9.

Static and Dynamics of Sensors/Transducers

Link : for RTD

http://sl-coep.vlabs.ac.in/Rtd/Aim.html?domain=Electrical%20Engineering&lab=Sensor
%20Lab.

Link for LVDT

Aim: To understand the working principle of RTD and LVDT and their dynamics

Objective:-
1. Study static and dynamic characteristics of RTD

2. Study effect of various parameters on RTD performance

Prerequisite

Before performing the practical on RTD one must be well versed with:

1. Importance of temperature measurement.

2. Various units of temperature measurement and conversion of one unit to another.

3. Knowledge of various methods of temperature measurement.

4. Meaning of terms like process lag, positive and negative temperature coefficient,
negative temperature, virtual temperature, etc.

5. Knowledge of active and passive transducers.

 Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the particles in a substance.
Since it is an average measurement, it does not depend on the number of particles in an object. In
that sense it does not depend on the size of it. For example, the temperature of a small cup of
boiling water is the same as the temperature of a large pot of boiling water. Even if the large pot
is much bigger than the cup and has millions and millions more water molecules. The basic unit
of temperature (T) in the International System of Units (SI) is the Kelvin (K). The commonly
used other units of temperature are Degree Celsius (°C) and Degree Fahrenheit (°F).

Electrical Resistance

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of an electric
current. For a wide range of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend
on the amount of current through or the potential difference (voltage) across the object. That
means the resistance R is constants for the given temperature and material. Therefore, the
resistance of an object can be defined as the ratio of voltage to current, in accordance with
Ohm’s Law:

R = V/I
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

Temperature Measurement using RTD

For measurement of Temperature number of sensors are available. One of the most linear, stable,
and reproducible temperature sensors is the RTD, Resistance Temperature Detector. In RTD, the
output resistance changes with temperature. RTD is a positive temperature coefficient device.
The resistance of the metal increases with temperature. The resistive property of the metal is
called its resistivity. The resistive property defines length and cross sectional area required to
fabricate an RTD of a given value. The resistance is proportional to length and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area and is given by the relationship

R = ρl/A
 Where 'R' is resistance of the metal, 'ρ' is the resistivity of the metal, 'l' is the length of the metal
and 'A' is the area of cross section of the metal.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), as the name implies, is a sensor used to measure
temperature by correlating the resistance with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a
length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite
fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made from
a pure metals as mentioned below. The material property to have predictable change in resistance
as the temperature changes, is used to determine temperature.

Commonly used RTD Materials:

• Platinum (most popular and accurate)
• Nickel
• Copper
• Balco (rare)
• Tungsten (rare)

Temperature calculations:

RTDs are manufactured from metals whose resistance increases with temperature. Within a
limited temperature range, its resistance increases linearly with temperature:

Rt = R0[1+ α (t-t0)]

Where:
Rt = resistance at temperature 't'
R0 = resistance at a reference temperature ( Generally 0 degree C)
α = temperature coefficient of resistance (°C‾1)

Setting t0 to 0°C and rearranging to the standard linear y = m*x+b form, it is clear that resistance
vs. temperature is linear with a slope equal to

R / R0 = α*t + 1

Theoretically, any metal can be used to measure temperature. The metal selected should have a
high melting point and an ability to withstand the effects of corrosion. Therefore Platinum is
selected for most of the applications. Its desirable characteristics include chemical stability,
availability in a pure form, and electrical properties that are highly reproducible.
Solving Equation (1) for α:

α = (R100 - R0) /( R0 *(t-t0))

Where,

t = 100°C & t0 = 0°C

For platinum, α = 0.00385 Ω/Ω/°C

The relationship between resistance and temperature of RTD can be approximated by the
Callendar-Van Dusen equation which is given by,

Rt / R0 = 1+ α [ t – δ((t/100)-1)(t/100) –β((t/100)-1)(t/100)3]

Where,

t = temperature (°C)
Rt = Resistance at temperature, t°C
R0 = Resistance at 0°C
α = Constant ( 0.00385Ω/Ω/°C )

δ & β are Linearization coefficients, where β = 0 for t > 0°C

The Callendar Van Dusen Equation is used in the standard IEC 751 which is the most popular
standard used for RTD. The equation for RTD given in IEC 751 is:

Rt =R0 [1+ At+ Bt2 +C(t-100)t3 ]

Where,
A,B,C are constants and C = 0 for t > 0°C.

The values of A,B and C for α = 0.00385 are

A = 3.9083*10-3°C‾1
B = -5.775*10-7°C‾2
C = -4.183*10-12°C‾4

Platinum RTDs are defined by standards such as DIN 43760 (BS1904), IEC 751-1983, and JIS
C1604.

RTD Materials

The criterions for selecting a material for an RTD:

 Malleability to form small wires.

