3.

1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 1

(b) If b E JR., then B := (b11 ) is the sequence B 2
11 ) . In particular, if

b= !, then we obtain the = (b, b , b3 , . . . , b , •••

sequence

(c) The sequence of ( 2n : n E N) of even natural numbers can be defined

inductively by
X] : = 2 , Xn+l : = Xn + 2 ,
or by the definition
Y! : = 2 , Yn+ l : = Y 1 + Yn -
(d) The celebrated Fibonacci sequence F : = (!11 ) is given by the inductive
definition
f1 : = I , f2 : = 1 , fn + l : = fn- 1 + fn ( n 2: 2 ) .
Thus each term past the second i s the sum of its two immediate predecessors. The
first ten terms of F are seen to be ( 1 , 1 , 2, 3 , 5 , 8 , 1 3. , 2 1 , 34, 55 , . . . )
0

The Limit of a Sequence

There are a number of different limit concepts in real analysis. The notion
of limit of a sequence is the most basic, and it will be the focus of this
chapter.
3.1.3 Definition A sequence X = (x n ) in lR is said to converge to x E JR., or x
is said to be a limit of (X n ), if for every c > 0 there exists a natural
( number K c
such that for
n 2: K(c), theall
terms 11 satisfy x - xl
If a sequence has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent; if it has
no limit, we say that the sequence is divergent.
Note The notation K( �: ) is used to emphasize that the choice of K depends on the
value of c. However, it is often convenient to write K instead of K(c) . In most
cases, a "small" value of �: will usually require a "large" value of K to
guarantee that the distance l xn - xl between
2: x11 and x is less than c for all n
K = K ( 1: .

When a sequence has limit x, we will use the notation

lim X = x or lim(x11 ) = x.
We will sometimes use the symbolism x, -- x, which indicates the intuitive
idea that the values X11 "approach" the number x as n -- oo.

3.1.4 Uniqueness of Limits A sequence in lR can have at most one limit.

2 CHAPTER SEQUENCES AND SERIES
3
Proof. Suppose that x' and x " are both limits of (x11 ) . For each 1: > 0 there exist K'
such
that x x l < �:/2 for all n 2: K', and there exists K" such that x < c/2
nfor2: all We let K be the larger of K' and K". Then for n 2:--K we l apply the
K"x. "'
Triangle Inequality to get
l x' - x " l l x ' - x n + X1 1 - x " l
< l x' - Xn l + l xn - x" l < �:/2 + c/ 2 = c.

Since c > 0 is an arbitrary positive number, we conclude that x' - x" = 0.

Q.E.D.
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 3

For x E lR and t: > 0, recall that the £-neighborhood of x is the set

V, (x) := {u E l R : l u - xl < e}.
(See Section 2.2.) Since u E Vc (x) is equivalent to l u - x l < e, the definition o f
conver gence of a sequence can be formulated in terms of neighborhoods. We
give several different ways of saying that a sequence Xn converges to x in the
following theorem.

3.1.5 Theorem Let X = (xn) be sequence of real numbers, and let x E

a

R The following statements are equivalent.

(a) X converges to x.
(b) For every t: > 0, there exists a natural number K such thatfor all n ;: K, the
terms Xn satisfy l xn - x l < c.
(c) For every £ > 0, there exists a natural number K such thatfor all n ;: K, the
terms Xn satisfy x c < Xn < x + t:.
-

(d) For every £-neighborhood V, (x) ofx, there exists a natural number K
such that
; for all n K, the terms Xn belong to V, (x) .

Proof. The equivalence of (a) and (b) is just the definition. The equivalence of (b),
(c), and
(d) follows from the following implications:
l u - xl < £ {=} -£ < u - x < D {=} x- £<u<
x+c {=} u E Vc (x) .
Q.E.D.

With the language of neighborhoods, one can describe the convergence of

the sequence X = (xn ) to the number x by saying: for each £-neighborhood V,
(x) of x, all but a finite number of terms ofX belong to V, (x). The finite
number of terms that may not belong to t�e t:-neighborhood are the terms x1 , x2 ,
. . . , XK - I ·

Remark The definition of the limit of a sequence of real numbers is used to

verify that a proposed value x is indeed the limit. It does not provide a means
for initially determining what that value of x might be. Later results will
contribute to this end, but quite often it is necessary in practice to arrive at a
conjectured value of the limit by direct calculation of a number of terms of the
sequence. Computers can be helpful in this respect, but since they can calculate
only a finite number of terms of a sequence, such computations do not in any
way constitute a proof of the value of the limit.

The following examples illustrate how the definition is applied to prove

that a sequence has a particular limit. In each case, a positive £ is given and
we are required to find a K, depending on e, as required by the definition.
3.1.6 Examples (a) lim(l/n) = 0.
If D > 0 is given, then 1 /e > 0. By the Archimedean Property 2.4.3, there
is a natural number K = K(e) such that l /K < t:. Then, if n ;: K, we have 1 /n ::; 1
/K < e. Conse quently, if n ;: K, then
4 CHAPTER SEQUENCES AND SERIES
3
Therefore, we can assert that the sequence (1 /n) converges to 0.
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 5
2
(b) lim(l/(n + 1)) = 0.
Let 1: > 0 be given. To find K, we first note that if n E N, then

-- 1
1
n +2 1 < n<-
-1
Now choose K such that 1 /K < t:, as in (a) above. Then n 2:': K implies that 1 /n < e,
and therefore

3n + 2 )= I n2 1 I
-0 = 2 <
n 1 �< t:.

(c) lim
3.

(
Hence, we have shown that the limit of the sequence is zero.
n+1
Given 1: > 0, we want to obtain the inequality
(1) 3n + 2
1
n+ 1 3<B
when n is sufficiently large. We first simplify the expression on the left:

n+1 n+I n+ I n+ 1 n
Now if the inequality I /n < B is satisfied, then the inequality (I) holds. Thus if 1 jK
< s, then for any
2
n K, we also have 1 jn < D and hence (I) holds. Therefore the limit
of the sequence is 3.
(d) lim( Vn+T vn)
We multiply and divide by Vn+T + Vn to get
-

= 0.

( vn+1- vn)( vn+1 + vn) n+I- n

Vn+T + Vn+T + vn
vn =
I
v'n+l + vn Vn- < I

For a given c > 0, we obtain I/ Vfi < !: if and only if 1 /n < c:2-or n > I jB 2 . Thus
10, then K > I 00 -
is required.) =
if we take K > I /�>2 , then < D for all n > K. (For example, if we are given c 1/
Vn+T
(e) If 0 < b < 1, then lim(b") = 0.
We will use elementary properties of the natural logarithm function. If c > 0 is
given,
we see that
b" < 1: {= n ln b < ln �> {= n > In �:fin b .
(The last inequality is reversed because In b < 0.) Thus if we choose K to be a
numb er such
n
n
that K > In e/ln b, then we will have 0 < b < 1: for all n 2:': K. Thus we have lim(b )
= 0.

For example, if b = . 8, and if 1: = .0 1 is given, then we would need

K> D
In . OI /In .8 ;:;: 20.6377 . Thus K = 2I would be an appropriate choice for c = .01 .
6 CHAPTER SEQUENCES AND SERIES
3
Remark The K ( D ) Game In the notion of convergence of a sequence, one way
to keep
in mind the connection between the D and the K is to think of it as a game called
Game.
the K ( t:In
) this game, Player A asserts that a certain number x is the limit of a
sequence (xn). Player B challenges this assertion by giving Player A a
specific value for s > 0. Player A must respond to the challenge by coming up
with a value of K such that l xn - xl < t: for all n > K. If Player A can always find
a value of K that works, then he wins, and the sequence is convergent.
However, if Player B can give a specific value of B > 0 for which Player A
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 7

cannot respond adequately, then Player B wins, and we conclude that the sequence
does not converge to x.
In order to show that a sequence X = (xn) does not converge to the
number x, it is enough to produce one number t:0 > 0 such that no matter what
natural number K is chosen, one can find a particular nK satisfying nK 2 K
such that lxnK - xl 2 Bo . (This will be discussed in more detail in Section
3.4.)
3.1.7 Example The sequence (0, 2, 0, 2, . . . , 0, 2, . . . ) does not converge to the
number 0.
If Player A asserts that 0 is the limit of the sequence, he will lose the K (c)
Game when Player B gives him a value of B < 2. To be definite, let Player B
give Player A the value t:o = 1. Then no matter what value Player A chooses for
K, his response will not be adequate, for Player B will respond by selecting an
even number n > K. Then the corresponding value is Xn = 2 so that lxn - 01 = 2
> 1 = co . Thus the number 0 is not the limit of the sequence.
D
Tails of Sequences
It is important to realize that the convergence (or divergence) of a sequence
X = (xn) depends only on the "ultimate behavior" of the terms. By this we
mean that if, for any natural number m, we drop the first m terms of the sequence,
then the resulting sequence Xm converges if and only if the original sequence
converges, and in this case, the limits are the same. We will state this
formally after we introduce the idea of a "tail" of a sequence.
3.1.8 Definition If X = (x1 , x2 , . . . , X n, . . . ) is a sequence of real numbers and
if m is a given natural number, then the m-tail of X is the sequence
Xm := (xm+n : n E N) = (xm+l , Xm+2 , . . . )
For example, the 3-tail of the sequence X = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . , 2n, . . . ) , is the
x = ( 8 , 1 0, 12, . . . , 2n + 6, . . .
sequence
) .3
3.1.9 Theorem Let X = (xn : n E N) be a sequence of real numbers and let m
E N. Then the m-tail Xm = (xm +n : n E N) of X converges if and only if X
converges. In this case, lim Xm = lim X.
Proof We note that _for any p E N, the pth term of Xm is the (p + m)th term of
X.
Similarly, if q > m, then the qth term of X is the (q - m)th term of Xm.
Assume X converges to x. Then given any > 0, if the terms2of X for n
K( t:) satisfy lxn - xl < B, then the terms of Xm for k K(e) - m satisfy lxk - xl <
1;

B. Thus we can take Km (t:) = K(c) - 2 so that Xm also converges to x.

m,

Km lxk - xl < B,
for n Conversely, if the lxn
2 K(t:) + m satisfy - xlof< Xm
terms for kwe2 can
B. Thus E satisfy
( ) take K(c;) = Km (t:) +then
m. the terms
of X
Therefore, X convergc:s tox x. if and
only if Xm converges to Q.E.D.
We shall sometimes say that a sequence X ultimately has a certain
property if some tail of X has thi s property. For example, we say that
the sequence (3, 4, 5, 5, 5, . . . , 5, . . . ) is "ultimately constant." On the
(
8 CHAPTER SEQUENCES AND SERIES
other
3 hand, the sequence 3, 5, 3, 5, . . . , 3, 5, . . . ) is not ultimately constant.
The notion of convergence can be stated using this terminology: A sequence
X converges to x if and only if the terms of X are ultimately in every �:-
neighborhood of x . Other instances of this "ultimate terminology" will be
noted later.
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 9

Further Examples
In establishing that a number x is the limit of a sequence (xn), we often try to
simplify the difference lxn - xl before considering an c; > 0 and finding a K(s) as
required by the definition of limit. This was done in some of the earlier examples.
The next result is a more formal statement of this idea, and the examples that
follow make use of this approach.
3.1.10 Theorem Let (xn) be a sequence of real numbers and let x E R If
(an) is a sequence ofpositive real numbers with lim( a n ) = 0 and iffor
some constant C > 0 and some m E N we have
l xn - x l ::; Can for all n -2:

m, then it follows that lim(x n ) = x.

Proof If c; > 0 is given, then since lim( an ) = 0, we know there exists K = K (siC)
such that
- n K implies
an = l an - 01 < siC.
Therefore it follows that if both n -2: K and n -2: m, then
Q.E.D.
Since c; > 0 is arbitrary, we conclude that x = lim(xn) ·

3.1.11 1 Examples(a) If a > 0, then lim1 + na =

0.
Since a > 0, then 0 < na < 1 + na, and therefore 0 < 11(1 + na) < 1l(na). Thus
we have
I + na
a n
Since lim( 1 In) = 0, we may invoke Theorem 3 . 1 . 1 0 with C = 1 Ia and m = 1 to
infer that
=
lim (11(1 + na) ) 0.
(b) If 0 < b < 1, then lim(nb ) = 0.
This limit was obtained earlier in Example 3.1 .6(e). We will give a second proof
that illustrates the use of Bernoulli's Inequality (see Example 2. 1.1 3(c)).
Since 0 < b < 1, we can write b = I IO + a), where a := ( l ib) - 1 so that a > 0.
By
Bernoulli's Inequality, we have (1 + ar- 1 + na. Hence

0 < bn = n
1 <
(1 + a)1- + na <J_
Thus from Theorem 3. 1.10 we clude that lim(bn) na
con = 0.
In particular, if b = .8, so that a = .25, and if we are given c; = .0 1 , then the
preceding inequality gives us K(s) = 41 (.0 1 ) = 400. Comparing with Example 3 . 1
.6(e), where we obtained K = 2 1 , we see this method of estimation does not give us
the "best" value of K.
However, for the purpose of establishing the limit, the size of K is immaterial.
10 CHAPTER SEQUENCES AND SERIES
3 If c > 0, then lim( c 1 fn ) = 1 .
(c)
1
1
The case c = 1 is trivial, since then (c ) is the constant sequence ( 1, 1, .. . ),
which evidently converges to 1.
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 1
3. 1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR LIMITS 61

n
If c > 1 , then c 1 1 = I + dn for some dn > 0. Hence by Bernoulli's Inequality 2. 1 .
1 3( c),
c = ( 1 + d n)'' � I + nd11 for n E N.
Therefore we have c - 1 � nd11, so that d11 s; (c - 1 )/n. Consequently we have
n
l c 1 / _ l l = dn S : (c 1 ) for n E N.
- 1n
-
We now invoke Theorem 3. 1 . 1 0 to infer that lim(c 1 f n ) = 1 when c > 1 .
Now suppose that 0 < c < I ; then c 111 1= 1 /(1 + hn) for some hn > 0. Hence
Bernoulli's Inequality implies that

