TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson Page

1 The biological world and

Its balancing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Review of ecological concepts as basis

of biological control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Pest and their characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4 Factors that determine the existence

of an organism in an ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 1

 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS
AND MICRO-ORGANISM

Introduction

In agriculture, pest problems are very familiar. Farmers and other farm
technicians mostly use and recommends chemical pesticides to immediately
solve these problems. Beneficial arthropods and microorganisms are being
overlooked and not even recognized its importance.

The nature of beneficial arthropods and microorganisms will be discussed in

this module. Its impact to the environment and the way they interact with the
living world.

Objectives

After this module, the students should be able to:

1. Understand and relate the ecological concepts and principles as basis of
biological control and the biological world and its balancing mechanism.
2. Define pest and distinguish their characteristics.
3. Identify and discuss the factors that determine the existence of organisms
in the ecosystem.

Lessons

1. The biological world and its balancing mechanism.

2. Review of ecological concepts as basis of biological control.
3. Pest and their characteristics.
4. Factors that determine the existence of an organism in an ecosystem.

Direction to the Learner

1. Soft copy of this Module will be given/sent to students through on line.

2. Read, understand and follow the instructions given.
3. Answer the questions or activities at the end of the lessons or module.
Write or encode your answers on a bond paper or yellow pad paper.
4. Submit all activities conducted and other requirements on or before the
prescribe schedule. Submission can be done on-line via Facebook
messenger, SMS, or emails.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 2

5. Questions and other queries regarding on the lessons or topics can be sent
or asked through on-line, SMS or during the face to face meetings.
6. Follow the covid-19 protocols during the face to face meetings (if there
is/if necessary). Face to face meeting is not mandatory.

References

T. Vold. Cf. P. (2008). Ecological concepts, principles and applications to

conservation. ISBN 978-0-7726-6007-7. Retrieved July 19, 2020 at
http://www.biodiversitybc.org/assets/pressReleases/BBCPrinciplesWEB.
pdf

Clark M., J. Choi, M. Douglas (2018). The Scope of Ecology. EBOOK ISBN 978-1-
947172-52-4 Retrieved July 19, 2020 at
https://opentextbc.ca/biology2eopenstax/chapter/the-scope-of-
ecology/

Tutorialspoint.com (2020). Retrieved July 19, 2020 at

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/environmental
_studies_energy_flow_in_ecosystem.htm#:~:text=Energy%20moves
%20life.&text=Our%20ecosystem%20is%20maintained%20by,produce
%20organic%20material%20through%20photosynthesis.

Khan Academy (n.d.). Food chain and Food Web. Retrieved July 19, 2020 at
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-to-
ecosystems/a/food-chains-food-webs.

Huffaker, C.B., and P. S. Messenger (1964). The concept and significance of

natural control. In: P. DeBach (ed.) Biological Control of Insect Pests
and Weeds. Chapman & Hall: London.

DeBach, P. 1964. Biological control of insect pests and weeds. Chapman &
Hall: London.

Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. 3rd ed. Saunders: Philadelphia.

BD Editors (2018). Density Dependent and Independent Limiting Factors.

Retrieved July 19, 2020 at https://biologydictionary.net/density-
dependent-and-independent-limiting-factors/

Cornell University (2020). Pests. Retrieved July 19, 2020 at

http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/Tutorials/core-tutorial/module12/index.as
px#:~:text=Insect%20Body%20Characteristics,antennae%2C%20eyes%2C
%20and%20mouthparts.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 3

A. Sharov (1996). Functional and Numerical Response. Retrieved August 4, 2020
at https://web.ma.utexas.edu/ users/davis/375/popecol/lec10/
funcresp.html

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 4

LESSON 1
THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD AND ITS BALANCING MECHANISM

I. Overview

In the natural ecosystem, every organism interacting has its own place and
responsibilities. Some are living in the water, some in soil/land, and even in
the air. In these habitats where they live, these organisms have its own niche.
Niche refers to the role or “occupation” of an organism. One of which are
herbivores that eat plants, carnivores that eat animals, and omnivores that eat
both plants and animals. Every role of organisms in nature greatly influence
the balance and health of a living system.

II. Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Understand the interaction of organisms in an ecosystem.
2. Identify the different components of an ecosystem.
3. Discuss the biological cycle of materials within the ecosystem.

III. Lesson Content

A. Ecology

Ecology is the study of relationship among interacting organisms and their

environment. Ecology has its different levels, this includes ecosystem,
community, population, and organism. Ecosystem has its comprising
component, the biotic and abiotic factors that creates processes within the
system, this include food production, soil formation (pedogenesis), modifies
niche, and regulates the flow or flux of energy.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 5

Levels of organization

Source: asinglebutterfly-scienceandela.weebly.com

Biotic components
1. Plants
2. Animals

Biotic components are the living components of the ecosystem. Plants are
basically the producers and animals are the consumers. Fungi and bacteria and
other microorganisms act as decomposers, they are also included as living
organisms.

Abiotic components
1. Water
2. Soil
3. Air/wind
4. Nutrients
5. Atmosphere
6. Sunlight

Abiotic components are the non-living components of the ecosystem. These

influences the niche and role of every living components. The absence of one
abiotic component ecosystem will be nothing.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 6

B. The Energy Flow

In an ecosystem, the cycle of energy is dependent on the flow of energy

through different trophic levels. The primary producers (plants) at the first
trophic level utilizes solar energy to produce organic material through
photosynthesis.

The herbivore animals at the second trophic level, consumed the plants as food
which gives them energy. The accumulated energy by these animals is used for
the metabolic functions such as growth and development, maintaining blood
circulation and body temperature, breathing, digesting food, etc.

The carnivores at the third trophic level that feed on the herbivores to sustain
their growth from the derive energy. A higher trophic level is present if a
larger or hyper- predator will exist and feed on the carnivores to get energy.
These interconnections of species are linked to one another through food
chains.

From the different trophic levels, if the producer, herbivore and carnivore will
die, decomposers (bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects) take place for
decomposition. They break down wastes and dead organisms to return the
nutrients to the soil, which is then taken up by the producers. The cycle will
then be repeatedly done.

Source: youtube.com

Trophic Structure in the Ecosystem: Food chain and Food web

Food chain is a linear sequence of organisms (plants and animals) through

which nutrients and energy pass. The primary producers, primary consumers,

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 7

secondary consumers and higher-level consumers are the primary components
of this dynamic. Each organism in a food chain occupies a part called a trophic
level depending on their role.

A food web is a graphic representation of a holistic, non-linear web of

organisms on the different trophic levels (primary producers, primary
consumers, and higher-level consumers) used to describe structure of
ecosystem and its dynamics.

Source: rlbbio5.weebly.com

C. Biogeochemical Cycles

The major elements (oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and Sulphur) are
essential components of an organisms. These elements are recycled through
time and space on earth by living and non-living ecological components. Such
cyclic exchange of material is called Biogeochemical Cycle.

Biogeochemical cycle is the flow of chemical elements and compounds

between organisms and the environment. Nutrients and elements taken by
organisms are passed through the food chain and returned into the soil, air,
and water through catabolic processes (respiration, excretion) and
decomposition.

Selected Biogeochemical Cycles

1. Water Cycle

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 8

Through the heat of the sun, water coming from the ocean, rivers, lakes,
transpiring plants, and respiring animals evaporates in a form of vapors to the
atmosphere. This vaporized water cools and condenses form cloud and water
(ice). If the dense of the water cannot hold by the cloud, this will fall down
into the earth in a form of snow or rain which will then again flow in the
different bodies of water.

Source: edrawsoft.com

2. Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is the most diverse element present in the atmosphere, however, its
is in the state of unavailable form. This should be converted into combined
state with elements like H, C, O by certain bacteria, to be readily available for
plant uptake.

The action of organisms (denitrifying bacteria) and through lightning or

electrification, Nitrogen is being expelled in the environment.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 9

 Source: onliebiologynote.com

3. Carbon Cycle

Carbon is readily available for the plants in the form of carbon dioxide.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants able to produce as
carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are passed through the
different trophic levels and will return in the environment the process of
respiration or decomposition of plants and animals. Carbon is also recycled
during the burning of fossil fuels.

Source: pinterest.com

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 10

IV. Evaluation (Quiz no. 1): 30 points

1. List the different levels of organization in ecology.

2. What are the living and non-living components of an ecosystem?
3. Define the following words:
a. Biomagnification
b. Bioaccumulation
4. Discuss how chemicals accumulates in the living system.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 11

LESSON 2
REVIEW OF ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AS BASIS OF BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL

I. Overview

Biological control is a natural phenomenon where proper application can lead

to successful management of pest problem. It can provide a relatively
permanent, harmonious, and economical solution. But because biological
control is a manifestation of the natural association of different kinds of living
organisms, i.e., parasites and pathogens with their hosts and predators with
their prey, the phenomenon is a dynamic one, subject to disturbances by other
factors, to changes in the environment, and to the adaptations, properties,
and limitations of the organisms involved in each case (Huffaker and
Messenger, 1964).

In order to understand the potential and the limitations of biological control,

and especially in order to carry out competently a program of biological
control, an awareness of the ecological basis of the phenomenon is essential.
Three interrelated concepts that must be understood are (1) the idea of
discrete populations and communities, (2) the balance of nature, and (3) the
natural control of numbers.

II. Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the different characteristics of some ecological components.
2. Identify the limiting factors that
deter population increase.

III. Lesson Content

A. Population Regulation

Species are existing as groups of likely

or the same individuals. These will
interbreed, reproduce, and die. By reproducing they maintain themselves as a
group, which at a local level is called a population (Boughey, 1971).

Note: Populations refer to a group of individuals at a given area or locality

that can be or potentially interbreed.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 12

Features and Characteristics of a Population

1. Population change in size: Size is the number of individuals within the

population. The size may change due to,
a. Environmental factors (biotic and abiotic) – scarcity (lack) of food will
render the decrease of population, likely, harsh weather condition may
kill individuals.
b. Migrations of individuals into or out of the local population – if an
individual move-out, the size of the population will decrease.

Source: BioNinja

2. Age structure or Population structure: It is the age pattern distribution of

the individuals in the population.

Age structure is important in respect to host populations in which only one

or two stages of development are utilizable by a particular natural enemy.
Close synchronization between natural-enemy and host life cycles must
occur if successful control of the host is to be achieved.

Age structure is also important in the population dynamics of an insect,

since it often reflects the growth phase of the population. Growth phase
includes; young age, intermediate age, and adult age.

3. Populations are dynamic with regards to geographic distribution. They

tend to spread until some limiting environmental condition is encountered
such as geographical barriers like coast, mountain ranges, desert boundary
or absence of a required resources like food or habitat.

Note: Dynamic means always moving from one place to the other.

4. Populations do not exist in isolation. They occur in habitats in association

with other species, forming communities (Odum, 1971). For example, we
can describe a cogon grass community and can usually find certain species
such as of insects, todes, birds, and other animals associated with the
dominant cogon species.

Trophic interaction in Communities

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 13

1. Phytophagy: the consumption of plants or plant parts by herbivorous
animals. (phyto – means plant; phagous – means to feed).
2. Carnivory: the consumption of or nutritional dependency on insects,
particularly phytophagous (insect that feed on plants) ones, of certain
animal species. (carnivory – means feeding on animals).

Insect Reproduction

All organisms are capable of increasing in numbers through processes of

reproduction. Most insects are particularly notable for
their high potential rates of numerical increase
because of their relatively very high fecundities
(capable of producing many off-springs) and short life
cycles. These species are commonly called r
strategists, and some good examples are found among
parthenogenetic aphids. Others reproduce much more
slowly (k strategists), are relatively long-lived, and
are food-limited (e.g., the tsetse fly and the
elephant).

B. Natural Control of Population

Natural controls generally limit the increase of population number. Such

checks to numerical growth include limited resources (food, space, shelter),
periodically occurring inclement weather or other hazards (heat, cold, wind,
drought, rain), competition among themselves or from other kinds of animals,
and natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens).

The major components of the natural control of population numbers

Natural
Control
Density - Density –
independent dependent
factors factors (all
biological)

Physical Biological Nonreciprocal Reciprocal

Temperature; Host Space; Parasites;
Humidity; suitabilit Some food; Predators;
Air y; Territoriality Pathogens;
movement; Food Herbivores;
Exposure; quality Some food
Soil Ph; sources;
Crowding

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 14

The result of natural control is the regulation of numbers, preventing the
population from becoming too high or relaxing certain suppressive influences
when the population becomes low (Huffaker and Messenger, 1964). Natural
control includes the collective forces of the environment that serve to hold a
given population in check against its own capability for numerical growth. As
such, natural control includes:

1. climatic factors, such as excessive heat, cold, or aridity,

2. disappearance or deterioration of food resources, and
3. the action of competing species and natural enemies.

This whole field of study is often referred to as population dynamics or

population ecology in this narrow sense.

Density Dependent Limiting Factor (biologydictionary.net)

Density dependent limiting factors cause the per capita (per individual) growth
rate of a population to change as the
population gets larger. Limiting factors
that are density dependent usually cause
the per capita growth rate to decrease,
acting as a negative feedback loop to
control the size of the population. The
maximum number of individuals that can
live in an area based on the density
dependent limiting factors is called the
carrying capacity.

Density-dependent factors may also be classified according to whether they

vary in numbers (or magnitude) in response to changes in host numbers
(reciprocal action) or whether their numbers (or magnitude) remain fixed
even though some resource may change (nonreciprocal action).

1. Competition
Individuals in a population are always competing for limited resources like
food, mates, shelter, and water. As the population size increases, the
competition becomes more intense causing some individuals to die over
time, not mate, etc. This feedback makes a correction by reducing the
population size to a level that can be supported by the environment.

2. Predation
Areas with high populations attract predators that kill and eat individuals,
helping to keep the population under control. By feeding on these
individuals, predators may end up increasing their own numbers, resulting
in natural cyclical changes in populations.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 15

3. Diseases, Parasites, and Accumulation of Waste
Diseases and parasites have more opportunities to spread and infect
individuals in larger populations, such as through contaminated water
supplies. Also, waste can accumulate quickly in large populations and this
leads to death from disease and parasites and can also impair reproduction,
reducing the size of the population.

Density Independent Limiting Factors (biologydictionary.net)

Limiting factors that fall into this category affect the per capita growth rate
independent of the population density.
These factors don’t make continual
corrections to keep the population size under
control because the strength of their
effectiveness is not rooted in the number of
individuals present. Density independent
limiting factors cause abrupt and erratic
shifts in population size. Small populations
are particularly at risk of being wiped out by
density independent limiting factors.

The category of density independent limiting factors includes fires, natural

disasters (earthquakes, floods, tornados), and the effects of pollution. The
chances of dying from any of these limiting factors don’t depend on how many
individuals are in the population. In addition, individuals may not die directly
from the limiting factor but from the effects of it such as from the loss of
habitat or a primary food source resulting from a flash flood.

Density independent limiting factors also cause population sizes to increase.

For example, the water from a flash flood increases the growth of vegetation,
thereby providing more food for primary consumers in the ecosystem.

IV. Evaluation (Quizno. 2): 30 points

1. What are the 3 types of biological control agents?

2. Enumerate and discuss 4 characteristics or features of a population?
3. Differentiate density dependent factor from density independent factor.
4. List down all the limiting factors of population under the density dependent
and density independent.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 16

LESSON 3
PEST AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

I. Overview

Pest can be found on any structures (houses, buildings), agricultural crops, live
stocks and other products. It is important to recognize pest; proper
identification gives us the lead in controlling them.

Life cycles, life histories, characteristics and nature of pest are very important
factors in determining the control methods to be applied. This will give the
best time to control the pest, use non chemical method, and avoid injuries to
the host and non-target organisms.

II. Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify pests through physical characteristics.
2. Familiarize with the damages caused by the different types of pest.

III. Lesson Content

A. Definition of Pests

 Pest is any organism which competes with mankind for a limited resource or
is threatening to man’s health or comfort and possessions.

1. injures humans, animals, crops, structures, or possessions.

2. competes with humans, domestic animals or crops for food, feed, or
water.
3. spreads disease to humans, domestic animals, or crops.

 Ecologically, there are no pests, only consumers. However, when an

organism begins to take what mankind wants, that organism becomes a pest

The certified applicator must know the pests that are most likely to be
encountered. To be able to control these pests, you need to know the
following:

1. The common features of pest organisms.

2. Characteristics of the damage they cause.
3. The biology and development of the pest.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 17

B. Main categories of Pest

1. Insect pest and another arthropod pest

2. Plant diseases
3. Weeds
4. Vertebrate pest

1. Insect Pest

These insects feed on, cause injury to,

or transmit disease to humans, animals,
plants, food, fiber, and structures. They
are characterized for having head,
thorax, and abdomen. (refer to module
1 – lesson 4).

Example of insect pest:

a. Head lice – feed on human blood.

b. Mosquitoes – feed on animal or human blood, they transmit diseases such as
dengue fever, malaria, and yellow fever.
c. Stem borer/ wood borer/ bark borer – bores on the stem of agricultural
crops, forest trees and pine trees, leading to crop wilting and death.
d. Leaf hopper/ plant hopper/ tree hopper – feed on xylem and phloem of
crops, some also transmit viral diseases.
e. Termites – household pets, feed on wood and clothing.
f. Aphids – feed on plant sap, transmit most of viral diseases of crops.

Insects-like Pest (Arthropod Pest)

Insects-like organisms are also mistaken as insect pest fo having close similar
features. They tend to have similar injury to plants and animals. Spiders, ticks,
mites, sowbugs, pillbugs, millipedes, and centipedes are examples and they
resemble insects in habit, appearance, life cycle, and size.

2. Plant Diseases

Plant diseases are caused by biological agents

called pathogens which alters plant growth,
appearance and functions. Pathogens include:
a. bacteria
b. fungi
c. viruses

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 18

 d. nematodes

Pathogens can be spread through wind, rain, insects, and other animals
including human. They can also be carried by transplanted soil, nursery grafts,
vegetative propagation, contaminated equipment and tools, infected seed.

Disease development

a. The pathogen must be present and virulent

(infectious),
b. The host plant must be susceptible, and
c. the environment must be favorable for
development of the pathogen.

Plant response to a disease

a. Overdevelopment of tissue, galls, swellings, and leaf curls.

b. Underdevelopment of tissue, stunting, lack of chlorophyll, and incomplete
development of organs.
c. Death of tissue, blights, leaf spots, wilting, and cankers.

Types of Pathogens

a. Bacteria: microscopic, one-

celled organisms, and
reproduce by single cell
division. Bacteria numbers
multiply quickly under
warm, humid weather
conditions. Bacteria may
attack any part of a plant,
either above or below the
soil surface. Several of the
leaf spot and rot diseases
are caused by bacteria.

b. Fungi: lack chlorophyll

(cannot make their own
food). They feed off
other living organisms or
live on dead or decaying
organic matter. Fungi
reproduce with spores
(functions the same as
the seed of a plant). High

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 19

 humidity (above 90 percent) is favorable for spore germination and active
growth. Smut and Mildew are examples of fungal diseases.

c. Viruses: can only be seen under electron microscope. Viruses are usually
recognized from the symptoms
on infected plant. They
depend on other living
organisms for food and cannot
live long on their own. Viruses
invade healthy plants through
wounds or during pollination.
Insects that feed with piercing-
sucking mouthparts (aphids,
whiteflies, leafhoppers), as
well as chewing insects
(beetles) can transmit viruses
while feeding. Viruses can also
be spread by nematodes. Practically all plants can be infected by viruses.

Mycoplasmas are the smallest known

independently living organisms. Unlike viruses,
they can exist apart from the host organism.
Mycoplasmas obtain their food from plants.
Yellows disease and some stunts are caused by
mycoplasmas.

d. Nematodes: tiny (microscopic) worm-

like organisms. Nematodes destroy root
systems while feeding, which causes a
loss in the uptake of water and
minerals by the plant. Common
symptoms are wilting, stunting, and
lack of vigorous growth under good
growing conditions. Nematodes feed by
sucking the contents of a cell through a
hypodermic-like mouth inserted into a
cell. Not all nematodes feed on roots.
Some foliar feeding nematodes attack chrysanthemums and leave triangles
of brown, dried tissue that develop on the leaves late in the season. Some
nematodes are parasitic to insects.

3. Weeds

Weeds are any unwanted plants that grow on the area for a reason. These
plants are considered as weeds because:

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 20

a. Cause skin irritation (e.g. poison ivy).
b. Cause hay fever (e.g. ragweed).
c. Harborage for pests such as rodents,
ticks, or insects and plant disease
agents.
d. Release toxins in the soil which inhibit
the growth of desirable plants.
e. Contaminate the product at harvest.
f. Compete for water, nutrients, light, and
space.
g. Cause poisoning.
h. Increases mosquito reproduction.
i. Clog irrigation ditches, drainage ditches,
and channels.

Plant Development Stages

a. seedling: very small, very vulnerable plantlets.

b. Vegetative: rapid growth, root stems, and foliage produced. Nutrients and
water move rapidly throughout the plant.
c. Seed production: becomes the priority for energy use. Water and nutrient
uptake are slow and directed to flower, fruit, and seed production.
d. Maturity: movement of water and nutrients slow-down, energy production
is low.

Duration of the Weed

a. Annuals: Plants that grow from seed, mature, and produce seed for the
next generation in one year or less are called annuals. This group has many
grass-like weeds (crabgrass) and broadleaved (pigweed) m embers.
b. Biennials: These plants have a two-year life cycle. During the first year,
they grow from seed and develop a heavy root and compact cluster of
leaves (called a rosette). During the second year, they mature, produce
seed, and die. Some examples are: bull thistle and burdock.
c. Perennials: When plants live more than two years, they are called
perennials. Perennials may mature and reproduce in the first year, but they
will repeat the cycle for several years or maybe indefinitely. Some
perennial plants die back each winter. Others, such as trees, may lose their
leaves but do not die back. Most perennials grow from seed and many
produce tubers, bulbs, rhizomes (below-ground root-like stems), or stolons
(above-ground stems that produce roots).

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 21

Major Classes of Weeds

a. Grasses: Leaves of grasses are narrow, stand upright, and have parallel
veins. When the seedlings sprout, they have only one leaf. Grasses grow
from a point (growing point) located below the soil surface, thus the
growing point is sheltered. This is why grass can be mowed without killing
the plant. Most grasses have fibrous root systems. Grasses have both annual
and perennial species.
b. Sedges: These are similar to
grasses, but they have triangular
stems and three rows of leaves.
They are sometimes listed under
grasses on the pesticide label.
These plants often are found in wet
places, but are principal pests in
fertile, well-drained soils. Yellow
and purple nutsedge are perennial
weed species and produce rhizomes
and tubers.
c. Broadleaves: Seedlings of
broadleaves have two leaves that
emerge from the seed. The veins of
their leaves are netlike.
Broadleaves usually have a taproot
and their root system is relatively
coarse. All broadleaf plants have exposed growing points that are at the
end of each stem and in each leaf axil. The perennial broadleaf plants may
also have growing points on roots and stems above and below the surface of
the soil. The broadleaves have species with annual, biennial, and perennial
life cycles.

4. Vertebrate Pests

Vertebrate animals all have a jointed backbone. Humans are vertebrates, as

are mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.

There are situations when vertebrates can be pests. Sometimes birds, rodents,
raccoons, or deer may damage crops or ornamentals. Birds and rodents eat the
same food as humans and often ruin more food than they eat. Mammal and
bird predators of livestock and poultry cause financial losses to farmers and
ranchers each year. Great flocks of roosting birds can soil buildings.

There are also those in the vertebrate group (particularly rodents) that are a
hazard to public health when they are in homes, restaurants, offices, or
warehouses. Rodents, other mammals, and some birds are potential reservoirs

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 22

of serious diseases of humans and domestic animals. Some examples are:
rabies, plague, and tularemia.

IV. Evaluation (Quiz no. 3): (50 points)

1. Define pests.
2. Enumerate the 4 main categories of pests and their characteristics.
3. List down five examples of each of the following:
a. Insect pest
b. Arthropod pest
c. Fungal diseases
d. Viral diseases
e. Bacterial diseases
f. Nematode pest
g. Vertebrate pests

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 23

LESSON 4
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE EXISTENCE OF AN ORGANISM IN
AN ECOSYSTEM

I. Overview

All living organisms interacting within an ecosystem needs food, shelter, mate,
water, air, nutrients and others for survival. Organisms will not exist and
continuous for generation without this it. Competition is also common factor
for survival. Predation can outnumber certain species leading to nonexistence.

II. Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the factors that affects the existence of an organisms.
2. Determine the mechanism of insects to overcome ecological problems.

III. Lesson Content

A. Food Supply

Food is the most basic need of any living organism. Insufficiency and scarcity of
this factor greatly affects the other
vital processes of an organisms like
growth and development, mating and
reproduction. Most of the time, the
reproduction of organisms depends
on the availability of food supply.
The higher the food supply, the
higher the rate of reproduction, thus
increasing population.

1. Starvation: result of severe deficiency of nutrients of the body due to food

insufficiency. Starvation may result to the death of an organisms. Example:
blowflies needing flesh may not find necessary corpses or wounds,
silkworms hatching before bud opening of mulberry leaves.

2. Decline of food supply: food is very low at the time when it is needed.
Example: presence cabbage aphids at end of seasonal crop (after harvest).

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 24

3. Dependence up food chain: consumers (primary or secondary) is
dependent to one/single food. Example: predators above the food chain
cannot find prey.

Potential food exists but is unavailable for consumption

a. Accidental loss of food – example: lice, fleas fall off from its host; aphids,
grasshoppers blown by wind away from its host.
b. Interference by other species – example: humans apply repellent to crops
or livestock
c. Change of Insect behavior – example: Tsetse flies don’t feed on animals in
the open. If host is not close by shade, they will not feed.
d. Cannibalism – single species of insect eats its own kind. Example: If codling
moth larvae encounters another in an apple, one is eaten despite plenty of
apple for both.
e. Effects of insect feeding on hosts – change on host behavior. Example: If
buffalo flies are in large numbers, their host will take action to avoid being
bitten.
f. Nutrient deficiencies – Most of the time, the more the nitrogen (N2)
content of the plant, the more attractive to insects like aphids. Example:
Mite numbers, egg production and longevity are directly related to N2
content in leaves. Development time in mites is indirectly related to the N2
content in leaves.
g. Lack of food at critical time – often dependent upon weather.
i. Hover flies (syrphid) require spring pollen for maturation of
ovaries. If plants not in flower, few eggs will be laid.
ii. Sorghum midges diapause over winter as mature larvae, emerging
with summer rains as adults for only 2 days and need to find
sorghum flowers in that time.

Insects Can Overcome Food Problems

1. Dispersal – generally insects are small organisms.

They are easily blown by wind, carried by traveling
animals and flowing water, and has the capacity to
fly, jump, crawl, dig, swim, etc. These behaviors
help insects to travel from place to place.

2. Polyphagy – (=polyphagous) they feed on different host or prey.

Generalized predators and parasitoids feed on varieties of prey/host.
Likewise, on insect pest that feed on the different crop varieties. Example:
praying mantis can feed on small animals such as frogs, lizard, insects and
snakes.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 25

3. Stores food – other insect species build food storage for future use; social
insects such as ants and bees are the best example. Bees build honey comb
for food storage.
B. Predation

Holling (1959) studied predation

of small mammals on pine
sawflies, and he found that
predation rates increased with
increasing prey population
density. This resulted from 2
effects:
1. each predator increased its
consumption rate when
exposed to a higher prey density, and
2. predator density increased with increasing prey density.
Holling considered these effects as 2 kinds of responses of predator population
to prey density: (1) the functional response and (2) the numerical response.

1. Functional Response

Holling (1959) suggested a model of functional response which remains most

popular among ecologists. This model is often called "disc equation" because
Holling used paper discs to simulate the area examined by predators.
Mathematically, this model is equivalent to the model of enzime kinetics
developed in 1913 by Lenor Michaelis and Maude Menten.

This model illustrates the principal of time budget in behavioral ecology. It

assumes that a predator spends its time on 2 kinds of activities:
1. Searching for prey
2. Prey handling which includes: chasing, killing, eating and digesting.

Consumption rate of a predator is limited in this model because even if preys

are so abundant that no time is needed for search, a predator still needs to
spend time on prey handling.

