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Chapter 10
Wave Optics
Introduction
In 1678, the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens put forward the wave
theory of light .The wave model could satisfactorily explain the phenomena
of reflection , refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation .

Huygens Principle
A locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront; thus a
wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.
The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is
called the speed of the wave. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.

Spherical Wavefront
For a point source emitting waves uniformly in all directions, the
wavefronts will be spherical .

Plane Wavefront
At large distance from a source, a small portion of the sphere can be
considered as a plane and is known as a plane wavefront.

Huygens Principle
According to Huygens principle, each point of the wavefront acts as a source
secondary wavelets and if we draw a common tangent to all these secondary
wavelets, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later time.
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Refraction and Reflection of Plane Waves Using Huygens Principle

Refraction of a Plane Wave

AB is the incident wavefront and EC is the refracted wavefront. Let 𝑣1 and

𝑣2 be the velocity of wave in medium 1 and 2 respectively.
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝜏
sin i = = ----------(1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝑣2 𝜏
sin r = = ----------(2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
(1) sin 𝑖 𝑣1
eqn = --------------(3)
(2) sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝑐
Refractive index of first medium 𝑛1 =
𝑣1
𝑐
Refractive index of second medium 𝑛2 =
𝑣2
𝑛2 𝑣1
=
𝑛1 𝑣2

Substituting in eqn (3)

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝒏𝟐
=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏𝟏
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
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Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

AB is the incident wavefront and EC is the reflected wavefront.

Let v be the velocity of the wave ,then
AE = BC = v𝜏
AC = AC (common side)
So the triangles EAC and BAC are congruent . Therefore
i=r
Angle of incidence=Angle of reflection
This is the law of reflection.

Refraction of a plane wave by a thin prism

The emerging wavefront is also plane wavefront,but tilted.

Refraction of a plane wave by a convex lens

The emerging wavefront is spherical and converges to the point F which is

known as the focus.
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Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror

The reflected wavefront is a spherical converging to the focal point F.

The doppler effect
The apparent change in frequency of light seen by an observer , whenever
there is a relative motion between source and observer is called Doppler
Effect.

When the source moves away from the observer the frequency as measured
by the source will be smaller and the wavelength increases. This increase in
wavelength due to doppler effect is called red shift.

When source moving towards the observer, there is an apparent increase in

frequency and decrease in wavelength. This is referred to as blue shift.
The Doppler shift can be expressed as
𝜟𝒗 𝒗𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍
=−
𝒗 𝒄
𝒗𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍 is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the
observer to the source relative to the observer; 𝒗 radial is considered positive
when the source moves away from the observer.
Superposition Principle
According to superposition principle , the resultant displacement produced
by a number of waves in a medium is the vector sum of the displacements
produced by each of the waves.

Coherent sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same
frequency and same phase or constant phase difference.
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Two needles oscillating in phase in water represent two coherent sources.

Interference
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a
resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude.
The interference can be constructive or destructive.
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Condition for constructive interference

If the path difference at a point is an integral multiple of
λ, there will be constructive interference and a bright
fringe is formed at that point
S2P – S1P = nλ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)

Condition for destructive interference

If the path difference at a point is an odd integral multiple
of λ/2 , there will be destructive interference and a dark
fringe is formed at that point
𝟏
S2P – S1P = = (n+ ) λ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
𝟐

Two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes

cannot produce interference fringes. Why?
If we use two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes we will not observe
any interference fringes. This is because the light wave emitted from an
ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) undergoes abrupt phase changes .Thus
the light waves coming out from two independent sources of light will not
have any fixed phase relationship and would be incoherent and cannot
produce interference pattern.
Interference of Light Waves and Young’s Experiment

The British physicist Thomas Young made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very
close to each other) on an opaque screen. These were illuminated by
another pinholes which is illuminated by a bright source. Light waves spread
out from S and fall on both S1 and S2. S1 and S2 then behave like two coherent
sources because light waves coming out from S1 and S2 are derived from the
same original source and interference pattern with altermate bright and
dark fringes is formed on the screen.
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Expression for the fringe width (Band width)

Cosider two coherent sources separated by a distance d with a screen placed

at a distance D from the coherent sources.
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
(𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = [𝐷2 + (𝑥 + ) ] − [𝐷2 + (𝑥 − ) ]
2 2
𝑑2 𝑑2
= [𝐷2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑑 + ] − [𝐷2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑑 + ]
4 4
(𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = 2𝑥𝑑 ------------------------(1)

(S2P + S1P) (S2P – S1P) = 2xd

2𝑥𝑑 2𝑥𝑑
(S2P – S1P) = =
(S2P+ S1P) 2D
𝒙𝒅
(S2P – S1P) = -----------------(2)
𝐃

Let the point P corresponds to maximum brightness(bright band).Then

S2P – S1P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...) --------------(2)
𝑥𝑑
From eq (1) and(2) , = nλ
D
nλ𝐷
Thus for the nth bright band, xn=
d
(n+1)λ𝐷
For the (n+1)th bright band, xn+1=
d

Bandwidth , β = xn+1 –xn

(n+1)λ𝐷 nλ𝐷
β= −
d d
𝛌𝑫
β= 𝐝
This is the expression for the fringe width.
The central point O will be bright as the path difference is zero.
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Thus bandwidth can be increased by
▪ Increasing the distance of screen (D)from coherent sources
▪ Decreasing the distance between the coherent sources.
▪ Increasing the wavelength of source.
The graph of the intensity distribution in Young’s double-slit experiment.

What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit

experiment,if the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white
light?
The interference patterns due to different component colours of white light
overlap (incoherently). The central bright fringes for different colours are at
the same position. Therefore, the central fringe is white. The fringe closest
on either side of the central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear
blue. After a few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.
Example
Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre
away. What is the fringe separation when bluegreen light of wavelength 500
nm is used.
λ𝐷
Fringe spacing , β =
d
500x10−9 𝑥1
β=
1x10−3

= 5 × 10–4 m = 0.5 mm
Example
In a double slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.03 cm and the screen
is placed 1.5 m away. The distance between the central fringe and the fourth
bright fringe is 1 cm. Determine the wavelength of the light used in the
experiment.
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4β =1cm
β =1/4 =0.25cm =0.25x10-2m
λ𝐷
β=
d
β𝑑
λ=
𝐷
0.25x10−2 x0.03𝑥10−2
=
1.5
= 0.005x10-4=500x10-9=500nm
Diffraction
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an
obstacle , into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.

If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the region
of geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright regions just like
in interference. This happens due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it
sound waves, light waves, water waves or matter waves.
Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most
obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday
observations.

The single slit

When a single narrow slit is illuminated by a monochromatic source, a broad

pattern with a central bright region is seen on the screen. On both sides,
there are alternate dark and bright regions, the intensity becoming weaker
away from the centre. This is diffraction pattern.
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Single slit diffraction experiment

Consider a parallel beam of light falling normally on a single slit LN of width

a. The diffracted light goes on to meet a screen. The midpoint of the slit is M.
The path difference NP – LP between the two edges of the slit,
NP – LP = NQ
= a sin θ
NP – LP≈ aθ
For central maximum
At the central point C on the screen,
the angle θ =0
Path differences aθ =0
All the parts of the slit contribute in phase.This gives maximum intensity at C
called central maximum.
For secondary maxima
For secondary maxima,
1
Path difference , aθ = (n+ ) λ
2
𝟏 𝛌
θ = (n+ ) where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝟐 𝒂

For secondary minima

For secondary minima,
Path differences , aθ = nλ
𝛌
θ= n where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝒂
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Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Holding two blades to form a single slit. A bulb filament

viewed through this shows clear diffraction bands.

Cosistency with Principle of Conservation of Energy.

In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in
one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another region,
producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is
consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.

Resolving power of optical instruments

When a parallel beam of light is incident on a convex lens, because of
1.22 λf 0.61 λf
diffraction effects, the beam gets focused to a spot of radius ≈ =
2𝑎 𝑎

where f is the focal length of the lens and 2a is the diameter of the circular
aperture or the diameter of the lens.
Although the size of the spot is very small, it plays an important role in
determining the limit of resolution of optical instruments like a telescope or
a microscope.
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Resolving Power of Telescope

For the two stars to be just resolved
0.61 λf
f Δθ ≈
𝑎

The limit of resolution,

0.61 λ
Δθ ≈
𝑎
𝒂
Resolving power of telescope =
𝟎.𝟔𝟏 𝛌
This implies that the telescope will have better resolving power if a is large.
It is for this reason that for better resolution, a telescope must have a large
diameter objective.
Resolving power of microscope

The minimum separation,

1.22 λf
dmin=
𝐷
𝐷
but =2 tan β
𝑓
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 tan β
For small β , tan β ≈sin β
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 sin β
If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but a
medium of refractive index n,
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 nsin β
𝟐 𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛃
Resolving power of microscope=
𝟏.𝟐𝟐 𝛌
n sinβ is called the numerical aperture
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The resolving power can be increased by choosing a medium of higher
refractive index. Usually an oil having a refractive index close to that of the
objective glass is used. Such an arrangement is called an ‘oil immersion
objective’. It is not possible to make sinβ larger than unity. Thus,the
resolving power of a microscope is basically determined by the wavelength
of the light used.
Polarisation
A wave propagating in x direction in a horizontally string ,with
displacement in y direction can be represented as
y (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
It is referred to as a y-polarised wave.
Since each point on the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also
referred to as a linearly polarised wave.
As the string always remains confined to the x-y plane , it is also referred to
as a plane polarised wave.
Polarisation of Light
Unpolarised Light
For an unpolarised light the vibrations of electric vector takes all possible
directions in the transverse plane. Natural light, e.g., from the sun is
unpolarised.

Plane Polarised Light

For a plane polarised light the vibrations of electric field vector are
restricted in one direction .

Polaroids
Polaroids are thin plastic like sheets, which consists of long chain molecules
aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors along the direction of
the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an unpolarised light wave is
incident on a polaroid ,it transmits only one component of electric field
vectors which are parallel to its pass axis and the resulting light is c linearly
polarised or plane polarised.
Polaroids are used in sunglasses, wind screens in trains and aeroplanes, in
3D cameras.
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Polarisation
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light to one
plane is called polarisation.

Malus’ Law
When an unpolarised light is passed through two polaroids P1 and P2 and if
the angle between the polaroids is varied from 0º to 90º, the intensity of the
transmitted light will vary as:
I = 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉
where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P1 . This
is known as Malus’ law.
Polarisation by scattering

When a scattered light is observed in a direction perpendicular to the

direction of incidence, it is found to be plane polarised.
The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by C.V.
Raman and his collaborators in Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for this work.
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Polarisation by reflection

When a ray of light incident at Brewster’s angle iB , on the boundary

between two transparent media, the reflected light is plane polarised and
also the refracted are reflected rays are perpendicular to each other.
Brewster’s angle iB is also called the angle of polarisation
Brewster’s law
Brewster’s law states that the tangent of the Brewster’s angle is equal to the
refractive index of the medium.
𝒏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝐢𝐁

Proof

At Brewster’s angle, i= 𝐢𝐁
r + 𝐢𝐁 = 𝟗𝟎
r =90 - 𝐢𝐁

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝐢𝐁
By Snell’s law 𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝐢𝐁 )

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝐢𝐁
𝒏=
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐢𝐁
𝒏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝐢𝐁
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Example
Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the
angle of incidence so that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular
to each other?
As the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each othe, the angle
of incidence should be equal to Brewster’s angle.
𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB
1.5 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB
iB =tan-1 (1.5) =570
Example
Show that when light incident at polarising angle (Brewsters angle),the
reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.

B𝑠𝑖𝑛i
By Snell’s law 𝑛= -----------(1)
sin r
By Brewster’s law 𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB ----------(2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛iB
From eq(1) and (2) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB =
sin r
𝑠𝑖𝑛 iB 𝑠𝑖𝑛 iB
=
cos iB sin r
cos iB = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
sin(900 -iB ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
900 - iB = 𝑟
iB + 𝑟 =900
From figure
iB + 𝑟 +<BOC =1800
900+<BOC =1800
<BOC=900
i.e., the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.

Seema Elizabeth ,
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur