid level control in this type of vessel is very critical.
Three-phase or oil-gas-water separation can be easily
accomplished in any type of separator by installing either special
 112 Separation and Processing

internal baffling to construct a water leg or water siphon arrangement, or

by using an interface liquid level control. A three-phase feature is difficult

to install in a spherical separator because of the limited internal space

available. Figure 4.5 is a horizontal three-phase separator.

Fig.4.3 Conventional horizontal double-barrel separator. (Courtesy Petroleum
Extension Service.)
Fig.4.4 Spherical low-pressure separator. (After Sivalls.)

With three-phase operation, two liquid level controls and two liquid
dump valves are required. Three-phase separators are used commonly
for well testing and in instances where free water readily separates from
the oil or condensate.
From an evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of the
various types of separators, the horizontal single-tube separator has
 Gas and Liquid Separation 113

emerged as the one that gives the most efficient operation for initial
investment cost for high-pressure gas-distillate wells with high gas-oil

ratios. For high liquid loadings, vertical separators should be considered.

Fig.4.5 Conventional horizontal three-phase separator. (Courtesy Petroleum
Extension Service.)
4.2.3 Factors Affecting Separation
Separator operating pressure, separator operating temperature, and
fluid stream composition affect the operation and separation between
the liquid and gas phases in a separator. Changes in anyone of these
factors on a given fluid wellstream will change the amount of gas and
liquid leaving the separator. Generally, an increase in operating pressure
or a decrease in operating temperature will increase the liquid covered
in a separator. However, there are optimum points in both cases beyond
which further changes will not aid in liquid recovery. In fact, storage
system vapor losses may become too great before these points are
reached.
In the case of wellhead separation equipment, an operator
generally wants to determine the optimum conditions for a separator to
effect the maximum income. Again, generally speaking, the liquid
recovered is worth more than the gas. So, high liquid recovery is a
desirable feature, providing it can be held in the available storage
system. Also, pipeline requirements for the Btu content of the gas may
be another factor in separator operation. Without the addition of
expensive mechanical refrigeration equipment, it is often unfeasible to
try to lower the operating temperature of a separator. However, on most
high-pressure wells, an indirect heater heats the gas prior to pressure
reduction to pipeline pressure in a choke. By careful operation of this
indirect heater, the operator can prevent overheating the gas stream
ahead of the choke, which will adversely affect the temperature of the
separator downstream from the indirect heater.
The operator can also control operating pressure to some extent by
use of back -pressure valves within the limitation of the flowing
characteristics of the well against a set pressure head and the
transmission line pressure requirements. As previously mentioned, higher
operating pressure will generally result in higher liquid recovery.
An analysis can be made using the wellstream composition to find
the optimum temperature and pressure at which a separator should
operate to give maximum liquid or gas phase recovery. These
calculations, known as flash vaporization calculations, require a trial-
and-error solution and are more generally adapted to solution by a
programmed computer. An operator can, however, make trial settings
within the limitations of the equipment to find the operating conditions
that result in the maximum amount of gas or liquids. In the case where
separators are used as scrubbers or knockouts ahead of other treating
equipment or compressors, it is generally best to remove the maximum
amount of liquid from the gas stream to prevent operational damage to
the equipment downstream from the scrubber.

4.2.4 Separator Design

The following discussion on oil-gas separator design has been adapted
from
Sivalls' excellent treatment of the subject. Sivalls' tables, graphs, and
procedures are accepted as the standard of the industry.
Gas Capacity
The gas capacity of oil-gas separators has been calculated for many
years from the following empirical relationship proposed by Souders-
Brown:

(4.1)

and

(4.2)
where
v = superficial gas velocity based on total cross-sectional
area of vessel,fps
 114 Separation and Processing

A = cross-sectional area of separator, sq ft

q = gas flow rate at operating conditions, cfs
rL = density of liquid at operating conditions, lbm/cu ft
rg = density of gas at operating conditions, lbm/cu ft
K = empirical factor

Vertical separators K = 0.06 to 0.35, avg 0.21

Horizontal separators K = 0.40 to 0.50, avg 0.45
Wire mesh mist eliminators K = 0.35
Bubble cap trayed columns K = 0.16 for 24-in. spacing
Valve tray columns K = 0.18 for 24-in. Spacing
This relationship is based on a superficial vapor velocity through a vessel.
The vapor or gas capacity is then in relationship to the diameter of the
vessel. The formula is also used for other designs such as trayed towers in
dehydration or gas sweetening units and for the sizing of mist eliminators.
Therefore, the K-factor for these is presented along with the factors for
vertical and horizontal separators so the relationship that one bears with
the other can be seen.

(4.3)
Where
q = gas capacity at standard conditions, MMscfd
D = internal diameter, ft
p = operating pressure, psia
T = operating temperature, °F
z = gas deviation factor
Since this equation is empirical, a better determination of separator
gas capacity might be made from actual manufacturers' field test
data. Figures 7.6 to 7.13 are gas capacity charts for various standard
size separators based on operating pressure. These actual
manufacturers' gas capacity charts consider height differences in
vertical separators and length differences in horizontal separators, which
add to the gas capacity of the separators. As can be seen, height and
length differences are not taken into account in the Souders- Brown
equation. But field experience has proved that additional gas capacity
can be obtained by increasing height of vertical separators and length
of horizontal separators.
As seen on the sizing charts for horizontal separators, a correction
 Gas and Liquid Separation 115

must be made for the amount of liquid in the bottom of the separator.
This is for single-tube horizontal vessels. One-half full of liquid is more or
less standard for most single-tube horizontal separators. However, the
gas capacity can be increased by lowering liquid level to increase the
available gas space within the vessel. Gas capacities of horizontal
separators with liquid sections one-half full, one-third full, or one-quarter
full can be determined from the gas capacity charts.
Liquid Capacity
The liquid capacity of a separator is primarily dependent on the
retention time of the liquid within the vessel. Good separation requires
sufficient time to obtain an equilibrium condition between the liquid and
gas phase at the temperature and pressure of separation. The liquid
capacity of a separator or the settling volume required based on
retention can be determined from the following equation:

(4.4)
 116 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.6 Gas capacity of vertical low-pressure separators. (After Sivalls.)

where
W = liquid capacity, bbl/day
V = liquid settling volume, bbl
t = retention time, min
Basic design criteria for liquid retention times in separators have been
determined by numerous field tests:
Oil-gas separation 1 min
High-pressure oil-gas-water separation 2 to 5 min
Low-pressure oil-gas-water separation 5 to 10 min at
100°F and up
10 to 15 min at 90°F
15 to 20 min at 80°F
20 to 25 min at 70°F
25 to 30 min at 60°F
Figures 4.14 and 4.15 are sizing charts for the liquid capacity of
horizontal single-tube high-pressure separators. These are based on the
parameters of separator working pressure, size, and the depth of liquid
used in the liquid settling section. Tables A.2 to A.12 list the standard
specifications of typical oil-gas separators and the liquid-settling
volumes with the conventional placement of liquid level controls. The
settling volumes may determine the liquid capacity of a particular
vessel. For proper sizing of both, the liquid capacity and gas capacity
required should be determined.
It may be noted that on most high-pressure gas distillate wells the
gas-oil ratio is high, and the gas capacity of a separator is usually the
controlling factor. However, the reverse may be true for low-pressure
separators used on well- streams with low gas-oil ratios. The liquid
discharge or dump valve on the separator should be sized for the
pressure drop available and the liquid flow rate.

4.2.5 Stage Separation

Stage separation is a process in which gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons
are separated into vapor and liquid phases by two or more equilibrium
flashes at consecutively lower pressures. As illustrated in Fig. 4.16, two-
 Gas and Liquid Separation 119

stage separation requires two separators and a storage tank; and so on.
The tank is always counted as the final stage of vapor-liquid separation
because the final equilibrium flash occurs in the tank.
The purpose of stage separation is to reduce the pressure on the
reservoir liquids a little at a time, in steps or stages, so that a more stable
stock-tank liquid will result. The ideal method of separation, to attain
maximum liquid recovery, would be that of differential liberation of gas
by means of a steady decrease in pressure from that existing in the
reservoir to the stock-tank pressure. However, to carry out this differential
process would require an infinite number of separation stages.
Differential liberation can be closely approached by using three or more
series-connected stages of separation, in each of which flash
vaporization takes place.
 120 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.7 Gas capacity of vertical high-pressure separators. (After Sivalls.)

Fig.4.8 Gas capacity of vertical high-pressure separators. (After Sivalls.)

Fig.4.9 Gas capacity of horizontal low-pressure separators. (After Sivalls.)

In high-pressure gas-condensate separation systems, it is generally

accepted that a stepwise reduction of the pressure on the liquid
condensate will appreciably increase the recovery of stock tank liquids.
The calculation of the actual performance of the various separators in a
multistage separation system can be made as described above using
the initial wellstream composition and the operating temperatures and
pressures of the various stages. However, in the absence of a computer
to perform a complete set of flash vaporization calculations, general
guidelines can be furnished to estimate the anticipated performance of
multistage separation units.
Although three to four stages of separation theoretically would
 Gas and Liquid Separation 121

increase the liquid recovery over two stages, the net increase over two-
stage separation will rarely payout the cost of the second or third
separator. Therefore, it has been generally accepted that two stages of
separation plus the stock tank are considered optimum. Actual increase
in liquid recovery for

Fig.4.10 Gas capacity of horizontal high-pressure separators. (After Sivalls.)

two-stage separation over single-stage will vary from 2 to 12%,

depending on the wellstream composition, operating pressures, and
temperatures. However, 20 to 25% increases in recoveries have been
reported.
The optimum high stage or first separator operating pressure is generally
governed by the gas transmission line pressure and operating
characteristics of the well. These range from 600 to 1200 psi. If the
transmission line pressure is at least 600 psi, operators will generally let the
 126 Separation and Processing

first-stage separator ride the line or operate at the transmission line

pressure. For each high or first-stage pressure, there is an optimum low-
stage separation pressure that will afford the maximum liquid recovery.
This operating pressure can be determined from an equation based on
equal pressure ratios between the stages (Campbell):

Fig.4.11 Gas capacity of horizontal high-pressure separators, (After Sivalls.)

(4.5)
or

(4.6)

where
R = pressure ratio
n = number of stages - 1
P1 = first-stage or high-pressure separator pressure, psia
p2 = second-stage or low-pressure separator pressure, psia
Ps = stock tank pressure, psia
Fig.4.12 Gas capacities of spherical L. P. Separators ( After Sivalls. )
Fig.4.13 Gas capacities of spherical high -pressure separators ( After Sivalls. )

Fig.4.14 Liquid capacities of horizontal single- tube high -pressure separators (

After Sivalls. )
Fig.4.15 Liqiud capacities of horizontal single tube high -pressure separators (
After Sivalls. )
 Gas and Liquid Separation

Fig.4.16 Stage separation flow diagrams. (Courtesy Petroleum Extension

Service.)

The magnitude of stock tank liquid recoveries are not considered in the
equation
Figure 4.17 has been prepared to determine the optimum low-
stage separator pressure based on the high-stage separator pressure
with additional parameters of overall stock tank liquid recovery. This
information has been determined from extensive field test data.
Figure 4.18 is a chart illustrating the average percent increase in
liquid recovery for two-stage separation over single-stage separation. By
using this, an operator can rapidly determine the payout of additional
equipment required
Fig.4.17 Optimum low-stage separator pressure. (After Sivalls.)

From Fig. 4.18 it also can be seen that additional recovery can be
obtained by using 15-psig pressure distillate storage tanks rather than
atmospheric storage tanks.

4.2.6 Low-temperature Separation

A low-temperature separation unit is another type of equipment
employed for gas-liquid separation that consists primarily of a high-
pressure separator, pressure-reducing chokes, and various pieces of
heat exchange equipment. As described previously, lowering the
operating temperature of a separator increases the liquid recovery.
When the pressure is reduced on a high-pressure gas condensate
stream by use of a pressure-reducing choke, the fluid temperature also
decreases. This is known as the Joule-Thomson or throttling effect, which
is an irreversible adiabatic process where the heat content of the gas
remains the same across the choke but the pressure and temperature of
the gas stream is reduced (Katz et al.).
Low-temperature separation is probably the most efficient means
yet devised for handling high-pressure gas and condensate at the
 128 Separation and Processing

wellhead. The process separates water and hydrocarbon liquids from

the inlet wellstream, recovers more liquids from the gas than can be
recovered with normal-temperature separators, and dehydrates gas,
usually to pipeline specifications.
By special construction of low-temperature separation units, the
pressure- reducing choke is mounted directly on the inlet of the high-
pressure separator. Hydrates formed downstream of the choke due to
the low gas temperature after the pressure reduction are blown into the
separator and fall to the bottom settling section where they are heated
and melted by liquid heating coils located in the bottom of the vessel.
The low-temperature effect is used in low-temperature units to increase
the liquid recovery. The lower the operating temperature of the
separator, the higher the liquid recovery will be. However, the maximum
flowing pressure from the well at a given flow rate and the transmission
line pressure will indicate the maximum amount of pressure drop
available across the choke.

Fig. 4.18 Estimated increase in condensate recovery with two-stage

separation. (After Sivalls.)

Enthalpy curves on natural gas can be used to determine the

temperature drop expected based on the available pressure drop.
Figure 7.19 illustrates natural gas expansion-temperature reduction
curves for 0.7 specific gravity gas. This chart shows that a 1500-psi drop
from 3000 psi at 120°F will provide a final temperature of only 78°F, while
a 1500-psi drop from 2000 psi at 120°F will give a final temperature of
49°F. The actual temperature drop per pounds per square inch of
pressure drop will depend on composition of gas stream, gas and liquid
flow rates, bath temperature, and ambient temperature.
In general, at least a 2500- and 3000-psi pressure drop should be
available from wellhead flowing pressure to pipeline pressure before a
low-temperature separation unit will payout in increased liquid recovery.
The lowest operating temperature recommended for low-temperature
units is usually around -20°F. Carbon steel embrittlement occurs below
this temperature and high-alloy steels Gauge pressure, psi for lower
temperatures are usually not economical for most oil field installations.
Generally, low-temperature separation units are operated In the range
of 0 to 20°F.

Fig. 4.19 Natural gas expansion-temperature reduction curves. (Courtesy

Petroleum Extension Service.)

Figure 4.20 is a chart showing the effect of separation temperature on

liquid recovery. This chart assists the operator in feasibility studies to
determine if low-temperature separation equipment will payout on a
given wellstream.. The purpose of this chart is, to estimate the liquid
recovery at a lower temperature of separation knowing the recovery or
gas-oil ratio that can be obtained by conventional separation methods.
This chart can also be used to see what effect lowering the operating
 Gas and Liquid Separation 131

temperature in conventional separation equipment would have on the

liquid recovery.
Example 4.1. Size a standard oil-gas separator both vertically and
horizontally for the following conditions:
Gas flow rate 5.0 MMscfd
Operating pressure 800 psig
Condensate flow rate 20 bbl/MMscf
Solution
Total liquid capacity = 20 (5.0) = 100 bbl/day

From Fig. 4.7, at 800-psig operating pressure, a 20 in. x 7 ft, 6 in. vertical
separator will handle 5.4 MMscfd. From Table A.5, a 20 in. x 7 ft, 6 in.
separator will handle the following liquid capacity:

From Fig. 4.10, at 800-psig operating pressure and one-half full of liquid,
a 16 in.. x 5 ft horizontal separator will handle 5.1 MMscfd. From Table
A.9, a 16 in. x 5 ft separator will handle

Therefore, a smaller horizontal separator would be required and would

be more economical. For the operating pressure involved, at least a
1000-psig working pressure separator should be used.
Example 4.2. Size a standard vertical oil-gas separator for the following
conditions:
Oil flow rate 2500 bbl/day
Gas-oil ratio 1000
Operating pressure 50 psig ;1
Solution
Gas flow rate = 1000 (2500) = 2,500,000 cfd
= 2.5 MMscfd
From Fig. 4.6, at SO-psig operating pressure, a 36 in. x 5 ft vertical
separator will handle 2.9 MMscfd. From Table A.3, a 36 in. x 5 ft separator
will handle

Therefore, a larger separator will be required to handle the liquid load. A

30 in. x 10 ft separator will handle
 132 Separation and Processing

The gas capacity of a 30 in. x 10 ft separator is 3.75 MMscfd. In fact, the

diameter, of a separator generally controls the price and a 30 in. x 10 ft
separator will probably be cheaper than one that is 36 in. x 5 ft.
Example 4.3. A 20 in. x 10 ft, 100-psi working pressure (WP) horizontal
separator is operated at one-half full liquid capacity. Can it be used on a
well with the following conditions:
Gas flow rate 9.0 MMscfd
Line pressure 500 psig
Solution
From Fig. 4.10, a 20 in. x 10 ft separator will handle only 8.1 MMscfd at
500 psig. But, if a gas back-pressure valve were put on the separator and
held at 800 psig, the separator would handle 10.2 MMscfd. This is
accepted procedure, providing the well will flow the desired rate at 800
psig.
Example 4.4. Size a horizontal high-pressure separator for the following
conditions:
Gas flow rate 10.0 MMscfd
Operating pressure 800 psig
Condensate load 500 bbl/day
Water load 100 bbl/day
Solution
From Fig. 4.10, at 800-psig operating pressure, a 20 in. x 10 ft horizontal
separator will handle 10.2 MMscfd operating one-half full liquid
capacity. Where three-phase operation is required in a horizontal
separator, the liquid section should be one-half full; ,otherwise, the level
control action becomes too critical.
From Table A.9, the liquid capacity will be

Therefore, the 20 in. x 10 ft separator will not handle the combined liquid
load of 500 + 100 = 600 bbl/day. Five minute retention time is used as a
conservative figure without any additional information.
From Table A.9, a separator with more settling volume is 24 in. x 10 ft. Its
liquid capacity is

The gas capacity of a 24 in. x 10 ft separator at 800 psig is 15.0 Mmscfd.

 Dehydration of Natural Gas 133

Example 4.5. A well test was made using a simple high pressure
separator and an atmospheric stock tank and the following results were
obtained:
Gas flow rate 10.0 MMscfd
Operating pressure 800 psig
Condensate recovery 500 bbl/day
What additional recovery could be expected using two-stage
separation and 15-psig pressure storage tanks?
Solution
From Fig.4.18, using the top curve at 800 psig, a 15.3% increase could
be expected. This would result in, 500(0.153) = 76.5 bbl/day additional
condensate recovery.
Example 4.6. On the test of a high-pressure gas-condensate well the
following data were recorded:
Gas flow rate 10.0 MMscfd
Operating pressure 800 psig ,
Condensate recovery 200 bbl/day
Separator temperature 85°F
What additional recovery could be expected using a low-temperature
separation unit operating at 20°F?
Solution

From Fig. 4.20, following the dotted lines, the recovery would go from 20
bbl/MMcf to 25.7 bbl/MMcf, or an additional 5.7 bbl/MMscf = 57
bbl/day.

4.3 DEHYDRATION OF NATURAL GAS

Natural gas destined for transport by pipeline must meet certain
specifications. Items usually included in the United States and Canada
are maximum water content (water dew point), maximum condensable
hydrocarbon content (hydro carbon dew point), allowable
concentrations of contaminants such as mercaptans, minimum
heating value, and cleanliness (allowable solids content). In addition
there will be specifications regarding delivery pressure, rate, and
possibly temperature.
 134 Separation and Processing

The reservoir fluids flowing to the surface during production operations

normally contain water regardless of which zone the well has been
completed in, as shown in Fig. 4.21. The gas-producing zone of a
reservoir tends to contain more water vapor and less liquid or free water
than the oil-producing zone. Water vapor is probably the most common
undesirable impurity found in untreated natural gas. The principal
reasons for the removal of water vapor from natural gas for long-
distance transmission include the following:
1. Liquid water and natural gas can form solid, ice-like hydrates that
plug equipment.
2. Natural gas containing liquid water is corrosive, particularly if it also
contains CO2 or H2S.
3. Water vapor in natural gas may condense in pipelines potentially
causing slugging flow conditions.
4. Water vapor increases the volume and decreases the heating
value of natural gas; this leads to reduced line capacity.

Fig.4.21 Typical oil and gas reservoir. (After Guenther.)

 Dehydration of Natural Gas 135

7.3.1Water Content of Natural Gas Streams

(No Deleterious Contaminants)
All natural gases contain water vapor to some degree. Solubility of water
increases as temperature increases and decreases as pressure
increases. Salts dissolved in the liquid water in equilibrium with natural
gas reduce the water content of the gas. Water content is usually
expressed as pounds of water per million standard cubic feet of natural
gas (lbm/MMscf). Values are best obtained from correlations of
experimental data such as the McKetta and Wehe chart given in
Fig. 7.22. Typical values are
Reservoir gas (5000 psig/250°F) = 500 Ibm/MMscf
Trap gas (500 psig125°F) = 400 Ibm/MMscf
Pipeline gas = 6-8 Ibm/MMscf
The term dehydration means removal of water vapor. The water content
of natural gas is indirectly indicated by the dew point. The dew point may
be defined as the temperature at which the natural gas is saturated with
water .vapor at a given pressure. At the dew point, natural gas is in
equilibrium with liquid water; a decrease in temperature or an increase
in pressure will cause the water vapor to begin condensing. The
difference between the dew point temperature of a water- saturated
gas stream and the same stream after it has been dehydrated is known
as the dew point depression.
To illustrate the concept of dew point depression, assume that natural
gas at 500 psia and 60°F at the saturation point contains 30 Ibm of water
per 1 million cu ft. The dew point of this gas is 60°F. Suppose this natural
gas is going to be transported in a pipeline at 20°F. The saturation point
will then be 7 Ibm of water/MMcf. The original 30 Ibm of water, if left in the
gas, will exist in the form of 7 Ibm of water vapor and 23 Ibm of free
water/MMcf if the pressure remains the same. This free water is a
potential source of hydrates to form and plug the line. Suppose the
natural gas is processed in a dehydration unit and the dew point is
depressed 50°F. This means that no free water will exist in the gas until the
temperature goes to 10°F or lower. Gas at 500 psia and 10°F contains
about 5 Ibm of water vapor/MMcf. The dehydration unit must remove 25
Ibm of water from each 1 million cu ft of gas in order to achieve the 50°F
dew point depression.

Estimating Water Content

A reliable technique for estimating the saturated water vapor content of
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 137

natural gas is fundamental to the design and operation of dehydration

 138 Separation and Processing

equipment. Several of these methods that relate water content and dew
point are summarized below.
1. The correlation of McCarthy, Boyd, and Reid can be used for most
natural gas dehydration applications and will generally result in
reasonably conservative designs. Their chart is presented in Fig.
4.23.
2. The correlation of McKetta and Wehe (Fig. 4.22) is similar to
McCarthy, Boyd, and Reid and includes correlation factors for
produced water salinity and gas specific gravity.
3. At or near atmospheric pressure, Dalton's law of partial pressures is
valid and may be used to estimate the water vapor content of gas.
4. The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association has described a
method for predicting the water content of sour natural gas using
the data of Weibe and Gaddy for CO2 and the data of Selleck,
Carmichael, and Sage for H2S.
5. The most rigorous approach uses physical chemistry techniques to
account for the effect of differences in gas composition on water
vapor content. This method was developed by Sharma and
Campbell.

Fig.4.23 Water vapor content of saturated natural gas. (After Guenther.)

 In almost all cases, the inlet natural gas to a dehydration system will
be saturated with water vapor ,at process temperature and pressure, but
the upstream process configuration should be examined to confirm this.
Note, however, that the assumption of saturation is a conservative
approach.

4.3.2 Hydrate Control in Gas Production

Gas producers, processors, and pipeline operators have often been
plagued by operating difficulties that cause undesirable and costly
interruptions in gas production, field processing and distribution. While
many operating difficulties are mechanical in nature, two constantly
recurring operating problems, gas hydrate formation and freeze-up in
separator water dump lines, are more costly and more serious than
others.
These difficulties most often occur in cold whether when seasonal
demand for gas is at its highest level, thus making shutdowns or
interruptions in production or gas service most expensive. These two
operating problems are somewhat related, and their solutions in some
cases are quite similar.

Gas Hydrate Formation

Natural gas hydrates are solid crystalline compounds formed by the
chemical combination of natural gas and water under pressure at
temperatures considerably above the freezing point of water. In the
presence of free water, hydrates will form when the temperature is below
a certain degree (hydrate temperature). The chemical formulas for
natural gas hydrates are:
Methane CH4.7H2O
Ethane C2H68H2O
Propane C3H8'18H2O
Carbon dioxide CO27H2O
Gas hydrate crystals resemble ice or wet snow in appearance but
do not have ice's solid structure, are much less dense, and exhibit
properties that are generally associated with chemical compounds. The
main framework of their structure is water; the hydrocarbon molecule
occupies the void space in a crystalline network held together by
chemically weak bonds with the water, The water framework is ice like;
unlike ice, however, it has void space and a network structure.
Hydrate formation is often confused with condensation, and the
distinction between the two must be clearly understood. Condensation
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 139

of water from a natural gas under pressure occurs when the temperature
is at or below the dew point at that pressure. Free water obtained under
such conditions is essential to formation of hydrates, which will occur at or
below the hydrate temperature at the same pressure. Hence, the
hydrate temperature would be less than or equal to the dew point
temperature.
During the flow of natural gas, it becomes necessary to define, and
thereby avoid, conditions that promote the formation of hydrates. This is
essential since hydrates may choke the flow string, surface lines, and
other equipment. Hydrate formation in the flow string results in a lower
value for measured wellhead pressures, In a flow rate measuring device,
hydrate formation results in lower flow rates. Excessive hydrate formation
may also completely block flow lines and surface equipment.
The conditions that tend to promote the formation of natural gas
hydrates are:
1. Natural gas at or below its water dew point with liquid water present.
2. Temperatures below the "hydrate formation" temperature for the
pressure and gas composition considered.
3. High operating pressures that increase the "hydrate formation"
temperature.
4. High velocity or agitation through piping or equipment.
5. Presence of a small "seed" crystal of hydrate.
6. Presence of H2S or CO2 is conducive to hydrate formation since
these acid gases are more soluble in water than hydrocarbons.
 140 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.24 Pressure-temperature curves for predicting hydrate formation.

(Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)
A rigorous technique for predicting conditions for hydrate formation
involves the use of vapor-solid equilibrium constants (Katz et al.). The
calculations are analogous to a dew point calculation for
multicomponent mixtures. This method of hydrate prediction has proved
to be rather reliable, as have the methods of McLeod & Campbell and
Trekell & Campbell.
Figures 4.22 and 4.23 show hydrate formation lines for 0.6 gravity
gas. Hydrates tend to form to the left of these lines.
Figures 4.24 to 4.29 present data that may be used for first
approximations of hydrate formation conditions and for estimating
permissible expansion of natural gases without the formation of
hydrates. It is convenient to divide hydrate formation into two categories:
(1) hydrate formation due to a decrease in temperature with no sudden
pressure drop, such as in the flow string or surface line, and (2) hydrate
formation where a sudden expansion occurs, such as in flow provers,
orifices, back-pressure regulators, or chokes.
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 141

Fig.4.25 Permissible expansion of a 0.6-gravity natural gas without hydrate

formation. (Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)

Fig.4.26 Permissible expansion of a 0.7-gravity natural gas without hydrate

formation.(Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)
1. Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines. The hydrate
temperature depends on the pressure and composition, reflected by
the gravity of the gas. Figure 4.24 gives approximate values of the
hydrate temperature as a function of pressure and specific gravity.
Hydrates will form whenever temperature and pressure plot to the left of
the hydrate formation line for the gas in question.

Example 4.7.
(a) A certain natural gas has a specific gravity of 0.693. If the gas is at
 50°F, what would be the pressure above which hydrates could be
expected to form?

Fig.4.27 .Permissible expansion of a 0.8-gravity natural gas without hydrate

formation.(Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)

(b) A gas of specific gravity 0.8 is at a pressure of 1000 psia. To what

extent can the temperature be lowered without hydrate formation,
assuming presence of free water?
Solution
(a) From Fig. 4.24 at 50°F;
p = 480 psia for 0.6-gravity gas
p = 320 psia for 0.7-gravity gas
Fig.4.28 Permissible expansion of a 0.9-gravity natural gas without hydrate
formation.(Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)

Using linear interpolation,

Hydrates will form above a pressure of 332 psia.

(b) From Fig. 4.24, at a specific gravity of 0.8 and a pressure of 1000
psia, hydrate temperature is 66°F. Thus, hydrates may form at or
below 66°F.
2. Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and Back-pressure
Regulators. Sudden expansion in one of these devices is accompanied
by a temperature drop that may cause hydrate formation. Figures 4.25
to 4.29 may be used to approximate the conditions for hydrate
formation.

Fig.4.29 Permissible expansion of a 1.0-gravity natural gas without hydrate

formation.(Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.)

Example 4.8.
(a) How far can a 0.8-gravity gas at 1000 psia and 100°F be expanded
without hydrate formation?
(b) How far can a 0.7-gravity gas at 800 psia and 100°F be expanded
without hydrate formation, assuming presence of free water?
(c) A 0.6-gravity gas is to be expanded from 1000 psi a to 400 psia.
What is the minimum initial temperature that will permit expansion
without danger of hydrate formation?
Solution
(a) The intersection of the 1000 psia initial pressure line with the 100°F
initial temperature curve gives a final pressure of 440 psia (Fig.
4.27). Hence, this gas may be expanded to a final pressure of 440
psia without a possibility of hydrate formation.
(b) The 100°F initial temperature curve does not intersect the 800-psia
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 145

initial pressure line (Fig. 4.26). Hence, this gas may be expanded to
atmospheric pressure without hydrate formation.
(c) The intersection of the 1000-psia initial pressure line and the 400-
psia final pressure line gives an initial temperature of 78°F (Fig. 4.25).
Hence, 78°F is the minimum initial temperature to avoid hydrate
formation. Figures 4.24 to 4.29 are strictly applicable to
sweet natural gases. For sour gases, they may be used, keeping in
mind that the presence of H2S and CO2 will increase the hydrate
temperature and reduce the pressure above which hydrates will
form. In other words, the presence of H2S or CO2 increases the
possibility of hydrate formation.

Preventing Hydrate Formation

The hydrate formation line in Fig. 4.22 or 4.23 shows that hydrate
formation can be prevented by heating the cold, unprocessed
wellstream. If the pressure and water content of the gas remain constant
during heating, the gas will become undersaturated, thereby
eliminating one of the conditions for hydrate formation. If the lines and
equipment must be maintained below the hydrate point, the water must
be inhibited for trouble-free operation. Methanol, ethylene glycol (EG),
and diethylene glycol (DEG) are commonly injected into gas streams to
depress the freezing point. All of these inhibitors can be recovered and
recycled; however, the recovery of methanol is often uneconomical.
Hydrate inhibitor injection does not always provide the ultimate degree
of dehydration specified by the purchaser or required by the process
conditions.
Methanol injection systems are frequently installed at facilities where
low gas volumes prohibit dehydration or other means of hydrate
inhibition that require high capital investments, equipment is temporary
until a decision regarding a permanent facility is made, or hydrate
problems are relatively mild, infrequent, seasonal, or expected during
start-up such that hydrate inhibition by Methanol supplements a primary
dehydration system. EG and DEG are injected primarily at low-
temperature processing plants for extracting natural gas liquids. The
glycol prevents freezing in these plants during the condensation of water
and hydrocarbons. The water phase of the process liquid contains the
EG or DEG, which is always recovered and regenerated.
4.3.3 Dehydration Systems
There are essentially four methods in current use for dehydrating gases:
 146 Separation and Processing

direct cooling, compression followed by cooling, absorption, and

adsorption. Generally, the first two methods do not result in sufficiently low
water dew points to permit injection into a pipeline. Additional
dehydration by absorption or adsorption may be required.
Water vapor may be removed from natural gas by bubbling the gas
counter currently through certain liquids that have a special attraction or
affinity for water. When water vapors are removed by this process, the
operation is called absorption. There are also solids that have an affinity
for water. When gas flows through a bed of such granular solids, the water
is retained on the surface of the particles of the solid material. This
process is called adsorption. The vessel in which either absorption or
adsorption takes place is called the contactor or sorber. The liquid or
solid having affinity for water and used in the contactor inconnection
with either of the processes is called the desiccant.
There are two major types of dehydration equipment in use at this
time: the liquid desiccant dehydrator and the solid desiccant
dehydrator. Each has its special advantages and disadvantages and its
own field of particular usefulness. Practically all the gas moved through
transmission lines is dehydrated by one of these methods.
Dehydration by Cooling
Examination of the water vapor saturation chart, Fig. 4.22 or 4.23, shows
that the ability of natural gas to contain water vapor decreases as the
temperature is lowered at constant pressure. Cooling for the specific
purpose of gas dehydration is sometimes economical if the gas
temperature is unusually high. Cooling is often used in conjunction with
other dehydration processes. This method is limited in that gases
dehydrated by cooling are still at their water dew point unless the
temperature is raised again or the pressure is decreased.
Gas processing facilities that cool water may use different methods.
In one type, some water is condensed and removed from gas at
compressor stations by the compressor discharge coolers. Note that the
saturation water content of gases decreases at higher pressure (see Fig.
4.22 or 4.23).
Low-temperature separation systems use the expansion-
refrigeration cooling of the Joule-Thomson effect to condense water
and hydrocarbons from the gas. In this method, hydrates are
intentionally allowed to form by expanding the gas from wellhead
pressure to pipeline pressure. The resulting dry gas, hydrates, and gas
condensate enter a separator containing coils through which the warm
well-stream flows to melt the hydrates. EG or DEG may be injected if the
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 147

available wellhead pressure is insufficient to produce the required

dehydration by expansion alone. Low-temperature separation can be
an attractive technique since it can dehydrate gas as well as recover
valuable liquid hydrocarbons.
All recent lean oil absorption gas plants use mechanical
refrigeration to chill the inlet gas stream. EG is usually injected into the
gas chilling section of the plant, which simultaneously dehydrates the
gas and recovers liquid hydrocarbons, in a manner similar to the low-
temperature separators.
Adsorption of Water Vapor by Solid Desiccants
Adsorption is defined as the ability of a substance to hold gases or liquids
on its surface. This property occurs to a greater or lesser extent on all
surfaces. Dehydration plants using solid desiccants can remove
practically all water from natural gas (as low as 1 ppm). They can be
used with temperatures higher than those for which glycol plants are
satisfactory. Because of their great drying ability, solid desiccants may
be employed where higher efficiencies are required.
In adsorption dehydration, the water vapor from the gas is
concentrated and held at the surface of the solid desiccant by forces
thought to be caused by residual valency. Solid desiccants have very
large surface areas per unit weight to take advantage of these surface
forces. The most common solid adsorbents include silica, alumina, and
certain silicates known as molecular sieves.
Figure 4.30 shows a typical solid desiccant dehydration plant. The
incoming wet gas must be carefully cleaned, preferably a filter
separator, to remove virtually all solid and liquid contaminants in the gas.
The filtered liquid-free gas generally flows downward during dehydration
through one adsorber containing a desiccant bed.
 148 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.30 Typical solid desiccant dehydration plant. (After Guenther.)

The downflow arrangement lessens disturbance of the bed due to high
gas velocity during the dehydration or adsorption step. While one
adsorber is dehydrating, the other adsorber is being regenerated by a
hotslip stream of inlet gas from the regeneration gas heater.
Although Fig. 4.30 shows a direct-fired heater, hot oil, steam, or an
indirect heater can supply the necessary regeneration heat. The
regeneration gas normally flows upward through the bed to ensure
thorough regeneration of the bottom of the bed, which is the last area
contacted by the gas being dehydrated. The hot regenerated bed is
cooled by shutting off or bypassing the heater. The cooling gas flows
downward through the bed so that any water adsorbed from the cooling
gas will be at the top of the bed and will not be desorbed into the gas
during the dehydration step. The still hot regeneration gas and the
cooling gas flow through the regeneration gas cooler to condense the
desorbed water. Power-operated valves activated by a timing device
switch the adsorbers between the dehydration, regeneration, and
cooling steps.

Fig. 4.31 Regeneration-gas temperature versus desiccant-bed temperature in

a dry-desiccant dehydrator. (Courtesy Petroleum Extension Service.)

Figure 4.31 illustrates the relationship between regeneration-gas

temperature and desiccant-bed temperature for a typical 8-hr
regeneration cycle. Initially, the hot regeneration gas must heat the
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 149

tower and desiccant. At about 240°F, water begins boiling or vaporizing

and the bed continues to heat up, but more slowly since water is being
driven out of the desiccant. After all the water has been removed,
heating is continued to drive off any heavier hydrocarbons and
contaminants, which would not vaporize at low temperatures. With cycle
times of 4 hr or greater, the bed will be properly regenerated when the
outlet~gas temperature has reached 350 to 375°F. Following the
heating cycle, the bed will be cooled by flowing unheated regeneration
gas through the bed. The cooling cycle will normally be terminated
when bed temperature has dropped to about 125°F since further
cooling might cause water to condense from the wet gas stream and
presaturate the bed before the next adsorption cycle begins.
The usable life of a desiccant may range from 1 to 4 years in normal
service. All desiccants become less effective in normal use through loss
of effective surface area. The loss of effective surface area is rapid at
first, then becomes more gradual as the desiccant ages. Abnormally
fast degradation occurs through blockage of the small pores and
capillary openings, which contain most of the effective surface area.
Lubricating oils, amines, glycols, corrosion inhibitors, and other
contaminants, which cannot be removed during regeneration cycle,
will eventually ruin the bed. Hydrogen sulfide may poison the desiccant
and reduce its capacity. Activated alumina has good resistance to
liquids, but it tends to powder due to mechanical agitation of the flowing
gas.
There are several advantages of solid-desiccant dehydration. First,
lower dew points are obtainable over a wide range of operating
conditions. Second, essentially dry gas (moisture content less than 1.0
lb/MMcf) can be produced. Third, higher contact temperatures can be
tolerated with some adsorbents.Fourth, greater adaptability is offered to
sudden load changes, especially on starting up. Fifth, the plant may be
put in operation more quickly after a shut down. In some cases
adsorption temperatures up to 125°F have been reported for silica gel
adsorbents. Finally, adaptability for recovery of certain liquid
hydrocarbons is high in addition to dehydration functions.
However, there are also operating problems. Space adsorbents
degenerate with use and eventually require replacement. And, the
amount of water vaporadsorbed per regeneration decreases with
continued use. Loss in capacity may be accelerated by collecting
contaminants like compressor cylinder oil deposited in desiccant beds.
For a third problem, a tower must be regenerated, cooled, and readied
for operation as another tower approaches exhaustion. With more than
two towers involved, this operation is relatively complicated. If operation
is on a time cycle, maximum allowable time on dehydration gradually
shortens because desiccant loses capacity with use.
Unloading towers and recharging them with new desiccant should
be completed well ahead of the operating season. In the interest of
maintaining continuous operation when most needed, this may require
discarding desiccant before the end of its normal operating life. To
conserve material, the inlet part of the tower may be recharged and the
remainder of the desiccant retained since it may still possess some
useful life. Additional service life may be obtained if the direction of gas
flow is reversed at a time when the tower would normally be recharged.
Sudden pressure surges should be avoided. They may upset the
desiccant bed and channel the gas stream with poor dehydration. If a
plant is operated above its rated capacity, pressure loss will increase and
some attrition may occur. Attrition causes fines, which may in turn cause
excessive pressure loss with resulting loss in capacity. Finally, if water
cooling is used during the reactivating cycle, provision must be made
against freezing in water coolers. This problem generally occurs only
during cooler shutdown.
Absorption of Water Vapor by liquid Desiccants
In absorption dehydration, the water vapor is removed from the gas by
intimate contact with a hygroscopic liquid desiccant. The contacting is
usually performed in trayed or packed towers. The glycols have proved
to be the most effective liquid desiccants in current use. The four types of
glycol that have been successfully used to dehydrate natural gas are
ethylene glycol (EG), diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG),
a n d t e t r a e t h y l e n e g l y c o l
(T 4EG).
In almost all cases a single type of pure glycol is used; however,
under certain circumstances, a glycol blend may be economically
attractive. In over 40 years of use in the gas industry, TEG has gained
nearly universal acceptance as the most cost effective of the glycols
due to superior dew point depression, operating cost, and operation
reliability. Glycol dehydration is usually economically more attractive
than solid-desiccant dehydration when both processes are capable of
meeting the required dew point. It has been reported that a solid-
desiccant plant designed for 10 MMscfd costs approximately 53% more
than aTEG plant, and that a solid- desiccant plant designed for 50
MMscfd costs approximately 33% more than a TEG plant (Guenther).
Triethylene glycol has been successfully used to dehydrate sweet
 150 Separation and Processing

and sour natural gases over the following range of operating conditions:
Dew point depression 40-140°F
Gas pressure 25-2500 psig
Gas temperature 40-160°F
The dew point depression obtained depends on the equilibrium dew
point temperature for a given TEG concentration and contact
temperature. Increased glycol. viscosity may be a problem at the lower
end of the contact temperature range; consequently, heating of the
natural gas may be desirable. Very hot gas streams contain more water,
vaporize more TEG, have lower equilibrium ,dew points, and are
therefore often cooled prior to dehydration.
The wet inlet gas must be free of liquid water and hydrocarbons, wax,
sand, drilling muds, and so on. The presence of any of these substances
can cause severe foaming, flooding, higher glycol losses, poor
efficiency, and increased maintenance in the dehydration tower or
absorber. These impurites should be removed upstream of the absorber
by an efficient scrubber, separator, or even a filter separator for very
contaminated gases.
Methanol, injected at the wellhead as a hydrate inhibitor, can cause
several problems for glycol dehydration plants. First, methanol increases
the heat requirements of the glycol regeneration system, since
methanol is coabsorbed with water vapor by glycol. Second, slugs of
liquid methanol can cause flooding in the absorber. Finally, methanol
vapor vented to the atmosphere with the water vapor from the
regeneration system is hazardous and should be recovered or vented so
that hazardous concentrations do not occur.
Figure 4.32 illustrates the process and flow through a typical glycol
dehydrator. The west inlet gas stream first enters the unit through an inlet
gas scrubber where any liquid accumulations are removed. A two-
phase or distillate-gas scrubber is illustrated in Fig. 4.32. If any liquid water
is in the gas stream, a three-phase scrubber may be used to discharge
the distillate and water from the vessel separately. The mist eliminator
aids in removing any entrained liquid particles from the wet gas stream
leaving the top of the inlet scrubber.
The wet gas then enters the bottom of the glycol-gas contactor and
flows upward through the trays as illustrated countercurrent to the glycol
flowing downward through the column. The gas contacts the glycol on
each tray and the glycol absorbs the water vapor from the gas stream.
The dry gas leaves the
top of the contactor vessel through another mist eliminator which aids in
 152 Separation and Processing

removing any entrained glycol droplets from the gas steam. The gas
then flows down through a vertical glycol cooler, usually fabricated in the
form of a concentric pipe heat exchanger, where the outlet dry gas aids
in cooling the hot regenerated glycol before it enters the contactor. The
dry gas then leaves the unit from the bottom of the glycol cooler.
 The dry glycol enters the top of the glycol-gas contactor from the
glycol cooler and is injected onto the top tray. The glycol flows across
each tray and down through a downcomer pipe onto the next tray. The
bottom tray downcomer is fitted with a seal pot to hold a liquid sear on
the trays.
The wet glycol, which has now absorbed the water vapor from the
gas stream, leaves the bottom of the glycol-gas contactor column,
passes through a high- pressure glycol filter, which removes any foreign
solid particles that may have been picked up from the gas stream, and
enters the power side of the glycol pump.
In the glycol pump the wet high-pressure glycol from the contactor
column pumps the dry regenerated glycol into the column. The wet
glycol stream flows from the glycol pump to the inlet of the flash
separator. The low-pressure flash separator allows for the release of the
entrained solution gas, which must be used with the wet glycol to pump
the dry glycol into the contactor. The gas separated in the flash
separator leaves the top of the flash separator vessel and may be used
to supplement the fuel gas required for the reboiler. Any excess vent gas
is discharged through a back-pressure valve.
The flash separator is equipped with a liquid level control and
diaphragm motor valve that discharges the wet glycol stream through a
heat exchange coil in the surge tank to preheat the wet glycol stream. If
the wet glycol stream absorbs any liquid hydrocarbons in the contactor,
it may be desirable to use a three-phase flash separator to separate the
glycol from the liquid hydrocarbons before the stream enters the
reboiler. Any liquid hydrocarbons present in the reboiler will cause undue
glycol losses from the stripping still.
The wet glycol stream leaves the heat exchange coil in the surge
tank and enters the stripping still mounted on top of the reboiler at the
feed point in the still. The stripping still is packed with a ceramic intalox
saddle-type packing, and the glycol flows downward through the
column and enters the reboiler. The wet glycol passing downward
through the still is contacted by hot rising glycol and water vapors
passing upward through the column. The water vapors released in the
reboiler and stripped from the glycol in the stripping still pass upward
through the still column through an atmospheric reflux condenser that
provides a partial reflux for the column. The water vapor then leaves the
top of the stripping still column and is released to the atmosphere.
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 153

The glycol flows through the reboiler in essentially a horizontal path

from the stripping still column to the opposite end. In the reboiler, the
glycol is heated to approximately 350 to 400oP to remove enough water
vapor to reconcentrate it to 99.5% or more. In field dehydration units, the
reboiler is generally equipped with a direct-fired firebox, using a portion
of the natural gas stream for fuel. In plant-type units, the reboiler may be
fitted with a hot oil-heated coil or steam coil.
A temperature control in the reboiler operates a fuel gas motor valve
to maintain the proper temperature in the glycol. The reboiler is also
generally equipped with a high-temperature safety overriding
temperature controller to shut down the fuel gas system in case the
primary temperature control should malfunction. In order to provide
extra-dry glycol, 99% plus, it is usually necessary to add some stripping
gas to the reboiler. A valve and small pressure regulator are generally
provided to take a small amount of gas from the fuel gas system and
inject it into the bottom of the reboiler through a spreader system. This
stripping gas will "roll" the glycol in the reboiler to allow any pockets of
water vapor to escape that might otherwise remain in the glycol due to
its normal high viscosity. This gas will also sweep the water vapor out of
the reboiler and stripping still. By lowering the partial pressure of the water
vapor in the reboiler and still column, the glycol can be reconcentrated
to a higher percentage.
The reconcentrated glycol leaves the reboiler through an overflow
pipe and passes into the shell side of the heat exchanger-surge tank. In
the surge tank the hot reconcentrated glycol is cooled by exchanging
heat with the wet glycol stream passing through the coil. The surge tank
also acts as a liquid accumulator for feed for the glycol pump. The
reconcentrated glycol flows from: the surge tank through a strainer and
into the glycol pump. From the pump it passes into the shell side of the
glycol cooler mounted on the glycol-gas contactor. It then flows upward
through the glycol cooler where it is further cooled and enters the
column on the top tray.
Glycol dehydrators have several advantages. Initial equipment
costs are lower, and the low-pressure drop across absorption towers
saves power. Operation is continuous; this is generally preferred to batch
operation. Also, makeup requirements may be added readily;
recharging of towers presents no problems. Finally, the plant may be
used satisfactorily in the presence of materials that would cause fouling
of some solid adsorbents.
There are also several operating problems. First, suspended foreign
matter, such as dirt, scale, and iron oxide, may contaminate glycol
 154 Separation and Processing

solutions. Also, overheating of solution may produce both low and high
boiling decomposition products. The resultant sludge may collect on
heating surfaces, causing some loss in efficiency, or, in severe cases,
complete flow stoppage. Placing a bypass mechanical filter ahead of
the solution pump usually prevents such troubles. When both oxygen
and hydrogen sulfide are present, corrosion may become a problem
because of the formation of acid material in glycol solution.
Second, liquids (e.g., water, light hydrocarbons, or lubricating oils) in
inlet gas may require installation of an efficient separator ahead of the
absorber. Highly mineralized water entering the system with inlet gas
may, over long periods, crystallize and fill the reboiler with solid salts. Third,
foaming of solution may occur with a resultant carry-over of liquid. The
addition of a small quantity of antifoam compound usually remedies this
trouble.
Fourth, some leakage around the packing glands of pumps may be
permitted since excessive tightening of packing may result in the
scouring of rods. This leakage is collected and periodically returned to
the system. Fifth, highly concentrated glycol solutions tend to become
viscous at low temperatures and, therefore, are hard to pump. Glycol
lines may solidify completely at low temperatures when the plant is not
operating. In cold weather, continuous circulation of part of the solution
through the heater may be advisable. This practice can also prevent
freezing in water coolers.
In starting a plant, all absorber trays must be filled with glycol before
good contact of gas and liquid can be expected. This may also
become a problem at low-circulation rates because weep holes on
trays may drain solution as rapidly as it is introduced. Finally, sudden
surges should be avoided in starting and shutting down a plant.
Otherwise, large carry-over losses of solution may occur.
4.3.4 Glycol Dehydrator Design
Triethylene glycol dehydrators using tray or packed-column contactors
may be sized from standard models by using the following procedures
and associated graphs and tables (Sivalls). Custom-designed glycol
dehydrators for specific applications may also be designed using these
procedures. The following information must be available on the gas
stream to be dehydrated:
1. Gas flow rate, Mmscfd.
2. Specific gravity of gas.
3. Operating pressure, psig.
4. Maximum working pressure of contact, psig.
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 155

5. Gas inlet temperature, °F

6. Outlet gas water content required, Ibm/MMscf.
Having the above information, it is then necessary to select two points of
design critieria:
1. Glycol to water circulation rate based on water removed. A value of
2 to 6 gal TEG/lb H2O removed is adequate for most glycol
dehydration requirements. Use 2.5 to 4 gal TEG/lb H2O for most field
dehydrators.
2. Lean TEG concentration from reconcentrator. 99.0 to 99.9% lean
TEG is available from most glycol reconcentrators. A value of 99.5%
lean TEG is adequate for most design considerations.
The following procedures may be used to size a glycol dehydrator for a
specific set of conditions, evaluate performance, and determine the
gas capacity of a given size unit.
 156 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.33 Gas capacity of vertical gas inlet scrubbers based on 0.7 specific
gravity, at 100°F. (After Sivalls.)

Inlet Scrubber
A good inlet scrubber is essential for efficient operation of any glycol
dehydrator unit. The required diameter of a vertical inlet scrubber may
be selected using Fig. 4.33, based on the operating pressure of the unit
and gas capacity required. Two-phase inlet scrubbers are generally
constructed with 7V2-ft shell heights. Additional data on typical standard
vertical inlet scrubbers are contained in Tables A.14 and A.15 in the
Appendix.
Glycol-gas Contactor
Select a contactor diameter based on the operating pressure required
with the approximate required gas capacity from Fig. 4.34 or 4.35.
Figure 4.34 is for glycol contactors using trayed columns, and Fig. 4.35 is
for contactors using packed columns. The gas capacities as
determined for a given diameter contactor from Fig. 4.34 or 4.35 must
be corrected for the operating temperature and gas specific gravity.
Calculate the gas capacity of the gas-glycol contactor selected for the
specific operating conditions:

qo = qs( C,)( Cg) (4.7)

where
qo = gas capacity of contactor at operating conditions,
Mmscfd
qs = gas capacity of contactorat standard conditions (0.7
specific gravity and 100°F) based on operating pressure,
Mmscfd
Ct = correction factor for operating temperature
Cg = correction factor for gas specific gravity

The temperature and gas specific gravity correction factors for trayed
glycol contactors are contained in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, respectively. The
temperature and specific gravity factors for packed glycol contactors
are contained in Tables 4.3 and 4.4, respectively.
Next, determine the required dew point depression and the water
removed from the glycol dehydration unit from the following:
Dew point depression
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 157

°F = inlet gas temp. °F - outlet dew point temp. °F

(4.8)

Where

Fig. 4.34 Gas capacity for trayed glycol gas contactors based on 0.7 specific
gravity, at 100°F. (After Sivalls.)
 158 Separation and Processing

The outlet dew point temperature can be found on the water vapor
content graph using the outlet gas water content required and the
operating pressure. The dew point temperature is the temperature at
which the remaining water vapor in the gas will start to condense. The
inlet gas temperature is also the inlet dew point temperature since the
gas is generally assumed to be water-saturated before it is dehydrated.
The water content of the inlet gas can be determined from the same
water vapor content graph using the inlet gas temperature and the
operating pressure.
If the natural gas stream contains appreciable, amounts of either
carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide, the water content of these sour
gases should be taken into account in determining the total water
content of the inlet gas stream. Since both carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide absorb considerably more water vapor than natural
gas, they appreciably increase the total water content and dehydration
requirements of the gas stream.

Fig. 4.35 Gas capacity for packed glycol gas contactors based on 0.7 specific
gravity, at 100°F. (After Sivalls.)

Trayed Contactors
Select the number of actual trays required from Fig. 4.36, using the
required dew point depression and the selected glycol to water
circulation rate. The data contained in Fig 4.36 will give the approximate
number of trays required for rapid sizing of field glycol dehydrators. A
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 159

more detailed consideration of the actual number of trays required will

give the accurate results needed for the most economical size
contactor.
For a more detailed study, a modified McCabe-Thiele diagram can be
constructed to determine the number of theoretical trays for a
triethylene glycol' dehydrator. This number can be converted to the
actual number of trays required by applying the tray efficiency.
First, determine the concentration of the rich TEG leaving the bottom of
the glycol-gas contactor.

(4.9)

(4.10)

TABLE 4.1 TABLE 4.3

TABLE 4.2 TABLE 4.4

Fig.4.36 Trays or packing required for glycol dehydrators. (After Sivalls.)

Where
 160 Separation and Processing

The operating line for the McCabe-Thiele diagram is based on

connecting a line between a point indicating the top of the column and
a point indicating the bottom of the column.
Top of column lb H2O/MMcf in outlet gas and lean TEG,
%
Bottom of column lb H2O/MMcf in inlet gas and rich
TEG, %
The equilibrium line on the McCabe-Thiele diagram can be constructed
by determining the water content of the gas that would be in equilibrium
with various concentrations of triethylene glycol. This can be done by
filling in the following table.

The modified McCabe-Thiele diagram can then be constructed with the

operating line and equilibrium line and then stepped off by triangulation
to determine the theoretical number of trays required. This procedure is
best illustrated by an example (see Example 7.9 and Fig. 7.38).
The actual number of trays then required can be determined using the
tray efficiency
(4.11)
where
Tray efficiency = 25% for bubble cap trays
= 331/3% for valve trays
The number of actual trays required as determined from either Fig. 7.36
or by construction of the McCabe-Thiele diagram is based on both
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 161

theoretical and actual test data using a typical natural gas. Select the
next whole number of trays based on the above design procedures after
the tray efficiencies have been considered. However, good operation of
field dehydrators indicates that a minimum of four trays should be used
in any glycol-gas contactor.
Standard field dehydration contactors normally have 24-in. tray
spacing.
Because of the tendency of glycol to foam in the presence of liquid
hydrocarbons,
 162 Separation and Processing

Fig.4.37 Dew points of aqueous triethylene glycol solutions versus

temperature. (After Sivalls. )
it is recommended that no less than 24-in. tray spacing be used to
prevent any field problems with the equipment. If any foaming problem
does occur, closer tray spacing can result in carryover or entrainment of
the glycol in the gas stream and cause excessive glycol losses as well as
decreased efficiency in dehydration of the gas.

Fig.4.38 Example of modified McCabe-Thiele diagram. (After Sivalls.)

Packed Contactors
The same procedures can be used for packed column contactors and
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 163

the depth of packing required can be determined from Fig 4.36. It is

determined in the same manner using the required dew point
depression and the selected glycol to water circulation rate. If a more
detailed consideration of the depth of packing is required, a modified
McCabe-Thiele diagram can be drawn based on the same procedures
as described above. The depth of packing required can then be
determined from the following empirical relation based on using 1-in.
metal pall rings in the contactor.
Depth packing, ft = no. theo. trays (4.12)
Then select the next whole number of feet of packing for use in the
contactor.
However, good operation indicates that a minimum 4 ft of packing
should be used in any gas-glycol contactor.
Additional specifications for standard tray-type glycol-gas contactors
are contained in Tables A.16 and A.17. Data on packed column glycol-
gas contactors are contained in Tables A.18 and A.19.
Glycol Reconcentrator
For the detailed considerations involved in sizing the various
components of the glycol reconcentrator, it is first necessary to
calculate the required glycol circulation rate:

(4.13)
where
L = glycol circulation rate, gas/hr
Lw = glycol to water circulation rate, gal TEG/lb H2O
Wi = water content of inlet gas, lb H2O/MMscf
q = gas flow rate, MMscfd
Reboiler
The required heat load for the reboiler can be estimated from the
following
equation:
H, = 2000L (4.14)
where
H, = Total heat load on reboiler, Btu/h
L = Glycol circulation rate, gph
The above formula for determining the required reboiler heat load is an
approximation, which is accurate enough for most high-pressure glycol
dehydrator sizing. A more detailed determination of the required
reboiler heat load may be made from the following procedure:
 164 Separation and Processing

(4.15)

(4.16)

(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)
Where

Note: For high-pressure glycol dehydrators,

If the size of the reboiler and stripping still is known or is estimated, the
heat loss can be more accurately determined from the following
equation:
(4.20)
where

The actual surface of the firebox required for direct-fired reboilers can be
determined from the following equation, which is based on a design
heat flux of 7000 Btuh/sq ft. By determining the diameter and overall
length of the V-tube firebox required to give the total surface area as
calculated, the general overall size of the reboiler can be determined.
 TheDehydration of Natural Gas 165

(4.21)
Where

Glycol Circulating Pump

The required size of glycol circulating pump can be readily determined
using the glycol circulation rate and the maximum operating pressure of
the contactor. The most commonly used type of glycol pump for field
dehydrators is the glycol powered pump, which uses the rich glycol from
the bottom of the contactor to power the pump and pump the lean
glycol to the top of the contactor. Sizing data for this type of glycol pump
is contained in Table A.2l in the Appendix. For motor-driven positive
displacement or centrifugal pumps, the manufacturers of these pumps
should be consulted for exact sizing to meet the specific needs of the
glycol dehydrator.

Glycol Flash Separator

A flash separator should be installed downstream from the glycol pump
(especially when the glycol powered type pump is used) to remove any
entrained hydrocarbons from the rich glycol. A small 125 psi WP vertical
two-phase separator is adequate for this purpose. The separator should
be sized based on a liquid retention time in the vessel of at least five
minutes.

(4.22)
where
V = required settling volume in separator, gal
L = glycol circulation rate, gph
T = retention time = 5.0 min
Liquid hydrocarbon should not be allowed to enter the glycol-gas
contactor.
Should this be a problem, a three-phase glycol flash separator will keep
these liquid hydrocarbons out of the reboiler and stripping still. A liquid
retention time of 20 to 30 min should be used in Eq. 4.22 to size a three-
phase flash separator.
The hydrocarbon gas released from the flash separator can be piped to
the
 166 Separation and Processing

reboiler to use as fuel gas and stripping-gas. The amount of gas

available from the glycol pump can be determined from the data in
Table A.21, based on the glycol circulation rate and the operating
pressure of the contactor.

Stripping Still
The size of the packed stripping still for use with the glycol reconcentrator
can be determined from Fig. 4.39. The diameter required for the
stripping still is normally based on the required diameter at the base of
the still using the vapor and liquid loading conditions at that point. The
vapor load consists of the water vapor (steam) and stripping gas flowing
up through the still. The liquid load consists of the rich glycol stream and
reflux flowing downward through the still column. The minimum cross-
sectional area or diameter required for the still as read from Fig. 4.39 is
based on the glycol to water circulation rate (gal TEG/lb H2O) and the
glycol circulation rate (gph).
Normally, one theoretical tray is sufficient for most stripping still
requirements for triethylene glycol dehydration units. For conservative
design, the height of packing using 1 ½-in. ceramic lntalox saddles is
held at a minimum of 4 ft. Conservative design and field test data
indicate that this height should be gradually increased with the size of
the glycol reconcentrator to a maximum of approximately 8 ft for a
1,000,000 Btuh unit.
 The Dehydration of Natural Gas 167

Fig.4.39 Stripping still size for glycol dehydrators. (After Sivalls.)

The amount of stripping gas required to reconcentrate the glycol to a
high percentage will usually be approximately 2 to 10cu ft/gal of glycol
circulated. This stripping gas requirement has been considered in the
size of stripping still that is determined using Fig. 4.39.
Specifications for the main components of standard size glycol
reconcentrators are contained in Table A.20.
The main design items required for a triethylene glycol dehydration unit
such as the glycol-gas contactor, glycol circulation pump, reboiler, and
stripping still may be designed using the above described procedures
and formulas.
Standard dehydrator units based on manufacturer's catalog data can
then be selected based on the minimum design criteria as determined.
Also, the above procedures may be used in evaluating the
performance or determining the maximum gas capacity of any given
specific size glycol dehydration unit.
The following example illustrates the application of the above design
procedures to a typical field gas dehydration plant.
Example 4.9. Dehydrator Design. Size a glycol dehydrator for a field
installation from standard models to meet the following requirements:
Gas flow rate 10.0 MMscfd
Gas specific gravity 0.70
Operating line pressure 1000 psig
Maximum working pressure of contactor 1440 psig
Gas inlet temperature 100°F
Outlet gas water content 7 lb H2O/MMscf
Select additional design criteria:
Glycol to water circulation rate 3.0 gal TEG/lb H2O
 168 Separation and Processing

Lean glycol concentration 99.5% TEG

Use trayed-type contactor with valve trays
Contactor size
From Fig. 4.34, select a contactor diameter with the approximate gas
capacity at operating pressure.
qs for 24-in. OD contactor at 1000 psig = 11.3 Mmscfd
Correct for operating conditions from Tables 4.1 and 4.2, using Eq. 4.7,
qo = qs( C1)( Cg)
qo = 11.3(1.0)(1.0) = 11.3 Mmscfd
Required Dew Point Depression and Water Removed
From the water content chart at 1000 psig:

Number of Trays Required

From Fig. 4.36 at 3 gal TEG/lb H2O) and 67°F dew point depression, No.
Actual trays = 4.5. For a more detailed study, construct a modified
McCabe-Thiele diagram.

Using Eq. 4.10,

Operating line points:

Top of column 7.0 lb H2O/MMcf and 99.5% TEG
Bottom of column 61lb H2O/MMcf and 96.0% TEG
Equilibrium line points
 Dehydration of Natural Gas 169

Construct a McCabe - Thiele diagram and determine the number of

theoretical trays required. See Fig. 4.38. From Eq. 4.11,

The results from the McCabe-Thiele diagram are close to that

determined from the approximation curve, Fig. 4.36. In either case, the
next whole number of trays should be used.
No. Actual trays required = 5

4.3.5 Removal of Acid Gases

Natural gas wellstreams often contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon
dioxide (CO2), These two gases are called acid gases because, in the
presence of water, they form acids or acidic solutions. These gases,
particularly H2S, are very undesirable contaminants; unless they are
present in very small quantities, they must be removed from a natural
gas wellstream.
Hydrogen sulfide must be removed for several reasons, the most
important being that it is a toxic, poisonous gas and cannot be tolerated
in gases that may be used for domestic fuels. Hydrogen sulfide in the
presence of water is extremely corrosive and can cause premature
failure of valves, pipeline, and pressure vessels. It can also cause catalyst
poisoning in refinery vessels and requires expensive precautionary
measures. Most pipeline specifications limit H2S content to 0.25 g/100 cu
ft of gas (about 4 ppm).
Carbon dioxide removal is not always required. However, removal may
be required in gas going to cryogenic plants to prevent solidification of
the CO2, Carbon dioxide is corrosive in the presence of water, and as an
inert gas has no heating value. Most treating processes that remove H2S
will also remove CO2; therefore, the volume of CO2 in the wellstream
must be added to the volume of H2S to arrive at the total acid-gas
volume to be removed.
The term sour gas means that the gas contains H2S in amounts above the
acceptable industry limits. Sweet gas means a non-H2S-bearing gas or
 170 Separation and Processing

gas that has been sweetened by treating. Some of the processes for
removing acid gases from natural gas are briefly discussed below.
Iron-sponge Sweetening
The iron-sponge process is a batch process, the sponge being a
sensitive, hydrated iron oxide (Fe2O3) supported on wood shavings. The
reaction between the sponge and H2S in the gas stream is
2 Fe2O3 + 6 H2S ~ 2 Fe2S3 + 6 H2O
The ferric oxide is present in a hydrated form; without the water of
hydration, the reaction will not proceed. Thus, the operating
temperature of the vessel must be kept below approximately 120°F or a
supplemental water spray must be provided.
Regeneration of the bed is sometimes accomplished by the addition of
air
(O2, either continuously or by batch addition. The regeneration reaction
is
2 Fe2S3 + 3 O2 ~ 2 Fe2O3 + 6 S
Because, the sulfur remains in the bed, the number of regeneration steps
is limited, and eventually the bed will have to be replaced.
Alkanolamine Sweetening
Alkanolamine encompasses the family of organic compounds of
monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), and triethanolamine
(TEA). The chemicals are used extensively for the removal of hydrogen
sulfide or carbon dioxide from other gases and are particularly adapted
for obtaining the low acid-gas residuals that are usually specified by
pipelines. The alkanolamine process is not selective and must be
designed for total acid-gas removal, even though CO2 removal may not
be required or desired to meet market specifications.

Typical reactions of acid gas with MEA are

Absorbing:
MEA + H2S MEA hydro sulfide + heat
MEA + H2O + CO2 MEA carbonate + heat
Regenerating:
MEA hydrosulfide + heat MEA + H2S
MEA carbonate + heat MEA + H2O + CO2
In general, MEA is preferred to either DEA or TEA solutions because it is a
stronger base and is more reactive than either DEA or TEA. It also has a
 Problems 171

lower molecular weight and thus requires less circulation to maintain a

given amine to acid-gas mole ratio. In addition, MEA has greater stability
and can be readily reclaimed from contaminated solution by
semicontinuous distillation.
Glycol/Amine Process
The glycol/amine process uses a solution composed of 10 to 30 weight
% MEA, 45 to 85% glycol, and 5 to 25% water for the simultaneous
removal of water vapor, H2S, and CO2 from gas streams. The
combination dehydration and sweetening unit results in lower
equipment cost than would be required with the standard MEA unit
followed by a separate glycol dehydrator. The main disadvantages of
the glycol/amine process are increased vaporization losses of MEA due
to high regeneration temperatures, reclaiming must be by vacuum
distillation, corrosion problems are present in operating units, and
application must be for gas streams that do not require low dew points.
Sulfinol Process
The Shell sulfinol process uses a mixture of solvents, which allows it to
behave as both a chemical and physical solvent process. The solvent is
composed of sulfolane, diisopropanolamine (DIP A), and water. The
sulfolane acts as the physical solvent, while DIP A acts as the chemical
solvent.
The main advantages of sulfinol are low solvent circulation rates; smaller
equipment and lower plant cost; low heat capacity of the solvent; low
utility costs; low degradation rates; low corrosion rates; low foaming
tendency; high effectiveness for removal of carbonyl sulfide (COS),
carbon disulfide (CS2), and mercaptans; low vaporization losses of the
solvent; low heat-exchanger fouling tendency; and nonexpansion of
the solvent when it freezes.
Some of the disadvantages of sulfinol are absorption of heavy
hydrocarbons and aromatics, and expense.

REFERENCES
Campbell, J. M. Gas Conditioning and Processing. Norman, Okla.:
Campbell Petroleum Series, 1976.
Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc. Engineering Data Book. 9th ed. 3rd
revision. 1977.
Guenther, J. D. "Natural Gas Dehydration." Paper presented at Seminar
on Process Equipment and Systems on Treatment Platforms,
Taastrup, Denmark. April 26, 1979.
 172 Separation and Processing

Katz, D. L., et al. Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1959.
Kimray, Inc. Equipment Catalog. pp.3-7, section G, 1976.
Kohl, A. L., and F. C. Riesenfeld. Gas Purification. New York: McGraw-Hill,
pp. 360-362, 1960.
McCarthy, E. L.,'W. L. Boyd, and L. S. Reid. "The Water Vapor Content of
Essentially Nitrogen-Free Natural Gas Saturated at Various
Conditions of Temperature and Pressure." Petroleum Trans. A/ME
189, pp. 241-43, 1950.
McKetta, J. J., and A. H. Wehe. "Use This Chart for Water Content of
Natural Gases." Petroleum Refiner 37, pp. 153-4, 1958.
Petroleum Extension Service. Field Handling of Natural Gas. 3rd Ed.
Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1972.
Selleck, F. T., L. T. Carmichael, and B. H. Sage. "Phase Behavior in the
Hydrogen Sulfide-Water System.:Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry 44, pp. 2219-2226, 1952.
Sivalls, C. R. "Fundamentals of Oil and Gas Separation." Proceedings of
the Gas Conditioning Conference, University of Oklahoma, 1977.
Sivalls, C. R.. "Glycol Dehydrator Design Manual." Proceedings of the Gas
Conditioning Conference, University of Oklahoma, 1976.
Weibe, R., and V. L. Gaddy. "Vapor Phase Composition of Carbon Dioxide
Water Mixtures at Various Temperatures and Pressures to 700
Atmospheres." Journal of American Chemical Society 63, pp. 475-
477, 1941.

PROBLEMS

4.1 The analysis of a gas sample obtained from a Panhandle well

showed the
following composition:
(A) For pressures of 200 and 400 psia, compute the hydrate-forming
temperatures.
(b) For temperatures of 62°F, 70°F, and 80°F, compute the hydrate-
forming pressures.

4.2 The sketch illustrates a refrigeration-expansion process to reduce

water (and condensate) content of gas well production. The well stream
arrives at thewellhead at 2000 psi a and 155°F. It is cooled in the
separator and heat exchanger and then flashed through the choke into
the separator. The separator pressure is controlled at 1000 psia. The
separator temperature is controlled at the lowest possible temperature
that will not result in hydrates being produced in the separator.

Calculate the following:

(a) Pounds of water per day removed at the free water knockout drum
(assume saturated gas at reservoir flowing conditions).
(b) Pounds of water per day removed at the separator.
(c) Separator temperature, °F.
(d) Temperature ahead of the choke, °F.
(e) Heat removed by heat exchange in separator and heat
exchanger, Btu/day.
(f) Additional pounds of water per day that must be removed from
separator gas if sales specification is for a 15°F water dew point at
1000 psia.
4.3 Separator Sizing Problem
Oil production = 20,000 bopd
Water production = 15%
Gas rate = 60 MMscfd at 14.7 psia and
60°F
Maximum working pressure = 720 psig
Design temperature = 110°F
Operating pressure = 500 psig
Flowing temperature = 120°F
Oil gravity = 32° API
Gas gravity = 0.7
Design a proper size horizontal separator to handle the above fluid.
Assume: No slugs or foaming exists and separator K = 0.35.

4.4 Glycol Dehydration Problem

Gas flow rate = 100 MMscfd at 60°F and 14.7
psia
Molecular weight = 18.85
Operating pressure = 1000 psig
Operating temperature = 100°F
Design a glycol dehydration system using trielhylene glycol (TEG) to
condition the gas to 7 Ib/MMscf.