 Linear relationship of resistance and temperature.
 Repeatability and stability.
 Corrosion.
 Low cost
 Easy availability

RTD Performance Specifications:

1. Temperature Coefficient :It is the change in resistance of the material per degree change in
temperature. This value should be as high as possible to give higher accuracy of temperature
measurement.

2. Accuracy:It is the comparison of measurement with standard results.That is how good the data
is when compared with a recognized standard. The accuracy of a measurement system is the
degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its actual (true) value.

3. Stability: It is the measurement of drift over time. Stability is affected by sensor design. Well
designed, high quality sensor will have less drift while high vibration, mechanical wear and tear
and thermal shock will degrade the stability.

4. Interchangeability: Interchangeability is the measure of change in base tolerance and

temperature coefficient from sensor to sensor. This is important when replacing a sensor, to
insure that the system retains its performance characteristics without any need for re-calibration.

5. Response time: Response time is time the sensor takes to react to temperature changes in a
process.
Factors that influence the sensor response:

• Thermal lag when combined with the thermowell

• Immersion length
• Flow velocity of the process fluid
• Process fluid transients
• Fluid boundary or film on sensing surface
• Influences from wall or vessel
• Environmental factors

6. Insulation resistance: It is the largest cause of errors and failure of RTD. The causes can be an
inadequate seal, high humidity environment, or a failed seal. In some cases baking the RTD
assembly will increase the insulation resistance and recover the RTD.

7. Self heating: The very small cross-sectional areas in the sensing elements will tend to heat
when electrical current is applied. Most RTDs are specified to be operated with a current of 1
milliampere or less.

Static Characteristics of RTD

Aim: Study the change in resistance of RTD probe depending on the process temperature.

Step by step Procedure:

1. Select the material of RTD you want to use. Temperature coefficient (α) for the same
will be displayed on the screen. Note this value.

2. Click on ' R0' to get the value of R0 for selected RTD. Note the same.

3. Click on 'Get Temp'. The temperature for which Rt is to be found will be displayed.

4. Using formula calculate the value of Rt and enter the answer in the box provided (upto 2
decimals with rounding off). Submit the answer using submit button.

5. If your calculation is correct, go to step 3. Repeat the procedure min 3 times.

 6. If your calculation is wrong, you will be asked to repeat the same. Please refer
to GET FORMULA tab and verify your calculations.

7. After finishing minimum 3 set of correct readings, you can see the graph by clicking on
'Plot'.

8. When the graph is displayed click Next tab to repeat the procedure with different
reference resistance(R0) value and with different materials.

9. Minimum 3 calculations are necessary to plot the graph.

10. Study the graphs for RTD performance with different reference resistance values and
different materials

Expt. 2: Dynamic characteristics

Aim: Study the dynamic response of RTD probe

In this experiment, Platinum RTD is used for calculating the time constant values. The
response of RTD for a step change in the input is plotted. The maximum temperature the RTD
attains, is same as the temperature displayed by 'GET Temp' tab.

Step by step Procedure:

1. Select the RTD as bare element (make it on). With the standard dimensions considered for
bare element, the time constant value will get displayed in the output box.

Verify this by using equation given under Get formula tab.

2. Now select the RTD dynamic performance with sheath. Select appropriate material and
thickness value. The time constant value will get displayed in the output box.

Verify this by using equation given under formula tab.

3. Observe the change in the time constant values with different materials with different
thickness.

4. Now select the RTD dynamic performance with thermowell. Select appropriate material,
thickness and filling material. The time constant value will get displayed in the output box when
thermowell material, thickness and filling material is selected.

Verify this by using equation given under formula tab.

5. Observe the change in the time constant values with different materials with different
thickness.

Also see the effect of change in filling material.

6. Click on plot button to observe the dynamic response (Time Vs Temperature).

7. Observe and verify response time of RTD which is generally 5 times the time constant
value.

After completion of both the parts, you can proceed to Post Test to find out if you have
understood all aspects of the experiment.
 Characterize of LVDT

Prerequisite

Student must be well versed with

1. The basics of transformers

2. Magnetic materials and their properties

3. Concept of inductance and mutual inductance

LVDT is linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is electromechanical transducer. It converts

the rectilinear
displacement of any object to which it is coupled mechanically in electrical signal proportional to
it.

Construction:

LVDT is made of two main components: the movable armature and the outer transformer
windings.
LVDT consists of 3 windings. Centre one is Primary winding while the other two are secondary
windings. The secondary's are identical and placed symmetrical about the primary. The
secondary coils are connected in series-opposition.
Moving element of LVDT is called core. It is a cylindrical armature made of ferromagnetic
material. It is free to move
 along the axis of the tube. At one end, the core is coupled to an object whose displacement is to
be measured,
while the other end moves freely inside the coil's hollow bore.