c=
(1 1 " 1 1
+ hn 1 + nhn nhn
-
)
<

from which it follows that 0 < hn < 1/nc for n E N. Therefore we have
h 1
0 < I - c 1 In = < hn < -
I + hn nc
so
that n
lc1f - II < (� )
c
�
for n E N.
We now apply Theorem 3. 1 . 1 0 to infer that lim(c 1 111 ) = 1 when 0 < c < 1 .
(d) lim (n 1 111 ) = 1
Since n 1 1n > I for n > 1, we can write n 1 1n = 1 + k11 for some kn > 0 when n > 1 .
Hence n = ( I + k11) 11 for n > 1 . By the Binomial Theorem, if n > 1 we have
n = 1 + nkn + ! n(n - l ) k� + · · · � I + ! n(n - l ) k� ,
whence it follows that
n - 1 � ! n (n - I ) k� .
Hence k� s; 2/n for n > I . I f B > 0 i s given, it follows from the Archimedean
Property that there exists a natural number N0t such that 2/N" < It follows that if
n � sup { 2, N,: } then 2/n < r.Z, whence ?
n
0 < n f - I = k 11 S: (2/n) 1 / 2 < t: .
1

Since B > 0 is arbitrary, we deduce that Iim (n 1 1" ) = 1 .

D

Exercises for Section 3.1

I. The sequence (x11) is defined by the following for the nth term. Write the first five terms
in each case:
(a) X11 := 1 + ( - l f , (b) X11 := (- 1 f/n,
1 1
(c) Xn n(n + 1) ' (d) x := n2 + 2 .

�=
 62 CHAPTER 3 SEQUENCES AND

2. The first few terms of a sequence (xn) are given below. Assuming that the "natural pattern"
indicated by these terms persists, give a formula for the nth term Xn.
(a) 5, 7, 9, 1 1 , . . . , (b) 1 /2, -1 /4, 1 /8, - 1 / 1 6, . . . ,
(c) 1 /2, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, . . . , (d) 1 , 4, 9, 1 6, . . . .

(a) Xt : = I , Xn + ! : 3xn + 1 ,
3. List the first
= five terms of the following inductively defined sequences.
(b) Y t 2 , Yn + ! :== :): (Yn + 2/Yn ) ,
(c) Z : = 1 , Z2 := 2, = (z + Zn) / (zn +! - Zn ) ,
(d) S t := 3 , S2 := 5 , Sn+2 :=: Sn + S n + !·
4. For any b E lR, prove that lim(b/n) = 0.
5. Use the definition of the limit of a sequence to establish the following limits.

(a) lim (--/!-n + 1 ) = 0, (b) lim (_3!n + 1 ) = 2,

(c)
.
hm (2--+ 53n + 21 ) = -3
N
(d) lim ( 2n2 -+ 13) = 2-1 .
, N

6. Show that
(b) lim (_3! + 2) = 2,
N
(a)
(d) n + 1 = 0.
(c) lim (n Vn
+1
) = 0,
7. Let Xn : = 1 /ln(n + 1 ) for n E
N.(a) Use the definition of limit to show that lim(xn) = 0.

(b) Find a specific value of K(r.) as required in the definition of limit for each of (i) c = 1 /2,
and
(ii) c = l/
8. 10. Iim(xn) = 0 if and only if lim(lxnl) = 0. Give an example to show that the
Prove that
convergence of ( l xn l ) need not imply the convergence of (xn) ·
9. Show that if Xn 2 0 for all n E N and lim(xn) = 0, then lim(Fn 0.
l
10. Prove that if lim(xn) = x and if x > 0, then there exists a natural= number M such that
Xn > 0 for all n 2 M.
11.
n (
Show that lim � n + 1 = 0. -

12. Show that lim( Vn2+J- n) =0.

13. Show that lim(l /3" ) = 0.
14. Let b E lF!:.satisfy 0 < b < I . Show that lim(nb") =0. [Hint: Use the Binomial Theorem as in
Example 3. I . l l (d) .]
n
15. Show that lim ( (2n) 1 / ) = 1.
16. Show that Iim(n 2 /n !) = 0.
1 7. Show that lim(2" /n ! ) = 0. [Hint: If n 2 3, then 0 < 2" jn ! ::; 2 (�)- " 2 . ]
=
 3.1 SEQUENCES AND THEIR 6
1 8. If lim(xn ) x > 0, show that there exists a natural number K such that if n 2 K,
then x < Xn < 2X.