WAVE MECHANICS

Black body:
A perfect black body is one which absorbs all the radiation of heat falling on it and
emits all the radiation when heated in an isothermal enclosure.
The heat radiation emitted by the black body is called black body radiation.
Laws of Black body radiation:
Wien’s displacement law:
This law states that the product of the maximum wavelength (m) corresponding
to the maximum energy and the absolute temperature is a constant.

i.e. when the temperature increases the wavelength corresponding to the

maximum energy decreases.
Wien’s radiation law:
The maximum energy radiated at peak wavelength is directly proportional to the
fifth power of the absolute temperature (T5).
i.e.

The energy density is derived as:

.

, Where C1 and C2 are constants.

, and .

Limitation: This law holds well only for the short wavelength and not for the
longer wavelength.

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Raleigh – Jean’s Law:
This law states that the energy distribution is directly proportional to absolute
temperature (T) and inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength
(4).

i.e.

Limitation: This law holds well only for the longer wavelength and not for the
shorter wavelength.

Planck’s quantum theory of black body radiation:

Planck’s theory:
1. A black body contains a large number of oscillating particles:
2. Each particle is vibrating with a characteristic frequency.
3. The frequency of radiation emitted by the oscillator is the same as the
oscillator frequency.
4. The oscillator can absorb energy in multiples of small unit called quantum.
5. This quantum of radiation is called photon.
6. The energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiation emitted.
7. An oscillator vibrating with frequency can only emit energy in integral
multiples of h. , where n= 1, 2, 3, 4…….n. n is called quantum
number.

Planck’ law of radiation:

The energy density of radiations emitted by a black body at a temperature T in the
wavelength range  to +d is given by

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h =6.625x10-34Js-1 - Planck’s constant.

C= 3x108 ms-1 -velocity of light
K = 1.38x 10-23 J/K -Blotzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature in kelvin.

Scattering of X-Rays:
Two Kinds:
1. Coherent scattering or classical scattering or Thomson
scattering
2. Incoherent scattering or Compton scattering
Coherent scattering:
1. X rays are scattered without any change in wavelength.
2. Obeys classical electromagnetic theory
Compton scattering:
1. Scattered beam consists of two wavelengths.
2. One is having same wavelength as the incident beam
3. The other is having a slightly longer wavelength called modified beam.

Compton scattering:
1. When a beam of high frequency radiation is scattered by a substance of low
atomic number the scattered radiations consists of two lines.
2. One is having the same wavelength  as the incident beam
3. The other is having slightly longer wavelength.
4. This change in wavelength of the scattered X rays is known as the Compton
shift.
5. This effect is called Compton Effect.
Theory of Compton Effect:
1. Compton treated this scattering as the interaction between X ray and the
matter as a particle collision between X ray photon and loosely bound
electron in the matter.

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2. Consider an X ray photon of frequency  striking an electron at rest.
3. This Photon is scattered through an angle  to x-axis.

4. Let the frequency of the scattered photon be ’.

5. During collision the photon gives energy to the electron.
6. This electron moves with a velocity V at an angle  to x axis.
7. Total energy before collision:
Energy of the incident photon

Energy of the electron at rest = where m0 is the rest mass of

electron and C the velocity of light.

Therefore total energy before collision =

Total energy after collision:

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Final energy of the photon=

Final energy of the scattered photon = , where m is the mass of

electron and C the velocity of light.
Therefore total energy after collision =
By the law of conservation of energy,
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

i.e.

8. Total momentum along X axis before collision:

Initial momentum of photon along x axis =

Initial momentum of electron along x axis = 0

Total momentum before collision along x axis=

9. Total momentum along x axis after collision:

The momentum is resolved along x axis and y axis.

Final momentum of momentum along x axis

Final momentum of electron along x axis =

Total final momentum along s axis =

Applying the law of conservation of momentum,

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
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10.Total momentum along y axis before collision:

Initial momentum of photon along y axis =
Initial momentum of electron along y axis = 0
Total momentum before collision along y axis=
11.Total momentum along y axis after collision:

Final momentum of photon along y axis =

Final momentum of electron along y axis = ( along the

negative Y direction)

Total momentum after collision along y axis=

Applying the law of conservation of momentum,

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

Squaring (3) and (4) and adding,

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LHS of the equation is:

since

RHS of the equation: =

Equating LHS and RHS,

Squaring (1) ,

(8)-(6)

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From the theory the variation of mass with velocity is given by

Squaring (10)

Multiplying on both sides by C2

Substituting in (10)

Multiplying by C on both the sides,

Therefore the change in wavelength is given by

 The change in wavelength d does not depend on the

i. wavelength of the incident photon
ii. Nature of the scattering material.

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 It depends only on the scattering angle.
Case (1) When =0 then,

Case (2) When =0 then,

Substituting the values for h,m0 and C

Case(3) When =180 then,

The change in wavelength is maximum at 1800

Experimental verification of Compton Effect.

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1. The experimental set up is as shown in the fig.
2. A beam of mono chromatic X ray beam is allowed to fall on the scattering
material.
3. The scattered beam is received by a Bragg spectrometer.
4. The intensity of the scattered beam is measured for various angles of
scattering.
5. A graph is plotted between the intensity and the wavelength.
6. Two peaks were found.
7. One belongs to unmodified and the other belongs to the modified beam.
8. The difference between the two peaks gives the shift in wavelength.
9. When the scattering angle is increased the shift also gets increased in
accordance with

10.The experimental values were found to be in god agreement with that

found by the formula.

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Matter WAVES:
De Broglie’s Hypothesis:
1. Waves and particles are the modes of energy propagation.
2. Universe of composed of matter and radiations.
3. Since matter loves symmetry matter and waves must be symmetric.
4. If radiation like light which is a wave can act like particle some time, then
materials like particles can also act like wave some time.
De Broglie waves and wavelength:
 From Planck’s theory

 According to Einstein’s theory,

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Equation (1) and (2)

 Therefore

Where p is the momentum of the particle.

De Broglie wavelength in terms of energy
We know that Kinetic energy

Multiplying by m on both sides

Substituting in (4)

Physical significance of the wave function 

 The variable  characterizes the de Broglie waves is called wave function.

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 The wave function connects the particle nature and the associated wave
nature statistically.
 It gives the probability of finding the particle at any instant.
 The probability 1 corresponds to the certainty of finding the particle at a
point at any instant.
, means the particle is present
 The probability 0 corresponds to the certainty of not finding the particle at
a point at any instant.
, means the particle is not present.
 The wave function is a complex quantity that cannot be measured.
 The probability density is given by

Schrodinger wave equation

Schrodinger equation is basic equation of matter waves.
The two forms of the wave equation are:
1. Time independent wave equation
2. Time dependent wave equation
I. Schrodinger time independent equation:
 Consider a wave associated with a particle.
 Let x,y,z be the coordinates of the particle.
 Let be the displacement for the de Broglie wave at any time,

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 Where

  is a Laplacian’s operator.
 The solution equation of this equation is of the form

 is a function of x,y,z,t and gives the amplitude with respect to

time t.
 Differentiating twice with respect to t

Since

Substituting (4) in (2),

 Angular frequency is

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 Therefore

 Squaring (6)

 Substituting (7) in (5),

 Putting , in equation (8)

 If E is the energy of the particle and V is the potential energy and ½ mv 2 is

the kinetic energy, then Total energy (E)= potential energy (V) + kinetic
energy (½ mv2).

 Multiplying by m on both sides,

 Substituting (10) in (9),

 This equation is called Schrodinger Time independent equation.

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 Substituting ,

, where is called reduced Planck’s constant.

 Substituting (12) in (11),

 Equation (13) has no term representing time and hence it is called Time
independent Schrodinger equation.
Special case:
The one-dimensional equation is represented as

II. Schrodinger time dependent equation:

 Consider a wave associated with a particle.
 Let x,y,z be the coordinates of the particle.
 Let be the displacement for the de Broglie wave at any time,
 The 3D wave equation for wave motion is given by:

is the velocity of the wave. The solution equation of this equation is of the
form

 Differentiating twice with respect to t

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Multiplying by “i” on both sides

Schrodinger time independent equation(6)

Substituting ( 5) in the above equaton

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is Hamiltonian operator and is energy

operator.
Equation (8) is called time dependent Schrodinger equation.

Application of Schrodinger Wave equation: Particle in a box

Particle in a box

1. Consider a particle of mass “m” moving inside a one dimensional box.

2. The walls of the box are between x=0 and x=a.
3. The potential energy (V) is assumed to be 0 inside the box.

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4. The potential function is : and

5. This function is known as the square well potential.

6. The value of  the wave function of the particle is found by applying the
boundary conditions to the one dimensional Schrodinger equation.
7. The Schrodinger equation is

8. Since V is 0 between the walls ,

9. Substituting

10.The general solution is of the form

11.A and B are unknown constants.
12.Applying the boundary condition (i) =0 at x=0, to (4)

That is either A=0 or sin ka=0.

14.Since B is already zero, A cannot be zero. Therefore sin ka = 0.
15.Hence ka = n, where n = 1,2,3,…….. or,

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16.Substituting (5) in (4),

17.Squaring (5)

18.From (2)

19.Equating (7) & (8)

20.For each value of n,( n=1,2,3..) there is an energy level.

21. Thus the particle in a box can have only a discrete energy level given by (9).
22.Each energy value is called Eigen value and the corresponding wave
function is called Eigen function.

"Eigenvalue" and "eigenvector" come from the meaning "inherent, characteristic"

Normalization of Wave function:

Probability density is =

The eigen function is

Therefore

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The probability of finding the particle anywhere inside the box is given by:

Substituting the value from (1) in (2)

Therefore

Substituting in (6) , the eigen function n belonging to is eigen values En is

expressed as

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Equation (12) is called Normalized wave function.

Special Cases:

Case1: For n=1,

Case2: For n=2,

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Case3: For n=3,

Electron in a cubic Metal Piece

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Degeneracy
When different quantum states of particle have the same energy Eigen value but
different Eigen functions and quantum states are said to exhibit degeneracy the
quantum states are called degenerate states.gy

Non Degeneracy
When different quantum states of particle have the same energy Eigen value and
same Eigen functions and quantum states are said to exhibit non degeneracy the
quantum states are called non degenerate states

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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

This principle state that the position and momentum of a particle cannot be
simultaneously measured with arbitrarily precision. There is a minimum for the
product of the uncertainties these two measurements.

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