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Calculus is a branch of mathematics developed in the 17th century by Newton and Leibniz to handle problems involving motion and changing quantities. It uses the concepts of functions and limits to study rates of change. A function defines a relationship between variables where each input is mapped to a single output. The limit of a function describes its behavior as the input approaches a value without reaching it. Calculus uses limits to define derivatives and integrals for analyzing varying quantities.

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40 views

Lesson 1 1

Calculus is a branch of mathematics developed in the 17th century by Newton and Leibniz to handle problems involving motion and changing quantities. It uses the concepts of functions and limits to study rates of change. A function defines a relationship between variables where each input is mapped to a single output. The limit of a function describes its behavior as the input approaches a value without reaching it. Calculus uses limits to define derivatives and integrals for analyzing varying quantities.

Uploaded by

John Asher Josh Aguinillo
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Calculus is a branch of mathematics which started to develop in the 17th century.

Sir
Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniez (German, 1646-1716) created
Calculus in time. The invention of Calculus by this two remarkable men has provided the
scientists a mathematics that could handle many of the difficult problems about motion and
things that could handle many of the difficult problems about motion and things that
change. Today, Calculus has an important application in almost every field of study that
uses mathematics.

The word “Calculus” is derived from the Latin word for stone or pebble. In ancient
times, pebbles were used for counting. Thus, Calculus roughly means a “method of
calculation”. The technique of calculation develop by Newton and Leibniz was undoubtedly
remarkable so much so that it was called the CALCULUS.

In the study of Calculus, the first important concept or idea which must be
introduced in the concept of functions and limits. As we shall eventually notice, the
whole structure of Calculus is based upon the function and limit concept.

*FUNCTIONS*
A function is a relationship between two variables such that to each value of the
independent variable there corresponds exactly one value of the independent variable.

Consider 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), which is a relationship between two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, where 𝑓(𝑥)
is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the dependent variable.

The collection of all values assumed by the independent variable is called the domain
of the function, and the collection of all values assumed by the dependent variable is
called the range of the function.

Example 1:
From the following equations, identify which define functional relationships between
the variables x and y.
1. 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑
2. 𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟐

Example 2:
1
Determine the domain and range for the function defined by 𝑦 = 𝑥−3.

*FUNCTIONAL NOTATION*
The equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 is a function where 𝑦 is the dependent variable and 𝑥 is the
independent variable. In functional notation, this equation has the form,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
Functional Notation 𝑓(𝑥), which is the dependent variable is read, “f of x” and
denoted that 𝑓(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥.

The following examples show how to evaluate functional notations.


FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

EXAMPLE 1:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7. Find, 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(−3𝑥).

EXAMPLE 2:

𝜋
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥 − cos 𝑥. Find, 𝑔(𝜋), 𝑔 ( 2 ) and 𝑔(−𝑥).

EXAMPLE 3:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 1, find (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2) and (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥)

*LIMITS*
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be the function of 𝑥, and let "𝑎" be constant.
We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 and write this as,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Can read as, “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) equals 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎”, provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥)as
close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 from both sides, without actually
letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.
The notion of limit explains the behavior of a function near 𝑎, not 𝑎.
Consider the function,
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
0
This function is not defined at 𝑥 = 2 since at this point, 𝑓(𝑥) will be equal to 0
which is undefined and meaningless. However, we can still know what happens to 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 2, we should calculate the values of 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 near 2

EXAMPLE 1:
𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

*LIMIT THEOREMS*

THEOREM 1. Uniqueness of Limits


A function can have as most one limit at 𝑎.
𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿1 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿2 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐿1 = 𝐿2
THEOREM 2. Limit of a Constant
The limit of a constant function 𝑐, is equal to that constant.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 3. Limit of Identity
The limit of the identity function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 at any number 𝑎 is 𝑎.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 4: Limit of a Sum and Difference.
The limit of a sum and difference of two or more functions is equal to the sum and
difference of their limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 5. Limit of a product.
FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The limit of a product of two or more functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 6. Limit of a quotient.
The limit of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that
the limit of the denominator is zero.
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 ,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
Provided that the lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 7. Limit of Polynomial
The limit of polynomial at any number 𝑎 is the value of that polynomial at 𝑎.
lim (𝑓𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +. . . +𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑜 ) = 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + . . . +𝑓1 𝑎 + 𝑓𝑜 .
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 8. Limit of a Root.
The limit of the root of a function is equal to the root of their limits.
𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
EXAMPLE 1.

Evaluate the lim(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥).


𝑥→2

EXAMPLE 2.

𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
Evaluate the lim ( )
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 +6𝑥+3

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