Working:

An alternating current is connected to the primary. This current must be of appropriate amplitude
and frequency.
It is also called as Primary Excitation. The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz. This
current causes a
voltage to be induced in each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary.
While the
frequency of induced voltage is same as that of excitation frequency, its amplitude varies with
the position of the
iron core.
As the core moves, the voltages induced in the secondary's changes due to change in mutual
inductance.
The coils are connected in series but in opposite phase , so that the output voltage is the
difference between
the two secondary voltages. When the core is exactly at central position, i.e at equal distance
from the two
secondary's, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is
zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases with respect to the
other, causing
the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum value. This voltage is in phase with the
primary voltage.
When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a
maximum value, but
the phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional
to the distance
moved by the core. The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the displacement.
Case 1:
When no displacement is applied to the core and the core remains in the null position without
any movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings is equal which results in
net output is equal to zero

i.e., E s1 - E s2 = 0

Case 2:
When displacement is applied in such a way that the core moves in the left direction then the
voltage induced in that (left) secondary coil is greater as compared to the emf induced in the
other secondary coil. Therefore the net output is E s1-E s2

Case 3:
When force is applied to core such that it moves in the right hand side direction then the emf
induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary
coil 1,
therefore the net output voltage is E s2- E s1.

As seen, the voltage undergoes 180 degrees phase shift while going through null. The output E is
out of
phase with the excitation.
Usually this AC output voltage is converted by suitable electronic circuitry to high level DC
voltage or current that is more convenient to use.
Residual Voltage: Output voltage at the null position is ideally zero. But because of harmonics
in the excitation
voltage and stray capacitance coupling between primary and secondary a non zero voltage
exists
at null position. This is called residual voltage. If it is less than 1 % of full scale output voltage
( which is the normal case) it is in the acceptable limits.

Eddy Currents: When alternating current is passed through the coil, a magnetic field is generated
in and
around the coil. When a rod is brought in close proximity to a conductive material, the rod's
changing magnetic
field generates current flow in the material. These are called as eddy currents.
The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the primary magnetic
field of the coil.
As the eddy current flows through conducting core, it creates heat. This causes power loss in the
core. To reduce
the eddy current losses, the core is provided with a slot. This slot cut the magnetic field created
hence reducing
the flux. Laminated core is also used for the same purpose.

Types of LVDT based on applications:

1. General Purpose LVDT: for use in many industrial and research applications.
2. Precision LVDT: for sensitive gauging and quality control applications
3. Submersible LVDT: Hermetically sealed for use in industrial and research
environments involving corrosive fluids and gases, high temperature and vibrations, etc.

Types of LVDT based on range of operation:

1. Short stroked: full-scale linear ranges from ±0.01 inch (±0.25 mm) to ±0.5 inch
(±12.7 mm)
2. Long stroked: full-scale linear ranges from ±0.5 inch (±12.7 mm) to ±18.5 inch
(±470 mm)
Types of LVDT based on excitation used

1. AC LVDT: AC LVDTs are excited by a AC voltage having frequency between 50

hertz and 25 Kilohertz with 2.5 Kilohertz as a nominal value. The carrier frequency is generally
selected to be at least 10 times greater than the highest expected frequency of the core motion.
AC-operated LVDT's are generally smaller in size and more accurate than DC versions. They are
able to tolerate the extreme variations in operating temperature than the DC LVDT.

Modern circuits often supply phase detection circuits along with the LVDT. A phase
sensitive detector circuit (PSD) is useful to make the measurement direction sensitive. It is
connected at the output of the LVDT and compares the phase of the secondary output with the
primary signal to judge the direction of movement. The output of the phase sensitive detector
after passing through low pass filter is in the dc voltage form used for steady deflection.

2. DC LVDT: The DC LVDT is provided with onboard oscillator, carrier amplifier,

and demodulator circuitry.
The major advantages of DC-operated ("DC-to-DC") LVDT's are ease of installation and signal
conditioning,
the ability to operate from dry cell batteries in remote locations, and lower system cost
(especially in
multipoint applications). The DC LVDT is temperature limited operating from typically - 40 deg
C to
+120degC

Types of LVDT based on armature:

1. Unguided Armature: This is simplest configuration in which armature fits loosely

in the cavity of the coils bore. This requires proper installation to ensure proper movement along
the axis. This allows frictionless movement with no wear. This type have unlimited fatigue life,
good repeatability with infinite resolution.
Free armature is mainly suitable for short range, high speed applications.

2. Guided (Captive) Armature: In this type, armature is restrained and guided by low
friction bearing
assembly.
These are suitable for long working ranges. To avoid possibility of misalignment the
armature is guided.

3. Spring Extended Armature – This armature is similar to guided armature LVDT

with an addition that ,
it has internal spring to push the armature continuously to its fullest possible extension. This
maintains light
and reliable contact with the measured object.
Most suitable for static or slow moving applications.

Applications:

LVDTs are commonly used for

-position feedback in servomechanisms
-automated measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and scientific applications.
-measurement of displacement ranging from fraction of mm to cm
-Acting as a secondary transducer, it can be used for force, weight and pressure measurement.
Inference:

Results and discussions: