ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my gratitude & my sincere thanks to our guide Prof.

___________, Department of __________________ for his valuable guidance,

constant encouragement and kind help at different stages for the execution of

this dissertation work. I would also like to thank the staff at the Transducer and

Instrumentation lab for allowing us to carry out our project work in the lab.

We also express our sincere gratitude to Prof. ____________, Head of the

Department, _____________________ for providing us with this project and

valuable departmental facilities.

I would like to thank my teachers and friends for their cooperation in carrying out

the project.

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 CONTENTS

TOPIC Pgs.

1. Abstract 6

2. Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers....................7

3. History of PLCs….................................................................7-8

4. Characteristics…....................................................................8

5. System Scale….....................................................................9

6. Programming in PLCs…......................................................9-10

7. User Interface…....................................................................10

8. How does a PLC operate?....................................................10-11

9. Other auxiliary devices connected to a PLC….....................12-13

10.PLCs as compared to other control systems..........................14

11. Digital and Analog signals…................................................15-16

12. PLC Software….....................................................................16

13. PLC Applications…..............................................................17-20

14.................................................................................................42

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 ABSTRACT

This project work is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the
history and development of Programmable Logic Controllers and its
subsequent applications in different industries. In The second part PLC was
implemented to control 3 different processes namely lift car controller,
Liquid level controller, Temperature controller.

Automation of many different processes, such as controlling machines or

factory assembly lines, is done through the use of small computers called a
programmable logic controller (PLC). This is actually a control device that
consists of a programmable microprocessor, and is programmed using a
specialized computer language.

Before, a programmable logic controller would have been programmed in ladder

logic, which is similar to a schematic of relay logic. A modern programmable
logic controller is usually programmed in any one of several languages, ranging
from ladder logic to Basic or C. Typically, the program is written in a
development environment on a personal computer (PC), and then is downloaded
onto the programmable logic controller directly through a cable connection. The
program is stored in the programmable logic controller in non-volatile memory.

The programmable logic controller has made a significant contribution to factory

automation. Earlier automation systems had to use thousands of individual
relays and cam timers, but all of the relays and timers within a factory system
can often be replaced with a single programmable logic controller. Today,
programmable logic controllers deliver a wide range of functionality, including
basic relay control, motion control, process control, and complex networking, as
well as being used in Distributed Control Systems.

There are several different types of interfaces that are used when people need
to interact with the programmable logic controller to configure it or work with it.
This may take the form of simple lights or switches or text displays, or for more
complex systems, a computer of Web interface on a computer running a
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system.

Programmable logic controllers were first created to serve the automobile

industry, and the first programmable logic controller project was developed in
1968 for General Motors to replace hard-wired relay systems with an electronic
controller.

The lift controller controls the movement of the lift. The program is designed to
make the lift car move to the correct floor based on floor request. The
temperature controller controls the temperature of the fluid based on a set point.
The level controller controls the level of a liquid in a tank.

3
 Introduction
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History
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive
industry. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for
manufacturing automobiles was accomplished using relays, timers and dedicated
closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for the yearly
model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as the relay
systems needed to be rewired by skilled electricians. In 1968 GM Hydramatic
(the automatic transmission division of General Motors) issued a request for
proposal for an electronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems.

The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford,

Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford
Associates eighty-fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a
new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this
new product: Modicon, which stood for Modular Digital Controllers. One of the
people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the
"father" of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics,
and later acquired by German Company AEG and then by French Schneider
Electric, the current owner.

One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's
headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon
by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted
service.

The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs, and Modicon
still numbers some of its controller models such that they end with eighty-four.
PLCs are used

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in many different industries and machines such as packaging and
semiconductor machines. Well known PLC brands are Siemens, Allen-
Bradley, ABB, Mitsubishi, Omron, and General Electric.

Characteristics

The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe
condition (dust, moisture, heat, cold, etc) and have the facility for extensive
input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and
actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as
temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems.
Some even use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric
motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays or solenoids, or analog
outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the
PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs
into the PLC.

PLCs were invented as replacements for automated systems that would use
hundreds or thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers. Often, a
single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable
controllers were initially adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry,
where software revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels
when production models changed.

Many of the earliest PLCs expressed all decision making logic in simple ladder
logic which appeared similar to electrical schematic diagrams. The electricians
were quite able to trace out circuit problems with schematic diagrams using
ladder logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for
the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list
programming, based on a stack-based logic solver.

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential
relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and
networking. The data handling, storage, processing power and communication
capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop
computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a
general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain
applications.

Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-
based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called
Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers.

5
System Scale:

A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and
outputs. Typically, expansions are available if the base model does not have
enough I/O.

Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which is placed modules
with different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules is
customised for the particular application. Several racks can be administered by
a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special
high speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can be distributed away from the
processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants.

PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication
between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have
individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the
communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI
(Human-Machine Interface) devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations.
Some of today's PLCs can communicate over a wide range of media including
RS-485, Coaxial, and even Ethernet for I/O control at network speeds up to 100
Mbit/s.

Programming in PLCs

Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary

programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had
dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC
programs. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for
printing and documentation were very minimal due to lack of memory capacity.
More recently, PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a
personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a
network to the PLC. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core
memory but now the program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up
RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory.

Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were
programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of
relay logic. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder
logic to more traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another
method is State Logic, a Very High Level Programming Language designed to
6
program PLCs based on State Transition Diagrams.

7
Recently, the International standard IEC 61131-3 has become popular. IEC
61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable
control systems: FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST
(Structured text, similar to the Pascal programming language), IL (Instruction
list, similar to assembly language) and SFC (Sequential function chart). These
techniques emphasize logical organization of operations.

While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all

manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and
instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable
between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single
manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.

User Interface
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm
reporting or everyday control. A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is employed
for this purpose. HMI's are also referred to as MMI's (Man Machine Interface)
and GUI (Graphical User Interface).

A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text
displays are available as well as graphical touch screens. Most modern PLCs
can communicate over a network to some other system, such as a computer
running a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system or web
browser.

How does a PLC operate?

There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program Scan,
Output Scan, and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in a repeating
loop.
Four Steps In the PLC
Operations 1.) Input Scan
Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to
the PLC 2.) Program Scan
Executes the user created program logic.
3.) Output Scan
Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC.
4.) Housekeeping
This step includes communications with programming terminals,
internal diagnostics, etc

8
Fig. Operation of a PLC in basic stages

9
Other Auxiliary devices connected To a
PLC:

Input devices:

– Condition Sensors

– Encoders
• Pressure Switches
• Level Switches
• Temperature Switches
• Vacuum Switches
• Float Switches

- Switches and Pushbuttons

– Sensing Devices
• Limit Switches
• Photoelectric Sensors and proximity sensors

1
 Output Devices

– Valves
– Motor Starters
– Solenoids
– Actuators

– Horns and Alarms

– Stack lights
– Control Relays
– Counter/Totalizers
– Pumps
– Printers
– Fans

1
PLC OPERATION:

INPUT SCAN: Scans the state of the Inputs (Sensing Devices, Switches and
Pushbuttons, Proximity Sensors, Pressure Switches etc.).

PROGRAM SCAN: Executes the program logic.

OUTPUT SCAN: Energize/de-energize the outputs (Valves, Solenoids, Motor,

Actuators, Pumps).

HOUSEKEEPING: Communication checking with the software and perform other

requests according to their preference.

Basic Requirements: In PLC programming in order to create or change a program,

the following items are needed: -PLC, -Programming Device, -Programming Software,