Total time (T) equals to the sum of time spent on searching and time spent on
handling:

Assume that a predator captured Ha prey during time T. Handling time should
be proportional to the number of preys captured:

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 26

where Th is time spent on handling of 1 prey.

Capturing prey is assumed to be a random process. A predator examines area a

per time unit (only search time is considered here) and captures all prey that
were found there. Parameter a is often called "area of discovery", however it
can be called "search rate" as well.

After spending time Tsearch for searching, a predator examines the area = a
Tsearch, and captures aHTsearch prey where H is prey density per unit area:

Hence:

Now we can balance the time budget:

The last step is to find the number of attacked prey Ha:

The graph of functional response that corresponds to this equation is shown

below:

This function indicates the number of preys killed by 1 predator at various prey
densities. This is a typical shape of functional response of many predator
species. At low prey densities, predators spend most of their time on search,
whereas at high prey densities, predators spend most of their time on prey
handling.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 27

Holling (1959) considered 3 major types of functional response:

Type I functional response is found in passive predators like spiders. The

number of flies caught in the net is proportional to fly density. Prey mortality
due to predation is constant (right graph on the previous page).

Type II functional response is most typical and corresponds to the equation

above. Search rate is constant. Plateau represents predator saturation. Prey
mortality declines with prey density. Predators of this type cause maximum
mortality at low prey density. For example, small mammals destroy most of
gypsy moth pupae in sparse populations of gypsy moth. However, in high-
density defoliating populations, small mammals kill a negligible proportion of
pupae.

Type III functional response occurs in predators which increase their search
activity with increasing prey density. For example, many predators respond to
kairomones (chemicals emitted by prey) and increase their activity.
Polyphagous vertebrate predators (e.g., birds) can switch to the most
abundant prey species by learning to recognize it visually. Mortality first
increases with prey increasing density, and then declines.

If predator density is constant (e.g., birds, small mammals) then they can
regulate prey density only if they have a type III functional response because
this is the only type of functional response for which prey mortality can
increase with increasing prey density. However, regulating effect of predators
is limited to the interval of prey density where mortality increases. If prey
density exceeds the upper limit of this interval, then mortality due to
predation starts declining, and predation will cause a positive feed-back. As a
result, the number of preys will get out of control. They will grow in numbers

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 28

until some other factors (diseases of food shortage) will stop their
reproduction. This phenomenon is known as "escape from natural enemies"
discovered first by Takahashi.

2. Numerical Response

Numerical response means that predators become more abundant as prey

density increases. However, the term "numerical response" is rather confusing
because it may result from 2 different mechanisms:
1. Increased rate of predator reproduction when preys are abundant
(numerical response per se).
2. Attraction of predators to prey aggregations ("aggregational response").

Reproduction rate of predators naturally depends on their predation rate. The

more prey consumed, the more energy the predator can allocate for
reproduction. Mortality rate also reduces with increased prey consumption.

The simplest model of predator's numerical response is based on the

assumption that reproduction rate of predators is proportional to the number
of preys consumed. This is like conversion of prey into new predators. For
example, as 10 prey are consumed, a new predator is born.

Aggregation of predators to prey density is often called "aggregational

response". This term is better than "numerical response" because it is not
ambiguous. Aggregational response was shown to be very important for several
predator-prey systems. Predators selected for biological control of insect pests
should have a strong aggregational response. Otherwise they would not be able
to suppress prey populations. Also, aggregational response increases the
stability of the spatially-distributed predator-prey (or host-parasite) system.

C. Habitat Advantage

The type of soil in a habitat influences an insect’s distribution and abundance

and is easily disturbed by agriculture, e.g. Irrigation changes moisture and
subsequently, the type of pest in a crop. Chemicals in soil affect plant growth
and therefore the dependent insects.
IV. Evaluation (Quiz no. 4): 30 points

1. What are the three main factors that determine the existence of
organism in the ecosystem?
2. Enumerate and discuss the importance of each of the following in the
existence of organisms in an ecosystem: (Give 5 examples each)
a. Food
b. Shelter or habitat
3. How can insects overcome food problems? List at least 5 examples.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 29

 4. Differentiate functional response from numerical response of predators.

BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS AND MICRO-ORGANISM: WALTER C. JATICO (2023) 30