Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161

Dipankar Deb
Ambesh Dixit
Laltu Chandra Editors

Renewable
Energy and
Climate Change
Proceedings of REC 2019
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies

Volume 161

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Shoreham-by-sea, UK
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Dipankar Deb Ambesh Dixit
• •

Laltu Chandra
Editors

Renewable Energy
and Climate Change
Proceedings of REC 2019

123
Editors
Dipankar Deb Ambesh Dixit
Institute of Infrastructure Technology Department of Physics and Center
Research and Management for Solar Energy
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur
Jodhpur, India
Laltu Chandra
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology BHU
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
ISBN 978-981-32-9577-3 ISBN 978-981-32-9578-0 (eBook)
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Organizing Committee

Key Advisor

• Anju Sharma, IAS, Principal Secretary (Higher & Technical Education),

Education Department, Government of Gujarat

General Chairs

• Shiva Prasad, Director General, IITRAM

• A. U. Digraskar, Director, IITRAM
• N. N. Bhuptani, Registrar, IITRAM

Program Chair

• Dipankar Deb, Professor, Electrical Engineering, IITRAM, dipankardeb@iitram.

ac.in (M) +91-7203954452

Program Co-Chair

• Jiten Shah, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, IITRAM, jitenshah@iitram.

ac.in (M) +91-9712982750

v
vi Organizing Committee

General Secretary

• Dileep Kumar Gupta, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering, IITRAM,

[email protected] (M) 91-9785712695

International Advisory Committee

• Josep M. Guerrero, Professor, Aalborg University, Denmark

• Ashok Pandey, Editor-in-Chief, Bioresource Technology, Elsevier
• Soteris Kalogirou, Editor-in-Chief, Renewable Energy, Elsevier
• Aoife Foley, Editor-in-Chief, R&S Energy Reviews
• Shyam Pandey, Professor, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan
• Moonis Ally, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
• Vishaldeep Sharma, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
• Samer Sawalha, Associate Professor, KTH Stockholm, Sweden
• Ramesh K. Guduru, Assistant Professor, Lamar University, USA
• Rodrigo Llopis, Associate Professor, JM I University, Spain
• Jayant Parimal, CEO, Adani Green Energy Ltd., India
• Puneet Jaggi, President, Solar Gensol, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
• K. Bharathy, CEO, WRE Pvt. Ltd, Panchmahal, Gujarat, India
• Vipul Singh, Associate Professor, IIT Indore, India
• M. S. Dasgupta, Professor, BITS Pilani, India
• R. Saravanan, Professor, Anna University, India

Technical Committee

• Abd Elnaby Kabeel, Professor, Tanta University, Egypt

• El-Sayed El-Agouz, Professor, Tanta University, Egypt
• Medhat Elkelawy, Associate Professor, Tanta University, Egypt
• Anubha Bilgaiyan, Postdoctoral Researcher, Kyushu University, Japan
• Yazan Taamneh, Assistant Professor, Jordan University of Science
and Technology, Jordan
• Ramesh K. Guduru, Assistant Professor, Lamar University, Texas.
• Jayanta Mondol, Reader, Jordanstown campus, UK
• Prashant Srinivasan, Er. Manager, GE Power, Bengaluru, India
• Akshay Ambekar, Sr. Er., GE Power and Water, Schenectady, USA
• Sanketh Bhat, Lead Engineer, GEG Research, Bengaluru, India
• Prem Kumar Patchaikani, Lead Engineer, GEG Research, Bengaluru, India
• Gaurang Patel, DGM, DCS Plant, GIFT City, Gandhinagar, India
• Laltu Chandra, Associate Professor, IIT (BHU), India
Organizing Committee vii

• Ambesh Dixit, Assistant Professor, IIT Jodhpur, India

• Saurabh Pandey, Assistant Professor, IIT Patna, India
• A. Chowdhury, Associate Professor, SVNIT, Surat, India
• Purnanand Bhale, Assistant Professor, SVNIT, Surat, India
• Hemantkumar Mehta, Assistant Professor, SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat, India
• Nikhil Gakkhar, Scientist, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, GoI, India
• Nitin Karwa, Sr. R&D Engineer, Honeywell, India
• Nilesh Purohit, R&D Engineering, Honeywell, India
• Y. P. Sharma, Manager, NTPC Limited, Mumbai, India
• Amar Prasad, Manager, NTPC Limited, Mumbai, India
• Neeraj Agrawal, Associate Professor, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological
University, Lonere, Maharashtra, India
• Santosh Vora, Professor, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
• Akhilesh Arvind Nimje, Associate Professor, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
• Rohit Srivastava, Associate Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Hitesh Panchal, Assistant Professor, GEC, Patan, Gujarat, India
• Amit Sant, Assistant Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Jatin Patel, Assistant Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Siddharth Joshi, Assistant Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Garlapati Nagababu, Assistant Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Dayashankar Kaul, Assistant Professor, PDPU, Gujarat, India
• Anima Gupta, Assistant Professor, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
• Chintan Mehta, Assistant Professor, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
• Akash Bhavsar, Assistant Professor, GSFC University, Gujarat, India
• Sanjeev Jakhar, Assistant Professor, Mody University, Sikar, Rajasthan
• Kannan Iyer, Assistant Professor, IITRAM, Gujarat, India
• Ajit Parwani, Assistant Professor, IITRAM, Gujarat, India
• Kshitij Bhargava, Assistant Professor, IITRAM, Gujarat, India
• Manjunath K., Assistant Professor, IITRAM, Gujarat, India
Preface

Developing countries face many challenges in the energy sectors, particularly fossil
fuel and their source. The excess usage of fossil fuels causes the worst negative
impacts on climate change—extreme weather events, global warming, rise in
environmental temperature and sea level, natural calamities, and groundwater
pollution, to name a few. These problems are known worldwide. The First
International Conference on Renewable Energy and Climate Changes (REC),
February 1–2, 2019, was organized by the Institute of Infrastructure Technology
Research and Management (IITRAM), Ahmedabad, in collaboration with Gujarat
Knowledge Society, Government of Gujarat. It was funded by the Student Startup
and Innovation Policy (SSIP) initiative of Government of Gujarat.
The purpose of the conference was to bring together researchers, engineers,
manufacturers, practitioners, and customers from all over the world to share and
discuss advances and developments in renewable energy and its implications on
climate changes. The conference included presentations on the latest research trends
showcasing the important achievements and upcoming challenges in the sector of
renewable energy and climate changes.
The First International Conference on Renewable Energy and Climate
Change (REC 2019) provided a common avenue to the authorities, practitioners,
academicians, scientists, researchers, and students to sit together and devise their
own strategies, experience, and research outcomes for solving their common
problems. This conference was inevitably multi-dimensional in nature. It covered a
wide range of areas from renewable energy and climate change and their impacts.
The conference also provided a technological forum to discuss the cutting-edge
solutions on development, design, technology, manufacturing, greenhouse effect,
sustainable and clean energy, socioeconomic, and policy issues.

ix
x Preface

Deepak Gadhia (Trustee, Muni Seva Ashram, Vadodara, Gujarat), Aninda Bose
(Senior Editor, Springer), Laltu Chandra (Associate Professor, IIT (BHU),
Varanasi, India), and Prashant Srinivasan (Senior Principal Scientist, Symphony
Industrial AI, Bengaluru) were the esteemed plenary speakers of this conference.

Ahmedabad, India Dipankar Deb

Jodhpur, India Ambesh Dixit
Varanasi, India Laltu Chandra
Contents

Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites for High Voltage

Supercapacitors Applications: A Short Review . . . . . . . . ........... 1
Ajay Tiwari and Ambesh Dixit
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 1
1.1 Charge Storage Mechanism of EDLCs and PSCs . . ........... 4
1.2 Need of Higher Operating Voltage Supercapacitors ........... 4
2 Rare Earth Metal Oxides (REMOs) Based Composites
for Supercapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Transition Metal Oxides (TMOs) for SCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Issues/Challenges with Supercapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning Based
Optimization Technique Considering Power and Cost . . . . . . . . . . .... 11
Yash D. Modi, Jaydeep Patel, Garlapati Nagababu and Hardik K. Jani
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Wake Decay Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Analytical Problem Formulation of Wake Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Teaching Learning Based Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller
for Variable Speed Hybrid Standalone WECS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 23
Anjana Jain and R. Saravanakumar
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Mathematical Model of PMSG and Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Wind Turbine Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Modelling of the PMSG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

xi
xii Contents

3 System Description and Control Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27

3.1 Fractional-Order PI (FOPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
3.2 Estimation of Direct-Axis Component of Load-Current
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
3.3 Estimation of Quadrature-Axis Component of Load-Current
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
4 Simulation Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
4.1 Performance Analysis of FOPI for Different Values of k . . . . . .. 30
4.2 Performance Analysis of FOPI for Various Values of k
with Constant Values of Kp and Ki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
4.3 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI
for Variable Wind-Velocity at Constant Load Condition . . . . . . .. 32
4.4 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI
for Variable Load at Constant Wind Velocity Condition . . . . . . .. 33
4.5 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI During
Faults at Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.6 THD Analysis for Linear and Nonlinear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel Production Using Slow
Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 39
Alpesh Mehta and Nirvesh Mehta
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2 About Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Algae to Biofuel Conversion Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4 Collection of Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1 Conceptual Design of Slow Pyrolyser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5 Layout for Slow Pyrolyser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7 Exhaust Gas Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System
with Renewable Energy Interface Fuzzy Control DC-Bus Capacitor ... 49
Ranjeeta Patel, Anup Kumar Panda and Josep M. Guerrero
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 49
2 3-Phase 4-Leg APF (4L APF) Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 50
3 id-iq Control Strategy with Fuzzy Logic Controller for PV-Based
4L IB APF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) System with Boost Converter and MPPT . . . . . 54
4 Simulation and OPAL-RT Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Contents xiii

Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional

and Mono-Lattice Structural System for Tall Wind Mill Towers . ..... 61
Hemal J. Shah and Atul K. Desai
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 61
2 Validation of Numerical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 64
3 Description of 125 m High Monopole Tower and Its Finite
Element Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 65
4 Description of 125 m High Mono-Lattice Tower and Its Finite
Element Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5 Details of Seismic Simulation of Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6 Generation of Artificial Time History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7 Simulation of Artificial Time History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8 Result and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.1 Mono-lattice Structural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2 Monopole Structural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3 Comparison of Mono and Mono-lattice Structural System . . . . . . . 72
9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar Heat Driven NH3–LiNO3
and NH3–H2O Absorption Refrigeration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 77
Nishant Modi, Bhargav Pandya and Jatin Patel
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1 Thermodynamic Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3 Model Validation and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Thermo-economic Analysis of Biomass-Powered Single Effect
LiBr/H2O Absorption Refrigeration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Bhaumik Modi, Bhavesh Patel and Anurag Mudgal
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3 Thermo-economic Modeling of ARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1 Effect of Generator Temperature on COP and Annualized Cost
of Biomass-Powered ARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93
4.2 Effect of Evaporator Temperature on COP and Annualized Cost
of Biomass-Powered ARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
xiv Contents

Issue and Challenges with High-Temperature Solar Selective Material

for Solar Thermal Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Rajesh Kumar and Ambesh Dixit
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
2 Associated Issues and Challenges in Developing High-Temperature
Stable Selective Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3 The Current Status of High-Temperature Solar Selective Coatings . . . . . 103
4 Potential High-Temperature Solar Selective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Investigation on the Relative Influence of Absorber Layer Defect
States Over Performance of Pb-Based and Sn-Based Perovskite
Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 109
Piyush Baldha, Krunal Patel and Kshitij Bhargava
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2 Simulation Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.1 Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2 Pb-Based Solar Cell Device Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.3 Sn-Based Solar Cell Device Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.1 Optimization of Absorber Layer Thickness in Simulated
Pb-Based and Sn-Based Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 113
3.2 Influence of Defects in the Absorber Layer Over
the Performance of Simulated Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Application of Fuzzy Linguistic Modeling Aggregated
with VIKOR for Optimal Selection of Solar Power Plant Site:
An Empirical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Bhavin Shah, Harsh Lakhani, Kumar Abhishek and Soni Kumari
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2 Case Study: Selection of the Alternatives for Solar Power
Plant Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using State-Space
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 129
Dhrumil Daftary and Chirag H. Raval
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2 Modelling of DC–DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.1 State-Space Averaged Model of DC–DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.2 Small-Signal Transfer Function of Buck–Boost Converter . . . . . . . 132
Contents xv

3 Designing the Parameters of Buck–Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4 Analyzing the Transfer Function G(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5 Designing the Controller for Transfer Function G(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable
Energy Based Distributed Generation for Improved Performance
of Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
Praghnesh Bhatt, Chao Long, Bhinal Mehta and Nilay Patel
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2 Classification of DG Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1 Real Power Loss Representation for DNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.2 Representation of Active Power Losses in Terms of Power
Factor of DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.3 Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4 Case Studies’ Simulation, Results, and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.1 Medium Voltage (MV) Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2 Performance of DN Without Optimizing Reactive
Power of DGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3 Performance of DN with Optimizing Reactive Power Capability
of DGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed Generating
System Using PSO and CSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 153
Pankita Mehta, Praghnesh Bhatt and Vivek Pandya
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2 Voltage Control of Isolated Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3 State-Space Representation of Wind–Diesel-Based Hybrid Power
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4 Evolutionary Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.1 Cuckoo Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2 Particle Swarm Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5 Simulation Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
xvi Contents

Harmonic Current Signal Injection-Based Grid Impedance

Measurement Technique for Active Harmonic Filter . . . . . . . . . . ..... 165
Bhargav Nashikkar, Rajendrasinh Jadeja, Vinod Patel,
Tapankumar Trivedi and Uvesh Sipai
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2 Harmonic Current Signal Injection Method for Grid Impedance
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.1 Controlling of AHF for Impedance Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.2 Grid Impedance Measurement Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3 Calculations of Inductance, Capacitance and Resonant Frequency . . . . . 169
4 Simulation Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Experimental Investigation of Dehumidifier Hybrid Air Conditioner
Integrated Zeotropic Refrigerant Blend R-407C Air Source Water
Heat Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175
Juned R. Kazi and Neeraj Agrawal
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.1 Data Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer Using Phase-Change
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 185
C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2 Design and Development of Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Design and Optimization of Hybrid Electric Vehicle . . . ............ 199
Tarang Varmora, Manish Kumar and Shah Krupa Rajendra
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2 Literature Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.1 Selection of Type of HEV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.2 Selection of Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.3 Selection of Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.4 Selection of Braking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.5 Steering and Suspension System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Contents xvii

3 Roll Cage Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

3.1 Optimization of Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural Predictive
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Shriji V. Gandhi and Manish T. Thakker
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2 Mathematical Model of GHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3 Neural Predictive Control for GHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.1 Stabilizing Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.2 Tracking Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola Slag
for Environmental Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 223
Vishwash K. Mistry and Dipak J. Varia
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1.1 World Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.2 Indian Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.3 Scenario in Gujarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.4 Cupola Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.5 Need of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.6 Alternative Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
1.7 Aggregate Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2 Expriemental Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.1 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.2 Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.3 Coarse Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.4 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.5 CSA (Cupola Slag Aggregate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3 Experimental Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.1 Concrete Mix and Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.2 Tests Performed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.3 Tests on Fresh Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
3.4 Tests on Hardened Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4 Cost Comparision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
xviii Contents

Potential Study of Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) for Humid

Climatic Conditions of Eastern States in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Krunal Patel, Jatin Patel and Harshil Raval
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2 Description of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.1 Analytical Prediction of Condensate Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Exergy Analysis—A Useful Concept of Sustainability for Air Source
Heat Pump System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 249
Nidhi Trapasia, Krunal Patel and Rajesh Patel
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2 Description of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
3 Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Role of Algae in CO2 Sequestration Addressing Climate Change:
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Vishal Paul, P. S. Chandra Shekharaiah, Shivbachan Kushwaha,
Ajit Sapre, Santanu Dasgupta and Debanjan Sanyal
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
2 Algae as a Potential CO2 Capturing Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
3 Algal Strain Selection for CO2 Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3.1 Algae Cultivation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4 Global Carbon Cycle, Carbon Credit, and Current Focus on Algae
Globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.1 Companies Involved in Algae-Based CO2 Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.2 Global Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR) System for H2
Production—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Mit Pujara, Mit Sheth, Nikunj Rachchh, Rameshkumar Bhoraniya
and Atal Bihari Harichandan
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2 Different Types of Oxygen Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.1 Cu-Based Oxygen Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.2 Ni-Based Oxygen Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.3 Fe-Based Oxygen Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Contents xix

2.4 Ce-Based Oxygen Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

2.5 Mixed Metal Oxides Oxygen Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Commitment for a Cleaner India: Utilization of CO2 and Sewage
Wastewater by Green Algae Scenedesmus sp. Under Laboratory
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 277
Debanjan Sanyal, Santosh Kodgire, Dishant Desai, Nishant Saxena,
Sunita Singh and Santanu Dasgupta
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2 Materials and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.1 Biomass Production of Scenedesmus Sp. Under 2% CO2 . . . . . . . 278
2.2 Growth and Total Organic Carbon Captured by Scenedesmus
Sp. in Sewage Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.1 Biomass Production of Scenedesmus Sp. Under 2% CO2 . . . . . . . 280
3.2 Growth and Total Organic Carbon Captured by Scenedesmus
Sp. in Sewage Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
A Design Framework for Portable Artificial Photosynthesizer:
A Future Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli and V. Vishnu Namboodiri
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2 Model for Artificial Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems
with Flooded Evaporator for Supermarket Application . . . . . . . ...... 293
Manju Lata, Ashish Kumar Yadav and Dileep Kumar Gupta
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
2 Booster Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
3 Thermodynamic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4 Operating Conditions and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Correction to: Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural
Predictive Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1
Shriji V. Gandhi and Manish T. Thakker

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

About the Editors

Dipankar Deb completed his Ph.D. from University of Virginia, Charlottesville

with Prof. Gang Tao, IEEE Fellow and Professor in the Department of ECE in
2007. In 2017, he was elected to be an IEEE Senior Member. He has served as a
Lead Engineer at GE Global Research Bengaluru (2012–15) and as an Assistant
Professor in EE, IIT Guwahati 2010–12. Presently he is Associate Professor at the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure Technology
Research and Management. He leads efforts towards innovation. He is a Student
Startup and Innovation Project Coordinator at IITRAM. He mentors students to
build Intellectual Property Rights (Patents).

Ambesh Dixit (PhD, 2010, Wayne State University MI, USA) has experience in
computational and experimental condensed matter physics with special emphasis
on design and development of materials for energy applications. He is currently
working on the development of materials for energy conversion and storage. He has
authored several research publications in international journal and in conference
proceedings.

Laltu Chandra (PhD, 2005, University of Karlsruhe Germany) has experience in

experimental and numerical heat transfer and fluid mechanics. His interest is on the
nuclear and concentrated solar thermal sub-systems design, development and eval-
uation. Recently, he has developed open volumetric air receiver based solar con-
vective furnace system for metals processing. He has authored several research
publications in international journal, as book chapters and in conference proceedings.

xxi
Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites
for High Voltage Supercapacitors
Applications: A Short Review

Ajay Tiwari and Ambesh Dixit

Abstract Supercapacitors (SCs) are energy storage devices with high power
density and robust charge/discharge life cycles. The high power density of these
energy storage devices makes them attractive storage devices in conjunction with
other reversible electrical energy storage devices such as batteries and conventional
capacitors. The common SCs are made of nanostructured carbonous electrode mate-
rials, which are limited with their relatively lower operating window and specific
energy densities. Nanostructured metal oxide based carbonous composites are widely
explored to overcome carbonous SCs. Rare earth (RE) oxides such as Nd2 O3 , Y2 O3 ,
and Eu2 O3 are used in conjunction with carbonous/conducting polymers matrix for
high specific density and operating voltage supercapacitors. The high band gap of RE
oxides assists in achieving higher operating voltage window. The article will review
the current status of RE oxide based supercapacitors and their physical properties in
conjunction with underlying physical principles.

1 Introduction

The process of storing energy in any form, i.e., electrical or thermal or chemical
falls under energy storage. The stored energy allows the balance between the sup-
ply and demand for energy, thus directly affecting the economic and infrastructure
developments. The electrical energy storage is advantageous over others due to its
direct utility while extracting from the storage devices. This makes electrical energy
storage more attractive. This can be stored in different devices such as rechargeable
batteries, capacitors, and supercapacitors. The capacitor was invented by a German
scientist Edwald Georg Von Kleist in 1745, showing the charge storage on two plates

A. Tiwari · A. Dixit (B)

Department of Physics, C for Solar Energy, Indian Institute of Technology,
Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Tiwari
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_1
2 A. Tiwari and A. Dixit

separated by a dielectric media [1]. When a voltage (i.e., electric field) is applied
across the metal plates, with a dielectric in between them, the charge doesn’t flow
across the dielectric material. The external electric field forces positive charges to
align towards the direction of the applied electric field, thus causing the charge stor-
age on metal (electrode) plates. This process is known as the dielectric polarization.
The capacity of a capacitor depends upon the polarization of the dielectric materials
[2–3]. The polarization of dielectric material increases with increasing the electric
field, which increases capacity of the capacitor. The capacitance C of such parallel
plate capacitor is defined as C = ε0 εr A/d; where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free
space with value 8.85 × 10−12 F/m, εr is the relative permittivity of the medium, A
is the electrode area, i.e., parallel plates and d is the distance between electrodes,
i.e., parallel plates. The capacitance of a capacitor can be enhanced by (i) increasing
the electrode area A; (ii) dielectric constant εr ; and reducing the electrode distance.
The increase in area will result in bulky capacitor devices and reduced electrode
distance or dielectric thickness may increase the leakage current or dielectric break-
down depending on the dielectric constant of the materials used [3]. These limitations
restrict the use of capacitors in electronic devices at smaller scales rather than real-
izing these as energy storage devices [4, 5]. The supercapacitors are devices similar
to conventional capacitors in general but differ significantly in geometrical design.
These devices use porous materials as electrodes, providing very large surface area
in contrast to the conventional capacitor devices. Further, mostly liquid electrolytes
are used for supercapacitors, which makes effective interface between the porous
electrode and electrolyte, thus enhancing effective electrode area A several orders
of magnitude higher than conventional capacitors and in addition, the thickness also
reduces to very low values, i.e., the interfacial separation between porous electrode
and electrolyte. The enhanced electrode area and reduced thickness showed very
large capacitance values, justifying the name supercapacitors. Thus, enhanced capac-
itance values let to very large energy density over conventional capacitors and power
densities over conventional energy storage devices such as batteries. A qualitative
comparison of energy density and power density of a supercapacitor and battery is
compared in Fig. 1 schematically. We observed that power density of supercapacitors
is several orders of magnitude higher (~1000 times) than that of batteries, whereas
energy density is several orders of magnitude smaller than that of batteries. The
performance parameters of supercapacitors are compared with lithium-ion batteries
and summarized in Table 1, suggesting the superior power densities and operating
life time [6, 7]. The supercapacitors are ideal for energy storage requirements where
frequent charge/discharge is essential at high currents for short durations. These
require low-maintenance and offer short power dissipation [8, 9]. The charging time
of supercapacitors is generally of the order of 10 s. The self-discharging of super-
capacitors is higher than that of an electrostatic capacitor and somewhat higher than
that of electrochemical batteries. The high power density and long operational hours
make supercapacitors attractive for applications, where high currents are required in
shorter duration, i.e., in power applications. Thus, these can be a very good option
for designing hybrid energy storage devices with rechargeable batteries for various
applications such as hybrid electric vehicles, power electronics.
Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites for High Voltage … 3

106

Power Density (W/kg) 105

104

103 Supercapacitors

102

Batteries
10

1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Energy Density (Wh/kg)

Fig. 1 A relative comparison of energy and powder densities of batteries and supercapacitors

Table 1 A relative comparison of supercapacitors and Li-ion batteries performance parameters

[10]
S. no. Properties Supercapacitors Batteries
1. Charging time 1–10 s 10–60 min
2. Cell voltage 2.3–2.7 V 3.6–3.7 V
3. Specific energy (Whkg−1 ) 5 (typical) 100–300
4. Specific power (Wkg−1 ) Up to 10,000 1000–3000
5. Cycle life Greater than 103 h 500 h and higher
6. Service life (in Vehicle) 10–15 years 5–10 years
7. Charging temperature −40 to 65 °C 0–45 °C
8. Discharging temperature −40 to 65 °C −20 to 60 °C
9. Cost per Wh $20 (typical) $0.50–$1.00

There are different types of supercapacitors (i) Electrochemical Double Layer

Capacitors (EDLCs), known as supercapacitors in general, (ii) Pseudocapacitors
PSCs, and (iii) hybrid supercapacitors. The charge and discharge of these devices
can be either Faradic or non-Faradic or both, depending on the type of electrodes
used in supercapacitor devices. Faradic processes exhibit an oxidation-reduction
reaction while charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte in the capacitors.
4 A. Tiwari and A. Dixit

In contrast, non-Faradic processes are not showing any oxidation/reduction reaction

during charge transfer between the electrode and electrolyte. Here, charges are stored
on the surface of the electrode by physical process like electrostatic force in non-
Faradic supercapacitors [11].

1.1 Charge Storage Mechanism of EDLCs and PSCs

A Supercapacitor (SCs) consists of two porous electrodes, separated by a separator

(electrically insulating but ion-conducting), in conjunction with an ionic electrolyte
(electrically insulating but ion-conducting). The most common material is nanos-
tructured porous carbon materials [8, 9]. The charge is stored non-Faradically, i.e.,
electrostatically in general between electrode and electrolyte. This suggests that
there is no redox reaction between the electrolyte and electrodes. In supercapacitors
(EDLCs), an electrochemical double layer of charges is formed to store the charges
on the surface of carbonous electrodes. As the applied potential increases, the elec-
trostatic attraction of opposite ionic charges from the electrolyte is taking place by the
opposite poles and accumulates on the electrode surfaces, after diffusion across the
separator. Thus, a double layer of charges forms on electrode surface. These devices
thus can store large amount of charge on electrode surfaces and exhibit enhanced
storage capacity. The large current extraction is possible with these devices as there
is charge transportation from one electrode to another, as the charge is stored on
the electrode surface, which is in contact with the current collector. The charge and
discharge of these devices are highly reversible without any significant degradation
in their performance, showing large cyclic life 106 or more, which is several orders
of magnitude higher than that of rechargeable batteries. Further, the wide operat-
ing temperature range and environmental condition make supercapacitors useful in
adverse conditions such as in remote areas and deep in the sea water [12].

1.2 Need of Higher Operating Voltage Supercapacitors

The maximum power of a supercapacitor is Pmax = V 2 /(4 × ESR); where Pmax is

the power density and ESR is the Equivalent Series Resistance of the SC and V is
potential applied through the capacitors. Thus, the higher operating voltage superca-
pacitor can provide enhanced power density as the power density of supercapacitor is
proportional to square of voltage. The common supercapacitors are in use are based
on porous carbon or nanostructured carbon derivative materials, showing relatively
lower operating voltage window and thus, relatively lower power densities. Thus,
there is a need to develop electrode materials, which can withstand higher operating
voltage and may exhibit higher energy density. Metal oxide composites are widely
explored to meet the objective of higher operating voltage. These oxides can with-
stand higher operating voltage due to their large electronic band gap. Rare earths
Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites for High Voltage … 5

based oxides are also wide band gap materials and are explored for supercapacitor
applications in their nanogeometries. We will review the development of rare earth
metal oxides (REMO) based electrodes for higher operating voltage supercapacitors.
REMOs with conducting polymer and carbon composites are proposed as efficient
electrode materials for high voltage and high energy density supercapacitors [12].

2 Rare Earth Metal Oxides (REMOs) Based Composites

for Supercapacitors

The supercapacitors (i.e., EDLCs) work on non-Faradic charge transfer mechanism,

avoiding electron transfer between electrode and electrolyte. However in pseudoca-
pacitors (PSCs), the charge transfer is Faradic in nature, involving charges transfer
between electrolyte and electrodes. The specific capacitance of pseudocapacitors is
10–100 times higher than that of EDLCs. The carbon-based supercapacitors provide
high power capacity because of rapid adsorption and desorption of electrolyte ions
through separator pores, but suffer from low specific energy density [13]. This prob-
lem is circumvented by using metal oxides based carbonous and conducting polymer
composites as electrode materials. These electrodes showed enhanced energy stor-
ing capacity i.e. higher specific energy density. These electrodes fall under PSCs,
where a fast and reversible Faradic electrochemical process takes place after appli-
cation of potentials across the device. The charge transfer takes place between elec-
trode and electrolyte during redox reaction, where charges cross the double layer
region. There are various metal oxide polymer composites such as RuO2 , MnO2 ,
and Co3 O4 , Eu2 O3 , Ce2 O3 are explored for PSCs electrodes. The inclusion of these
oxides increases not only the specific capacitance but also the operating voltage of
PSCs. In such inorganic composite electrode based PSCs, the redox reaction between
cation and anion determines the capacity of supercapacitors. The metals with higher
electrons per atom are considered as source of higher specific capacitance in PSCs.
Thus, the ideal electrode material for high power and energy densities PSCs should
satisfy the following criteria:
1. The presence of many free cations with multiple oxidation states.
2. The repetitions of multiple electrons transform redox reaction.
Rare earth metal oxide based composites are the examples, satisfying the above-
mentioned criteria to realize high energy and power density electrode materials for
PSCs, where multiple valence states of rare earth metals can be fully utilized for
enhanced charge storage capacity in conjunction with higher operating voltage [14].
The electrically conducting polymers (ECPs) are used to realize enhanced charge
storage capacity as compared to their carbonous counterparts because of Faradic
reaction and intrinsic band gaps of ~1–3 eV. The rare earth oxides and ECP com-
posites can be used to utilize as efficient pseudocapacitor electrodes harnessing the
advantages of both material systems. Such supercapacitors may be very useful for
hybrid electrical devices [18–16].
6 A. Tiwari and A. Dixit

Table 2 List of rare earth oxide based composites for supercapacitor

Rare earth metals Metal Supercapacitive properties References
oxides/Composite Operating voltage Specific
oxide (V) capacitance (F/g)
La LaFeO3 −1 to 0 16.43 [21]
LaMnO3 24.40
LaCrO3 106.58
Ce Ce2 O3 /CNT 0–0.8 455.7 [22]
Nd Nd2 O3 /PLN 0–0.8 401 [13]
Sm Sm2 O3 /POAP −0.2 to 0.9 283 [20]
Eu Eu2 O3 /PP/CuO 0–1.0 320 [18]
Eu2 O3 /WCS/PP 670 [19]
Gd Gd2 O3 /PLN 0–0.8 310 [13]
Gd2 O3 /CEP 300 [23]
Yb Yb2 O3 /PLN 0–0.8 270 [13]
Yb2 O3 /RGO NPs 240 [24]
Here PLN stands for “Polyinodle”, CNT stands for “Carbon Nanotubes”, POAP stands for “Poly
o-aminophenol”, PP stands for “Polypyrrole”, WCS stands for “Waste Coconut Shell”, CEP stands
for “Conjugate Electrochemical Polymer” and RGO is “Reduced Graphene oxide”

The high redox reactivity and relatively large band gap values of rare earth oxides
make them suitable electrode materials for pseudocapacitor applications [13, 17].
However, there are limited reports on the REMOs based SCs. The recent work on
Eu2 O3 /Polypyrrole/CuO composite supercapacitors showed 320 F/g specific capac-
ity in potential window 0–1 V and good stability up to >1000 charge/discharge cycles
[18, 19]. Shiri et al. investigated POAP/RE2 O3 (RE = Sm and Gd) and found ~283
and 300 F/g specific capacity [20]. The comparison of different rare earth oxide based
supercapacitors is summarized in Table 2.
These rare earth metal oxides composites showed relatively high energy density
as well as high power density in conjunction with superior stability. Thus, rare earth
metal oxides may lead to significant improvement in electrochemical behavior with
various conducting polymer-based composites. The specific capacity of rare earth
oxide and carbonous composites are plotted in Fig. 2 [13]. These include rare earth
binary oxide and their transition metal derivatives. Among these Eu and Ce rare earth
oxides showed the maximum efficiency ~650 and 450 F/g. In addition, the specific
capacity of these rare earth oxides based supercapacitors is much higher and the
operating voltage is also higher than that of carbon-based supercapacitors.

2.1 Transition Metal Oxides (TMOs) for SCs

The transition metal oxides (TMOs) based supercapacitors also showed promising
very large specific capacitance. Some of these TMOs based supercapacitors, espe-
Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites for High Voltage … 7

REMOs Vs Specific Capacitance

700 B
650
600
Sm2O3/
Specific Capacitance (F/g)

550 C-Gd2O3/PLN [18]

Ce2O3/CNT [17] POAP
500 D-Gd2O3/CEP [22]
[19]
450
400
350 A D
300 F
250 C
200 E
150
100
50 24
0
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Yb
A- Eu2O3/PP/CuO
La2O3/LaFeO3 Nd2O3/PLN [18]
Elements [20]
E- Yb2O3/PLN [18]
B-Eu2O3/WCS/PP
[21]
LaMnO3/LaCrO3 [16] F-Yb2O3/RGONPs [23]

Fig. 2 A graph showing specific capacitance of rare earth metals and their composites

cially with large capacities are summarized in Table 2. This suggests that transition
metal oxides (TMOs) exhibit large pseudocapacitance due to their Faradic property
to store charges because of multiple valence states. RuO2 showed highest capacity
among TMOs and REOs based supercapacitors, whereas other promising TMOs
such as IrO2 , FeO2 , and MnO2 are promising capacitor electrode materials [25].
However, the relative comparison of REOs and TMOs based supercapacitors sug-
gest that REOs are relatively higher operating voltage devices as compared to that
REOs based devices.

3 Issues/Challenges with Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors may provide high power density as compared to their counterpart

secondary batteries and exhibit long charge/discharge cycles. REMOs and TMOs
based supercapacitors also exhibit very large specific energy density and relatively
higher operating voltages. These are also relatively lighter in weight with respect to
secondary batteries and thus providing easy maneuverability. The additional advan-
tage is the fast charging/discharging of these devices in few seconds allowing the
large current extraction at the time of requirements for power applications. Their
longer self-discharge time also is advantageous over other energy devices. In spite of
8 A. Tiwari and A. Dixit

Table 3 List of some transition metals and their composites for supercapacitors applications
Transition metals Metal Supercapacitive properties References
oxide/Composite Operating voltage Specific
(V) capacitance (F/g)
Ru RuO2 −0.4 to 0.5 720 [26]
RuO2 /OMC 633 [27]
Mn MnO2 0.1–0.5 297 [28]
MnO2 /MSS 964 [29]
Ni NiO2 0–0.35 1700 [30]
NiO2 /MSS 620 [29]
Co Co3 O4 0.1–0.5 742.3 [31]
Co3 O4 /MWCNT 418 [32]
OMC stands for “Ordered Mesoporous Carbon”, and MSS stands for “Mesoporous Silica Support-
ed”

such suitable energy storage properties, there are several issues/challenges for their
practical applications of supercapacitors. The energy densities of supercapacitors
are much smaller than that of secondary batteries, which is a challenge to fill the
energy density gap between supercapacitor and secondary batteries. Further, the use
of liquid electrolyte also limits the operating voltage. The polarization of ionic liquid
electrolytes may lead to breakdown at higher voltages. There are efforts to develop
high dielectric constant materials, which can meet the requirements. Thus, research
efforts are needed to cover these issues for practical applications of supercapacitors
in everyday applications such as hybrid electrical vehicles, power electrical machines
(Table 3).

4 Conclusions

The present work reviews rare earth oxides composites for supercapacitor applica-
tions with the objectives (i) higher specific energy density and (ii) higher operating
voltage in conjunction with higher power density. Eu2 O3 and its derivative composite
systems exhibit the maximum ≥650 F/g specific energy density. The other rare earth
oxides such as La2 O3 , Y2 O3 and their ternary alloys with conducting polymers are
good candidates for realizing higher specific energy densities. The issues and chal-
lenges with supercapacitors are also discussed towards realizing enhanced specific
energy density and higher operating voltage devices.

Acknowledgements Author Ajay Tiwari highly acknowledges UGC-DAE Consortium for finan-
cial assistance under the project CRS-M-221 for the present work.
Rare Earth Oxides Based Composites for High Voltage … 9

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Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using
Teaching Learning Based Optimization
Technique Considering Power and Cost

Yash D. Modi, Jaydeep Patel, Garlapati Nagababu and Hardik K. Jani

Abstract Wind farm layout optimization has become one of the deciding approaches
to increase power output and decrease total cost of a wind farm. In recent year, for
capturing maximum energy from wind turbines, wind farmers are installing the wind
turbines having bigger rotors and highly efficient turbine components. Even though
they are unable to get the achievable output from the wind farm due to wake effect.
The heart of our research study is to analyse and optimize the wind farm layout
problem. The focus of wind farm layout optimization problem is to find the best
placement of wind turbine in the area of wind farm such a way that there is no wake
or minimal wake condition of downstream turbine. For that purpose study of wake,
model is more important and find out the best optimal solution of placement of wind
turbine. Teaching learning based optimization method is used for optimizing the
positioning of wind turbines. It is considered that wind is coming from 36 rotational
directions with 10° increment from 0 to 360° and velocity is uniform throughout
12 m/s.

List of symbols

u0 Free stream wind velocity (m/s)

u Effective wind velocity under single wake (m/s)
ui Effective wind velocity under multiple wake (m/s)
dr Diameter of rotor (m)
CT Turbine trust coefficient
h Hub height of Turbine (m)
h0 Surface roughness of wind turbine (m)
x Distance between the upstream wind turbine to the downstream turbine (m)
A Rotor swept area (m)

Y. D. Modi (B) · J. Patel · G. Nagababu · H. K. Jani

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 11

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_2
12 Y. D. Modi et al.

Pi Power generated by the ith wind turbine (KW)

VD Deficit velocity (m)
Ptotal Total power generated by the wind farm (KW)
N Total number of wind turbine are placed in the wind farm.

1 Introduction

Nowadays changing temperature and climate change are major issues on the earth.
These change happen because of burning of fossil fuel that cause the global warming
and green house emission to the environment. The continuous emission of the green-
house emission will result in long-lasting change in all components of climate and
irreversibly impact on the people. Coal, oil and natural gases are the major fossils
used by the developed and developing nations for power productions. The burning
of fossil fuels is the prime factor for emission of greenhouse and global warming
of climate. Total world energy consumption will reach to 629 quadrillions Btu in
2020 from 549 quadrillions Btu in 2012. The energy consumption is forecast to 815
quadrillions Btu which shows 40% increment from data of 2012 [1].
To meet the future energy demand and generate the cleaner energy, alternative
renewable energy sources need to be evaluated. These renewable energy sources are
sun (solar) energy, wind energy, biogas energy, hydraulic energy, etc. The use of
increase in renewable energy creates very good impact on our climate and planet as
well as pushes the human toward the sustainable development. Renewable energy is
entirely very clean, safe and green energy produced from the natural resource such
as rain, wind, sunlight, water, biomass, tides, and geothermal heat. This energy is
constantly renew and cannot be exhausted. The renewable energy has advantages
over the fossil fuel is compatible with climate changing, global warming and green-
house effect [2]. The less variation in price of energy produced from the renewable
sources due to low resource removal, transportation and combusting costs. From
entire renewable resources, the wind energy is the most favourable and widely con-
venient resource. The wind energy is clean and entirely renewable source, less CO2
equivalent emission, least water utilization, low-cost energy and higher conversion
rate, cost competitiveness, and price stability, reduce fossil fuel dependence. Out all
source of energy, wind energy has the lowest emission of CO2 (greenhouse), least
water utilization and best social impact when used for power generation. The coal
has highest CO2 emission 1004 (t/kWh) where wind has lowest CO2 emission 25
(t/kWh) [3]. The world wind energy sector note a progressive market growth of more
than 16% with the power capacity installed in the world and wind energy contributes
around 539 GW of total power produced around the globe [4]. The biggest issue in
extracting the wind energy is the wake effect developed by the upstream turbine on
downstream.
First, the Jenson formulate the wake model for finding the wake effect of down-
stream turbine from the upstream turbine [5]. The optimum placement of wind turbine
Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning … 13

for maximizing the power was formed by Mosetti et al. [6]. They used genetic algo-
rithm for optimizing the wind farm layout. Emami et al. [7] and Grady et al. [8]
used implemented genetic algorithm for finding the better output. Huang [9] used to
distribute genetic algorithm method and Huang [10] used hybrid distribute genetic
algorithm for optimizing wind turbine placement. These authors were used the empir-
ical cost model for finding the cost of energy. The empirical cost model not considers
land cost, maintenance cost, tower cost and other turbine component cost. Hence,
present study considers the realistic cost model to calculate cost of energy. Realistic
cost model considers maintenance and operation, land cost, replacement cost and cost
of number of component used in the wind turbine with annual energy production.
The teaching learning based optimization algorithm is used for optimizing turbine
layout placement.

2 Wake Decay Model

Wind energy is transformed from wind energy to electricity by the use of the wind
turbine. In a few years ago two or one wind turbines were placed at wind farm
area for the power generation. But the power generation from those wind farms is
very low. Recent time, the bunch of wind turbines are installed in the wind farms
area to produce more power because of effectively use the available land area. The
cluster wind turbine placement can also reduce the operation cost, installation cost
and maintenance cost. When wind comes in the contact with the wind turbine then
wind produces rotational motion to the wind turbine and due to rotational motion, it
generates the electricity. Due to the wind turbine rotational motion obstacle which
reduces the in wind velocity of wind turbine and produces the wake effect [11]. If
wind turbine installed in the wake affected zone, so due to wake effect it produces
lower energy than the upstream turbine which placed in wind farm.
There are main two impacts of wind turbines. (1) A velocity deficiency and (2)
intensity of turbulence. The turbulent wake formed due to the rotating wind turbine.
The velocity deficiency will reduce the power generation of downstream turbine
in wind farm while intensity of turbulence will increase the load on downstream
turbines in wind farm [12]. Which reduce the lifetime of downstream turbines and
reduce the efficiency of downstream turbine installed in wind farm. For in big wind
farms, it is very crucial to minimize the wake effect generated from wind turbine
by proper applying the placement of turbines. Due to that, the power out from the
turbine is maximum.
14 Y. D. Modi et al.

2.1 Analytical Problem Formulation of Wake Model

The wake decay model formed by the Jensen (1983) was most widely used and one
of the oldest wake model. Jensen’s single and multiple wake models seen below [5].

2.1.1 Single Wake Model

The schematic of wake decay model is visualized Fig. 1. The turbine 1 and turbine 4
are facing free stream velocity from the ambient air. While turbine 2 is in the single
wake condition from the upstream turbine 1. Due to the wake shadow of turbine 1 the
velocity at turbine 2 is influenced. The effective velocity at turbine 2(turbine under
single wake) is calculated as follow:
⎡ ⎡ ⎤⎤
√
⎢ ⎢ 1 − 1 − cT ⎥⎥
u i = u 0 ⎣1 − ⎣  2 ⎦⎦ (2.1)
1 + ln(h/xh 0 )dr

Fig. 1 Schematic of wake decay model

Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning … 15

2.1.2 Multiple Wake Model

For the bigger power production, Bunch of wind turbines are located in wind farm
area. The wake zone becomes very bigger and thicker when turbines are located under
the more number of upstream turbines. This situation is called as the turbine under the
multiple wake zones. Figure 1 show the typical layout of wind farm having the five
wind turbines; numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Now, problem becomes complex when
the turbines are in the multiple wake zone. So, here turbine 3 is in the multiple wake
zones. Turbine 3 is under the wake of turbine 4 and turbine 1. The result of velocity
deficiency of wind turbine 3 encountering N wake is calculated from summation of
kinetic energy to separate wake effect and equating with kinetic energy deficiency
of mixed wake. It can be formulated by given as

2
N u
VD = 1− (2.2)
n=1 u0

The effective air velocity u i at someone turbine i influenced by the more wake
zone is calculated by Eq. (2.3),

u i = u 0 (1 − VD ) (2.3)

2.1.3 Wind Turbine Power Curve Model and Cost Model

For present study consider the Suzlon S-82 wind turbine. Overall power generation
from the wind turbine is calculated by using power curve of the suzlon S-82 wind
turbine. The equation of power generation from the power curve of Suzlon S-82 wind
turbine is given as, [13]
⎧
⎪
⎪ 0, ui ≤ 4
⎨
−5.5348u i3 + 1.131.12u i2 − 776.86u i + 1408.5, 4 < u i ≤ 10
Pi = (2.4)
⎪ 4.9237u i3 + 216.36u i2 + 3091.2u i − 12987,
⎪ 10 < u i ≤ 12
⎩
1500, 12 < u i ≤ 20

Here, Pi is the power generated by the ith turbine and ui is the effective velocity
of ith turbine.
Where the value of ui is depend upon three cases as shown,
ui = u0 ⎡ (when⎡the turbine is under
⎤⎤ no wake)
√
u i = u 0 ⎣1 − ⎣ 1− 1−cT
2
⎦⎦ (When turbine is under single wake)
x
1+ ln
(h h 0 )dr
/
16 Y. D. Modi et al.
  
N   2
ui = u0 1 − n=1 1− u
u0
(When turbine is under multiple wakes)

Cost of energy considers maintenance and operation cost, land cost, replacement
cost and cost of number of component used in the wind turbine with annual energy
production. The equation of COE (cost of energy) of wind farm is given by (Fingersh
et al. 2006) [14],

Overall Cost CRF × ICC N + AOE

COE = = (2.5)
Annual Energy production AEP

AEP = 8760 × P (2.6)

ICC = TCC + BOS (2.7)

N
 
ICC N = ICC × i ln(T f )/ ln 2 (2.8)
i=1

where T f is technology factor and value of this factor is in between 0.85 and 0.90
[14].
Here, COE is cost of energy (INR/kW h), AEP annual energy production, CRF is
a capital recovery factor and ICCN the levelized initial capital cost (INR). The value
of AOE is shown in given below equation.

AOE = LCC + O & M + LRC (2.9)

where O&M is operation & maintenance cost ($), LCC is land lease cost ($) and
LRC is the levelized replacement cost ($). National renewable energy laboratory-
based wind turbine cost model given in Table 1.
where the PR is the power rated, h is the hub height, ηb is the number of blades
and d R is the rotor diameter.

3 Teaching Learning Based Optimization

Optimization method plays an important role in finding the best optimal solution in
many engineering and scientific research. Optimization process is used for obtaining
and create the best feasible solution under the various constrain and design param-
eters. In any engineering system, engineers have to take many technological and
managerial steps at some stages. Finally, the aim of such optimization method is to
either minimize the effort require for the problem and maximize the cost benefits
Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning … 17

Table 1 NREL’s wind turbine cost model

Mass Cost
(1) Turbine cost (TCC)
Rotor part
Blade 0.1452 × (d 2.9158
R ) × ηb [(0.4019 × d 3R − 955.24) +
2.7445 × d 2.5025
R ]/(1 − 0.28)
× ηb
Hub 0.954 × (mass of blade/ηb ) + Mass of hub × 4.25
5680.3
Bearing and pitch 0.1295 × mass of blade + 2.28 × (0.2106 × d 2.6578
R )
mechanisms 491.31
Nose cone, spinner 18.5 × d R − 520.5 Mass of nose cone × 5.57
Drive train
Low speed shaft 0.0142 × d 2.888
R 0.01 × d 2.887
R
Main bearing (d R × 8/600 − 0.033) × 2 × mass of bearing × 17.6
0.0092 × d 2.5
R
Mechanical brake (Cost of mechanical 1.9894 × PR − 0.1141
brake/10)
Generator 6.47 × P0.9223
R PR × 65
Gear box 70.94 × (PR × turn 16.45 × P1.249
R
speed)0.759
Variable-speed electronics – PR × 79
Electrical connection – PR × 40
Bearing, drive and yaw 1.6 × (0.0009 × d 3.314
R ) 2 × (0.0339 × d 2.964
R )
Nacelle cover Cost of nacelle/10 11.537 × PR + 3849.7
Mainframe 2.233 × d1.953
R 9.489 × d1.953
R
Coolant and Hydraulic 0.08 × PR PR × 12
Tower 0.3973 × swept area × h − Mass of tower × 1.50
1414
(2) Balance of station cost (BOS)
Permit and engineering PR × (9.94 × 10−4 PR +
20.31)
Transportation PR × (1.581 × 10−5 P2R −
0.0375PR + 54.7)
Connection and Electrical PR × (3.49 × 10−6 PR −
interface 0.0221 × PR + 109.7)
Civil construction and road PR × (2.17 × 10−6 P2R −
0.0145PR + 69.54)
Installation and assembly 1.965 × (h × d R )1.1736
Foundation 303.24 × (h × swept
area)0.4037
Safety, Control and condition Fixed rate 35,000
monitoring
(continued)
18 Y. D. Modi et al.

Table 1 (continued)
Mass Cost
(3) Annual maintenance and operation and fixed cost (LRC, O&M and LLC)
Land least cost (LLC) 0.00108 × AEP
Operation and maintenance 0.007 × AEP
(O&M)
Levelized replacement cost 10.7 × PR
(LRC)

of the problem. Hence, the optimization methods finally give us the maximum and
minimum value of any given function under subject to constraint. For our wind farm
layout optimization there are main two objective functions, first is to maximize the
power generation from the wind farm and second one is to minimize overall cost of
wind farm.
Teaching learning based algorithm is nature motivate with population-based algo-
rithm. Teaching learning based optimization method does not require any specific
parameter for optimization of problem. Teaching learning based algorithm is mainly
worked on two phase. First phase is teacher phase and second phase is learner phase.
For teaching learning based algorithm, population is number of student study in class
and design variable are number of subjects assign to the student [15].
The procedure (steps) of teaching learning based algorithm is shown below
(1) Initialization
In this phase first, take random some value between bound design variable and give
the population-based on our problem. The number of solution is depending on the
problem and it given by the designer.
(2) Teacher phase
In this phase, learner or student increased their level by teaching from the teacher.
Hence, student and learner outcome depend on the teacher knowledge and teaching
methodology. The teacher phase solution is updated by the following equation.

Ynew = Yold + r (Yteacher − (TF ) Mean) (3.1)

(3) Learner phase

In this phase, learners have increased their knowledge in two ways, first one is they
increased their knowledge by input given from teacher and second one is interaction
between themselves. The interaction between them is randomly with any process
like presentation, communication, discussion. Learners increase their knowledge if
other learner has more knowledge.
Learner knowledge is modified by given below
For i = 1: Pn
If two randomly learner selected Y i and Y j , where i = j
Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning … 19

If f (Y i ) < f (Y j )

Yn,i = Y0,i + ri (Yi − Y j ) (3.2)

Else

Yn,i = Y0,i + ri (Y j − Yi ) (3.3)

where Y n = new value of Y and Y 0 = old value of Y

End If
End For
If function value is better than accept Y n .
From above all explained steps (phases) teaching learning based optimization
method is worked.

4 Results and Discussion

The Suzlon S-82 wind turbine power curve is considered for power generation.
Teaching learning based optimization (TLBO) method is used for turbine layout
placement. The metahuristic algorithm will not give same solution every time. So,
it is required to run the algorithm many times and best solution is considered. The
algorithm is run for 10 times and population size and function evolutions are taken as
35 and 10,500. In present study, 4000 m × 4000 m area is considered, which is divided
into 10 × 10 grid. The spacing between turbine is kept five times a rotor diameter and
turbine is placed in centre of cell. The wind is coming from 36 rotational directions
with 10 degree increment from 0° to 360° and velocity is uniform throughout 12 m/s.
The characteristics used for the present study are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Wind turbine

Wind turbine characteristics Value
characteristics
Wind turbine rotor diameter (Dr ) 82 m
Wind turbine hub height (h) 80 m
Thrust coefficient (C T ) 0.88
Air density (ρ) 1.2253 kg/m2
Area of wind farm 16 km2
Ground surface roughness (h0 ) 0.3 m
20 Y. D. Modi et al.

The energy output of a wind farm is directly proportional to number of wind

turbine installed in the wind farm. As number of turbine increases the turbine cost and
installation cost increases also the wake effect increases which further lead to higher
the cost of energy per unit. Hence, a proper trade-off between number of turbines
installed in a wind farm and COE is required. The four different groups of turbines
having 20, 35, 45 and 60 are considered in present study. The optimized layout has
been obtained for each group and COE has been calculated. The cost of energy
versus number of turbines has been plotted in Fig. 2. It is observed from the Fig. 2
that the value of COE decreases from 1.5534 (INR/KWh) to 1.5234 (INR/KWh)
when the number of turbines increases from 20 to 35. Further, the value of cost of
energy increases as number of turbines increases from 35 onwards. This behaviour
is mainly due to dominant effect of parameters that define the cost of energy term.
As turbine increases from 20 to 35, both overall cost and AEP increases but due
to dominant increase in AEP compared to coverall cost, the cost of energy value
decreases. It is also observed that after 35 turbine, the cost component is dominant
compared to annual energy production that leads to higher cost of energy. The COE
for wind farm having 45 and 60 turbine increases by 1.738 and 8.184%, respectively
compared to 35 turbine. This behaviour is due to wake effect of upstream turbine
to downstream turbine. It is concluded that a layout having 35 turbines will give
optimal cost of energy. The optimal layout for the 35 turbines is visualized in Fig. 3
and the value of COE and AEP is shown in Table 3.

1.66
1.64
1.62
1.6
COE

1.58
1.56
1.54
1.52
1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
No of turbine placed in wind farm

Fig. 2 Comparison COE value based on number of turbine

Wind Farm Layout Optimization Using Teaching Learning … 21

Fig. 3 a Input layout of 35 wind turbine in wind farm b optimal layout of 35 wind turbine in wind
farm

Table 3 Optimal result of wind turbine problem

Turbine with 1500 kW Optimal value
Number of turbine 35
Annual energy production (MWh) [AEP] 4.0342 × 105
Cost of energy production (INR/kWh) [COE] 1.5234

5 Conclusion

A novel approach of wind farm layout optimization with ‘cost of energy’ model
is used in the present study. The cost of energy model consider the operational
and maintenance cost, land cost, replacement cost and cost of components. Teaching
learning based algorithm is used for optimizing the layout of turbines in a wind farm.
The results indicate that cost of energy value decreases when numbers of turbines
are increasing from 20 to 35. The number of turbines increases beyond 35, the COE
value starts increasing due to reduction in AEP because of wake effect. This makes
cost component more dominant compare to annual energy production that leads to
higher cost of energy. Hence, the optimal number of turbines are selected as 35,
layout is optimized. The AEP and COE values are found to be 4.0342 × 105 (MWh)
and 1.5234 (INR/kWh), respectively, for the given wind scenario.
22 Y. D. Modi et al.

References

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2. Wang, L., Tan, A.C., Gu, Y., Yuan, J.: A new constraint handling method for wind farm layout
optimization with lands owned by different owners. Renew. Energy 83, 151–161 (2015)
3. Evans, A., Strezov, V., Evans, T.J.: Assessment of sustainability indicators for renewable energy
technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13(5), 1082–1088 (2009)
4. Global Cumulative Installed Wind Capacity 2001–2016: Global Wind Energy Outlook 2016
5. Jensen, N.O.: A Note on Wind Generator Interaction. Risø National Laboratory, DK-4000
Roskilde, Denmark (1983)
6. Mosetti, G.P.C.D.B., Poloni, C., Diviacco, B.: Optimization of wind turbine positioning in
large windfarms by means of a genetic algorithm. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 51(1), 105–116
(1994)
7. Emami, A., Noghreh, P.: New approach on optimization in placement of wind turbines within
wind farm by genetic algorithms. Renew. Energy 35(7), 1559–1564 (2010)
8. Grady, S.A., Hussaini, M.Y., Abdullah, M.M.: Placement of wind turbines using genetic algo-
rithms. Renew. Energy 30(2), 259–270 (2005)
9. Huang, H.S.: Distributed genetic algorithm for optimization of wind farm annual profits. In:
International Conference on Intelligent Systems Applications to Power Systems, ISAP 2007,
pp. 1–6. IEEE, Nov 2007
10. Huang, H. S.: Efficient hybrid distributed genetic algorithms for wind turbine positioning in
large wind farms. In: IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, ISIE 2009,
pp. 2196–2201. IEEE, July 2009
11. Turner, S.D.O., Romero, D.A., Zhang, P.Y., Amon, C.H., Chan, T.C.Y.: A new mathematical
programming approach to optimize wind farm layouts. Renew. Energy 63, 674–680 (2014)
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energy in the Central and Southern North Sea (2020–2030) (2011)
13. Diaf, S., Notton, G.: Evaluation of electricity generation and energy cost of wind energy
conversion systems in southern Algeria. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 23, 379–390 (2013)
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niques. Springer Science & Business Media (2012)
Performance Analysis
of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller
for Variable Speed Hybrid Standalone
WECS

Anjana Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Abstract The presented work in the paper shows a comprehensive analysis of

fractional-order PI (FOPI) controller based voltage and frequency (VF) control
of variable speed hybrid-standalone wind-energy-conversion-system (WECS). The
system comprises of two major components: (1) permanent-magnet-synchronous-
generator (PMSG), (2) battery-energy-storage-system (BESS). For standalone oper-
ation, the frequency and magnitude of voltage need to be controlled at the load ter-
minals. DSOGI-PLL (Dual-second-order-generalized-integral based phase-locked-
loop) is designed to track the frequency of the system. Fractional-order (FO) con-
trollers provide robustness to Voltage Source Converter (VSC) due to their fractional
characteristic. FOPI (PIλ ) controller has an extra degree-of-freedom λ (order of inte-
gral) with its proportional gain (K p ) and integral gain (K i ). Simulation analysis is
carried out in MATLAB/Simulink for PMSG-BESS based WECS. Proposed con-
troller’s performance is evaluated for varied conditions of operation. FOPI based
controller is significantly minimizing the peak overshoot and settling time for the
terminal voltage, also it improves the transient response of the system.

Nomenclature

v Wind-velocity
ρ Air-density
A Swept-area of turbine blades
λ Tip-speed-ratio of wind turbine
Cp Power-coefficient of wind turbine
β Blade-pitch-angle
Pturbine Turbine power
ωr Rotational-speed of rotor

A. Jain (B) · R. Saravanakumar

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 23

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_3
24 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

r Radius of wind turbine

θe Electrical angle
Tmech Turbine torque
Tgen Generator’s electromagnetic torque
P Pole-pairs
ωm Mechanical speed of rotor
ωe Electrical speed of rotor
J Moment of inertia
B Viscous friction coefficient
Rs Stator winding resistance
Ld Direct axis stator inductance
Lq Quadrature axis stator inductance
φm Flux linkage
Vsd Direct-axis stator voltage
Vsq Quadrature-axis stator voltage
Isd Direct-axis stator current
Isq Quadrature-axis stator current
(x) Gamma function
Vt Terminal-voltage
ILoad Load-current
Igen Generator-current
Iconverter Converter-current
PLoad Load-power
Pgen Generator-power
Pconverter Converter-power

1 Introduction

Frequency and the terminal voltage are required to be constant and to be controlled at
the load side [1]. A load side converter can be controlled using a PI control [2]. Phase-
locked loop (PLL) provides good results for balanced system voltage. Simplest and
commonly used PLL is based on synchronous reference frame (SRF), shows deterio-
rated response for disturbed and unbalanced voltages [3]. Researches have presented
some advanced PLL technique to improve the disturbance rejection capability of
SRF-PLL [4]. These PLL are able to handle power quality issues occurring due
to non-ideal system voltage. Adaptive frequency loop-based voltage and frequency
control is presented in [5]. DSOGI-PLL provides offset rejection control for grid-
connected converters [6, 7]. DSOGI is utilized to find the orthogonal-signals with
harmonic rejection and shows fast frequency adaptive characteristics without filtering
delays for disturbed grid conditions [8, 9]. SRF and enhanced PLL based voltage and
frequency controller (VFC) is utilized for extracting the load-current’s fundamental-
component and for frequency estimation [10, 11]. FO controller demonstrates better
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 25

response for total harmonic distortion (THD) than integer-order controller [12]. FOPI
improves system performance by reducing overshoot, response time, and oscillation
in the response [13]. A frequency-domain scheme for FO controller design is pre-
sented in [14], which provides stability, robustness, and optimal dynamic response.
A finite-order PID controller is discussed using biquadratic-approximations of FO
differential (or integral) operations, to achieve required phase-margins [15]. Desired
performance of the systems is attained with FO controllers, which is found to be
superior to integer-order controllers [16, 17]. Many methods have been proposed
for obtaining the optimum setting for the parameters of FO controller in [18, 19].
FO-PID controller provides five possibilities for tuning of parameter and adjusts the
roots of characteristic equation according to the requirements [20].
Section 2 presents the mathematical modelling of PMSG and wind turbine.
Section 3 presents system description and control scheme. Section 4 includes
simulation-analysis, results, and discussions. Section 5 summarizes the conclusion
from the presented work. This work contributes to the performance analysis of
PMSG-BESS based variable speed standalone WECS while controlling voltage and
frequency using FOPI controller.

2 Mathematical Model of PMSG and Wind Turbine

2.1 Wind Turbine Modelling [21]

Equation (1) represents the maximum-extracted-wind-power:

1 v3
Pw = ρA (1)
2
1  
Pturbine = Pw Cp = ρ Av 3 Cp λ , β  (2)
2
Pturbine
Cp = (3)
Pw
ωr ∗ r
λ = (4)
v
 
   C2 −C5
Cp λ , β = C1 − C3 β − C4 e λi + C6 λ

(5)
λi
 
1 0.035
λi = − 3 (6)
λ + 0.08β  β +1

Coefficient C1 to C6 are: C1 = 0.5176, C2 = 116, C3 = 0.4, C4 = 5, C5 =

21, C6 = 0.0068.
26 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

2.2 Modelling of the PMSG

Following equations are representing the modelling of PMSG:

 
dωm 1  
= Tmech − Tgen − Bωm (7)
dt J

ωe = Pωm (8)

Also

ωe dt = θe (9)

Due to permanent-magnets, variation in rotor-flux is nil. Equations (10) and (11)

represent the d-q axes stator-voltage:

dφsd
Vsd = Rs Isd + − ωe φsq (10)
dt
dφsq
Vsq = Rs Isq + + ωe φsd (11)
dt
Equations for stator-flux are:

φsd = L d Isd + φm (12)

φsq = L q Isq (13)

Substituting (12) and (13) in (10) and (11)

dIsd
Vsd = Rs Isd + L d − ωe L q Isq (14)
dt
dIsq
Vsq = Rs Isq + L q + ωe L d Isd + ωe φm (15)
dt
Equation (16) represents the electromagnetic torque:
 
3  
Te = P φm Isq (16)
2
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 27

3 System Description and Control Scheme

For variable wind velocity, system terminal voltage and frequency are not constant
for standalone WECS. Also, these quantities are not constant during variations in load
for constant wind velocity operation. Fluctuations in the voltage and frequency are
controlled with an appropriate controller, which gives satisfactory response during
any load or wind velocity variations. Figure 1 presents the configuration of the system.
The wind-turbine is connected to PMSG, which provide supply to the load. Non-
linear load is comprises of diode-rectifier and R-L elements. Load is fed by PMSG
along with BESS during low wind velocity operation of WECS. BESS stores extra
power from PMSG during high wind velocity operation.

Control Signal

DSOGI-PLL and
Fractional PI based
controller

Vabc F ILoad

Fig. 1 System configuration

28 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Regulation of terminal voltage and frequency is the main objective of proposed

FOPI controlled VSC. For standalone WECS, the references for load-current are
generated using DSOGI-PLL and FOPI controller. d-q axes references for the load
current are found from voltage and frequency loops. Control pulses are generated
and fed to bi-directions VSC.

3.1 Fractional-Order PI (FOPI)

In this paper, FOPI controller is proposed for control of voltage. In addition to

integer-order PI, one more parameter λ is introduced, which improves controller’s
performance. FOPI is based on theory of fractional calculus. This theory is a gener-
alized method of ordinary integration and differentiation to non-integer order [19].
General operator a Dtλ denotes FO differentiator as follows
⎧ dλ
⎪ λ, (λ) > 0
⎪
⎨ dt
1, (λ) = 0
a Dtλ = (17)
⎪
⎪
t
⎩ (dτ ) , (λ) < 0
−λ
a

Here a and t represent operation limits. λ can be a real or complex number. For
this work, λ is considered as the real number which has values between 0 and 1 (0 <
λ < 1). Riemann–Liouville definition is the most frequently encountered definition
of FO derivatives and integral. FO integrals are defined as:

t
1
a Dtλ f (t) = (t − τ )λ−1 f (τ )dτ (18)
(λ)
a

while the fractional-order derivatives are

⎡ t ⎤

1 d n
⎣ f (τ )
a Dtλ f (t) = dτ ⎦ (19)
(n − λ) dt n (t − τ )λ−n+1
a

where
∞
(x) = y x−1 e−y dy (20)
0

Here a can be taken as null value. Then 0Dt−λ ≡ Dt−λ . Equation (21) represents
the differential equation of FOPI:
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 29

Kp
Vt
V trf Converter PLANT
e(t)

Vt Ki

Fig. 2 Structure of voltage loop FOPI controller

u(t) = K p e(t) + K i Dt−λ e(t) (21)

Transfer function of FOPI controller is derived using Laplace-transform of frac-

tional calculus and given by,

G(s) = K p + K i s −λ (22)

Figure 2 shows the block-diagram of FOPI-based voltage controller.

3.2 Estimation of Direct-Axis Component of Load-Current

Reference

The frequency error f e (n), which is found from the difference of measured and
reference frequencies is fed to a PI controller in the frequency loop. Direct-axis
reference ILoad is calculated by adding PI controller’s output to the weighted average
amplitude of d-axis component of ILoad . At nth sampling state:

f e (n) = f rf (n) − f (n) (23)

Id∗ (n) = Id (n − 1) + output of frequency loop PI controller (24)

f rf (n) represents reference-frequency while f (n) represents the measured system

frequency.

3.3 Estimation of Quadrature-Axis Component

of Load-Current Reference

The terminal voltage error V te (n) is found from the difference of measured and
reference terminal voltages and fed to a FOPI controller in voltage-loop. Quadrature-
axis reference ILoad is calculated by adding output of FOPI controller to the weighted
average amplitude of q-axis component of ILoad . At nth sampling state:
30 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Vte (n) = Vtrf (n) − Vt (n) (25)

Iq∗ (n) = Iq (n − 1) + output pf voltage loop FPI controller (26)

V trf (n) represents reference terminal voltage and V t (n) represents measured ter-
minal voltage.

4 Simulation Results and Discussion

A detailed simulation analysis of the proposed FOPI controller is performed in MAT-

LAB/Simulink. Different conditions are considered to demonstrate the performance
and the effectiveness of FOPI under following conditions:
• Variable wind velocity with constant load
• Variable load (linear/non-linear/balanced/unbalanced) with constant wind velocity
• Single line (L-G) and 3-φ (LLL-G) fault at the generator terminals.

4.1 Performance Analysis of FOPI for Different Values of λ

Performance of FOPI is examined under different values of λ i.e. 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9.
Figures 3 and 4 presents the performance of FOPI for overshoot and settling time,
respectively, for different K p , K i , and λ. From the results, it is found that overshoot is

Fig. 3 Overshoot with different K p and K i for FOPI

Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 31

Fig. 4 Settling time with different K p and K i for FOPI

minimum for λ = 0.7 and settling time is minimum for λ = 0.8. From this analysis,
it is found that a tradeoff should be made between settling time and overshoot to
choose the constants of the controller.

4.2 Performance Analysis of FOPI for Various Values of λ

with Constant Values of Kp and Ki

Figure 5 shows the terminal voltages, for various values of λ with a wind velocity of
13 m/s. From this figure, it can be observed that for λ = 0.9 settling time is minimum
but overshoot is more. For variations in λ from 0.6 to 0.9, overshoot also varies from
10 to 20% respectively. So an optimal value of λ should be selected within a tradeoff

Fig. 5 Terminal voltage (V t ) for different values of λ

32 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Table 1 Settling time and overshoot for various values of λ

Parameters λ = 0.6 λ = 0.7 λ = 0.8 λ = 0.9
Overshoot (%) 9.7 11.48 13.7 13.76
settling time (s) >1 0.744 0.5 0.51

between percentage overshoot and settling time. Finally, an optimal value of λ =

0.8 is considered for further analysis. Table 1 shows settling time and overshoot for
various values of λ.

4.3 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI

for Variable Wind-Velocity at Constant Load Condition

A detailed simulation analysis of the proposed system is carried out for different
wind-velocity at constant linear load (6 kW, 100VAR). Initial wind-velocity of WECS
is of 10 m/s. At t = 0.5 s it is considered as 12 m/s and at t = 1.0 s, it is 13 m/s. Figure 6
depicts wind-velocity, rotor-speed, electromagnetic-torque, frequency, and terminal-
voltage for varying wind velocities. 3-φ voltage at the terminals, generator current,
load current, and converter current are shown in Fig. 7. Generated power, load power,
and converter power are presented in Fig. 8 and it can be observed that PMSG–BESS
is able to meet power balance during variations in wind velocity and load. BESS is
supplying additional power required to the load during lower generation due to lesser

Fig. 6 Wind-velocity, rotor-speed, electromagnetic-torque, frequency, and terminal-voltage for

varying wind velocity at constant load
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 33

Fig. 7 3-φ terminal-voltage, generator-current, load-current, and convertor-current for varying

wind velocity at constant load

Fig. 8 Generated power, load power, and converter power for varying wind velocity at constant
load

wind velocity. Also it is receiving excess generated power during higher generation
due to higher wind velocity.

4.4 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI

for Variable Load at Constant Wind Velocity Condition

Simulation analysis of the proposed system is carried out for different load at con-
stant wind velocity of 13 m/s. System is started with a linear load of 3 kW, 100VAR.
At t = 0.7 s, a nonlinear load of 3 kW, 100VAR is added and at t = 1.2 s, load
is unbalanced. Figure 9 depicts wind-velocity, rotor-speed, electromagnetic-torque,
frequency, and terminal-voltage. Figure 10 shows 3-φ voltage at the load terminals,
generator-current, load-current, and converter-current. Linear, nonlinear, and unbal-
ance load current can be observed in the zoomed view of it. Generated power, load
power, and converter power are presented in Fig. 11. From this figure, it can be
concluded that PMSG-BESS is performing satisfactory power balancing during load
variations.
34 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Fig. 9 Wind-velocity, rotor-speed, electromagnetic-torque, frequency, and terminal-voltage for

varying load at constant wind velocity

Fig. 10 3-φ load-voltage, generator-current, load-current, and converter-current for varying load
at constant wind velocity

Fig. 11 Generator power, load power, and converter power for varying load at constant wind
velocity
Performance Analysis of Fractional-Order PI-Based Controller … 35

Fig. 12 Terminal-voltage, generator-current, load-current, and converter-current during L-G and

LLL-G fault at constant load and wind velocity

4.5 Performance Analysis of the Proposed WECS with FOPI

During Faults at Terminals

System is started with a constant load of 6 kW, 100 VAR at wind velocity of 13 m/s.
L-G fault is created at the load terminals during t = 0.4 s to 0.45 s. Also LLL-G
fault load created at load terminals during t = 0.8 to 0.85 s. Figure 12 presents the
terminal voltage, generator-current, load-current, and converter-current during L-G
and LLL-G fault at constant load and constant wind-velocity. From this analysis, it
is found that FOPI controller performs well during these conditions.

4.6 THD Analysis for Linear and Nonlinear Loads

THD analysis is carried out for PMSG-BESS based WECS. THD for source (genera-
tor) voltage, load current, and source (generator) current and found within the permis-
sible limits (as per IEEE standards 519-2014). Figure 13 and Table 2 shows the THD
analysis for source (generator)-voltage, load-current, and source (generator)-current.

5 Conclusion

In this paper, voltage and frequency control of variable speed hybrid stand-alone
WECS connected to PMSG-BESS has been presented using FOPI controller.
DSOGI-PLL provides successful tracking of frequency of the system. Proposed
FOPI controller provides improved and satisfactory transient behavior for the sys-
tem during varied conditions of operation viz; variable wind-velocity, load variation,
unbalanced loading, L-G fault, and LLL-G fault at the terminals. FOPI is able to
36 A. Jain and R. Saravanakumar

Fig. 13 %THD analysis of source-voltage, load-current, and source-current

Table 2 THD analysis for

% THD in source % THD in % THD in source
source-voltage, load-current,
voltage load-current current
source-current
3.24 7.85 2.23

achieve desired response with minimum overshoot and settling time during these
operating conditions.

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Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) connected to variable speed Wind Energy
Conversion System (WECS). In: 2017 International Conference on Trends in Electronics and
Informatics, India (2018)
3. Kulkarni, A., John, V.: Analysis of bandwidth-unit-vector-distortion tradeoff in PLL during
abnormal grid conditions. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 60(12), 5820–5829 (2013)
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5. Jain, A., Saravanakumar, R., Shankar, S., Vanitha, V.: Adaptive SRF-PLL based voltage and
frequency control of hybrid standalone WECS with PMSG-BESS. Int. J. Emerg. Electr. Power
Syst. 19(6) (2018)
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synchronization of power converters under faulty grid conditions. In: 37th IEEE Annual Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, Korea, June 2006
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Exposition, Austin, TX, USA, 1611–1617, Feb 2008
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tion system for three-phase grid-connected power converters under adverse grid conditions.
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Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel
Production Using Slow Pyrolysis

Alpesh Mehta and Nirvesh Mehta

Abstract Biodiesel derived from non-edible oil feedstock may one of the most
emerging fields of energy production. Biodiesel, as a fuel, can be used for power pro-
duction in transport, automobiles and for power generation sector without adversely
affecting nature. Major objectives of current research are the effect of various forms
of algae on production of green crude, comparison of methods for algae to bio-
fuel conversion, selection of various parameters for green crude production. Algae
biodiesel satisfied BS-IV emission norms. Green crude derived using slow pyrolyser
gives 19 ml/100 g of green crude with 2500 °C flask temperature and with 50 °C
cooling water temperature.

1 Introduction

Power consumption per capita represents the growth of the said nation and living
standard of the citizen of that nation. Hence, the hunger for energy production is
increased day by day. Indian economy is a DIESEL DRIVEN economy [1–10]. The
use of fossil fuel (depleting constantly) cause pollution and related issues, global
warming, unexpected seasonal variations, melting of glassier, scarcity of drinking of
water, etc. Hence researchers are putting their constant efforts to find out alternate
sources of energy production which are suitable and eco-friendly also.

2 About Algae

Out of accessible sources of renewable energy, energy production from solar, wind,
hydro, geothermal, tidal, biogas is not widely popular due to lack of technologi-
cal development, poor conversion efficiency, region-specific, less awareness among

A. Mehta (B) · N. Mehta

Mechanical Engineering Department, GEC Godhra, Godhra, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 39

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_4
40 A. Mehta and N. Mehta

peoples and costlier. So biomass only is the source through which easy energy con-
version possible [1–14].
Algae (third generation of feed stock) is the most efficient single cellular plant
on the earth. Algae will prepare food in the presence of sunlight, CO2 , nutrients,
non-fertile land and water (sewage/saline/blackish/sea). Following factors represent
the importance of algae biomass [2–18]:
(a) Renewable source of energy with single cellular structure, eco-friendly, and
greener alternative, (b) Available globally, (c) Not used as a FOOD in India, (d)
20–24 h is required for maturity and hence possibility of daily production, (e) Blend-
ing may possible with diesel, (f) Very less emission of SOx and NOx , (g) Earn carbon
credits via carbon sequestration, (j) Cleaning agent for treatment of wastewater.

3 Algae to Biofuel Conversion Methods

Figure 1 depicts classification of various algae to biofuel conversion processes

[16–23]. Once the algae is cultivated and harvested, it can be converted into bio-
fuel using one of below method.

Algae to bio-fuel
Conversion Process
Transesterification

Endothermic
Biochemical

Conversion
Conversion

Chemical
Processes

Gasification
Anaerobic
Digestion

Liquefaction
Aerobic
Fermentation

Pyrolysis
Anaerobic
Fermentation

Fig. 1 Classification of algae to biofuel conversion [2, 4–11, 18–23]

Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel Production … 41

Biochemical conversion processes involve use of chemical with long process time,
transesterification process contains production of bio-oil and conversion of bio-oil to
biofuel. Hence endothermic chemical conversion processes can be preferred in the
above research. Among endothermic chemical conversion techniques, gasification
requires very high temperature (range of 1000 °C); liquefaction requires wet biomass
and more time for biomass to decompose with chemical in the form of catalyst.
Hence, pyrolysis is considered as suitable for algae to biofuel conversion for the
present research [13–23]. Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of
organic material in the absence of oxygen (or any halogen) at elevated temperatures.
Production of green crude and biochar through carbonization at low temperatures
(range of 100–300 °C) with high vapor residence time [10–50 min] has been possible
through Slow pyrolysis and with slow heating rates [13–23].

4 Collection of Algae

Above research was carried at Godhra of Panchmahal distinct of Gujarat state. Algae
were collected from sewage water, river Misri, river Mahi and from wastewater. The
collected algae were dewatered, dried in the sunlight with the help of solar drier.

4.1 Conceptual Design of Slow Pyrolyser

Figure 2 represents a conceptual design for slow pyrolyser. Algae vessel with algae
is placed in the furnace and the system is kept closed. Vacuum is created in the entire
system either by supplying nitrogen gas of with operating vacuum pump. Upon
heating, algae vapor and non-condensing gases will be released from the furnace,

Fig. 2 Conceptual design of slow pyrolyser [2, 4–11]

42 A. Mehta and N. Mehta

and will enter in the jacket condenser. Algae vapor will be condensed and green
crude is obtained in the condensing flask.

5 Layout for Slow Pyrolyser

Conceptual design of slow pyrolyser is feasible by applying the following corrections:

(1) The nitrogen gas cylinder or vacuum pump is employed to ensure oxygen-free
environment,
(2) Stirring mechanism is designed in the system,
(3) Non-condensable gas may be collected or released in the atmosphere.
Figure 3 represents the layout of the actual system of slow pyrolyser. The algae
containing vessel is kept in the furnace and the furnace covered. The entire system is
oxygen-free either by creating vacuum or by supplying a constant flow of nitrogen
gas. The temperature in the furnace is increased and reaches towards SET tempera-
tures (range of 100–300 °C). Upon heating, algae vapor and gases (hot fluid) leaves
the furnace and enters in the jacketed condenser. Due to heat exchange between hot
fluid and the cooling water, the green crude in the form of condensate is collected
in the condensing flask which is of light brownish color with smell. After passing
through fraction distillation tower, algae biodiesel is obtained which is of yellowish
color and with smell like kerosene.

Fig. 3 Layout for slow pyrolyser [2, 4–11]

Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel Production … 43

6 Result and Discussion

In the above experiment, following parameters are kept constant for the various sets;
weight of algae = 100 g, mass flow rate of cooling water = 670 ml/min, total time
duration = 30 min.
Set 1 is performed with the cold water at 5 °C circulated through jacket condensor,
flask temperature of 200 °C and with the vacuum pressure of 560 mm of Hg.
From Table 1 and Fig. 4, dewatered alga gave maximum output of 30 ml/100 g
algae that it contained water within. The green crude collected from the dry algae
in small pieces was least (7 ml) due to incomplete combustion. The dry algae in the
powdered form gave 17 ml from 100 g algae due to complete combustion.
Hence, next all experiments were done with keeping algae in powdered form
and the independent parameters were: (a) flask temperature, (b) use of medium for
creating oxygen-free environment, and (c) cooling water temperature. The results
were discussed below;
A. Amount of Green Crude in the form of condensate obtained with Constant Flow
of Nitrogen Gas (Set 2 and Set 3)
Table 2 of Set 2 and Set 3 represents algae in powder form with constant flow of
nitrogen gas and water as a cooling fluid.
From Table 2 and Fig. 5, 16 ml/100 g green crude with the algae in powder form

Table 1 Observation table for Set 1

S. No. Form of algae Green crude obtained (ml) Remarks
1 Dewatered algae 30 May contain more amount
of water
2 Dry algae in small pieces 07 –
(10–20 mm)
3 Dry algae in powdered 17 –
form

Fig. 4 Comparison of green Dry algae

crude obtained with different in
forms of algae powdered
form
31%
Dewatered
algae
56%

Dry algae
in small
pieces
(10mm to
20mm )
13%
44 A. Mehta and N. Mehta

Table 2 Observation table for Set 2 and Set 3

S. No. Flask temperature (°C) Green crude obtained (per
100 g)
1 250 16 Cold water temperature =
2 200 12 5 °C
3 150 10
1 250 13 Cold water temperature =
2 200 11 23 °C
3 150 8

Fig. 5 Comparison of green Amount of green crude obtained with

crude obtained with constant constant flow of N2 gas
Green crude(ml)

flow of nitrogen gas 20

15
10 Cold fluid (water)
temperature=23°C
5
Cold fluid (water)
0 temperature=5°C
0 100 200 300
Flask temperature(°C)

at 250 °C of flask temperature with cold water inlet temperature of 5 °C and with
constant flow of nitrogen gas. Further research with the constant flow of nitrogen gas
was not continued due to possibility of contamination of N2 gas in the final product
and availability of N2 gas.
B. Amount of Green Crude Collected with Constant Vacuum Pressure (Set 4 and
Set 5)
Observation Table 3 for Set 4 and Set 5 with algae in powder form represents
green crude collected with constant vacuum pressure 560 mm of Hg.
From Fig. 6 and Table 3, maximum output of 19 ml/100 g can be achieved with
flask temperature of 250 °C, cold water inlet temperature of 5 °C with the constant

Table 3 Observation table for Set 4 and Set 5

S. No. Flask temperature (°C) Green crude obtained (per
100 g)
1 250 19 Cold water temperature =
2 200 17 5 °C
3 150 16
1 250 17 Cold water temperature =
2 200 14 23 °C
3 150 13
Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel Production … 45

Fig. 6 Comparison of green Green crude obtained with constant vaccum pressure
crude obtained with constant

Green crude (ml)

20
pressure 15
10 Cold fluid (water)
temperature=23°C
5
0 Cold fluid (water)
0 100 200 300 temperature=5°C
Flask Temperature(°C)

pressure of 560 mm of Hg due to better heat transfer between hot fluid(algae vapor
plus gas) and cold fluid(cold water).
C. Green crude obtained with constant pressure and with use of dry ice (Set 6 and
Set 7)
Table 4 of Set 6 and Set 7 depicts result with algae in powder form, with use of
dry ice and constant vacuum pressure 560 mm of Hg.
From Fig. 7 and Table 4, maximum output of 31 ml/100 g can be achieved with
flask temperature of 250 °C, cold water inlet temperature of 5 °C with dry ice (at −
70 °C).
Maximum output may be obtained in the above case due to maximum heat transfer
between with the cold fluid along-with the dry ice and algae vapor plus gas mixture
in the condensing flask.

Table 4 Observation table for Set 6 and Set 7

S. No. Flask temperature (°C) Green crude obtained (per
100 g)
1 250 31 Cold water temperature =
2 200 27 5 °C
3 150 21
1 250 27 Cold water temperature =
2 200 24 23 °C
3 150 18

Fig. 7 Comparison of green Green crude obtained with use of dry ice
crude obtained with use of 35
dry ice 30
Green crude(ml)

25
20
Cold fluid (water)
15 temperature=23°C
10
Cold fluid (water)
5 temperature=5°C
0
0 100 200 300
Flask Temperature (°C)
46 A. Mehta and N. Mehta

Table 5 BS-IV emission

S. No. Parameters As per BS-IV B20
norms and exhaust gas
analysis 1 Hydrocarbon (g/km) 0.10 Nil
2 Particulate matter 0.025 0.014
(g/km)
3 Carbon monoxide 0.5 0.10
(g/km)
4 HC + NOx (g/km) 0.30 Nil
5 Nitrogen oxides 0.25 Nil
(g/km)

But dry ice is not used in further experimentation due to cost, storage problems,
transportation, and preservation. It will add cost of algae biodiesel price.

7 Exhaust Gas Analysis

Exhaust gas analysis was performed in laboratory of the obtained algae biodiesel.
The emission tests were carried in the laboratory with B20 at 9 kg engine load.
From Table 5, it is clear that exhaust gases from diesel engine using algae biodiesel
are in the range and follows the existing emission norms (BS-IV).

8 Conclusion

Algae, third generation of feedstock, are selected for biodiesel production. Slow
pyrolyser is designed and developed for production of green crude. No chemical is
used in the above process. The algae in the powdered form are used in the above case.
Borosilicate material is used for manufacturing various equipments of the system.
Approximate 19 ml/100 g of green crude is achieved at 250 °C with dry algae powder
and cold fluid as water with 5 °C. Drop in the cold fluid temperature and rise in the
flask temperature causes increases in the output yield at the cost of production of
biodiesel. At temperature higher than 300 °C, fast pyrolysis can be adopted.
Thus present global problems include scarcity of drinking water, pollution and
related issues, global warming, earning of carbon credits by carbon sequestrations,
rural development via creating employments, etc. may be solved through farming of
algae and production and usage of algae biodiesel.

Acknowledgements We are thankful to (GUJCOST) Gujarat Council on Science and Technology

for providing grant under MRP vide letter no. GUJCOST/MRP/2015-16/262. We are also thankful
to Prof. P. D. Solanki for his unconditional and constant inspiration during research.
Selection Criteria for Algae Biodiesel Production … 47

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Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF
for 3-Phase 4-Wire System
with Renewable Energy Interface Fuzzy
Control DC-Bus Capacitor

Ranjeeta Patel , Anup Kumar Panda and Josep M. Guerrero

Abstract This paper proposes the 4-leg active power filter (APF), which consists
of interleaved buck inverter interfaced with the photovoltaic (PV) renewable energy
source. The photovoltaic renewable energy system along with the boost converter
associated with the 4-leg interleaved buck active power filter (4L IB APF) is not only
for harmonic compensation but can well handle the active power requirement dur-
ing the load hike. The most perilous shoot-through phenomenon associated with the
conventional 4-leg inverter is fully eliminated by this 4-leg interleaved buck inverter
enhancing the reliability. The id -iq control strategy is used for the reference compen-
sating current generation. Along with this, Mamdani-based fuzzy logic controller
(MFLC) is implemented for the well control of inverter dc-bus capacitor voltage for
having more sensitivity to harmonics, unbalancing and dynamic condition. The detail
analysis of harmonic, neutral current, load unbalancing and active power compen-
sation has depicted for nonlinear three-phase and single-phase unbalanced load for
different voltage condition during steady and dynamic state. MATLAB/Simulation
and OPAL real-time simulator results verify the efficacy and feasibility of the pho-
tovoltaic renewable energy-based 4L IB APF.

1 Introduction

The use of a large number of power electronics devices with commercial and indus-
trial load makes a leaping development in the APF [1]. The key work of APF is
the harmonic compensation, but here photovoltaic (PV) renewable energy system is

R. Patel (B)
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. K. Panda
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, India
e-mail: [email protected]
J. M. Guerrero
Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg East, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 49

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_5
50 R. Patel et al.

interfaced with the APF to be responsible for the active power requirement of the
distribution system during unbalanced and load hike dynamic condition. The extra
active power requirement is provided by the inverter dc-bus capacitor interfaced by
the photovoltaic renewable energy system through boost converter [2, 3]. Out of var-
ious maximum power point tracking (MPPT) schemes, perturb and observe (P&O)
is implemented here as it is one of the unadorned method [4–6].
In recent years only, the researchers are very much worried about the APF relia-
bility. As conventional inverter deals with the perilous shoot-through phenomenon,
here the interleaved buck inverter (IBI) is chosen with no shoot-through phenomenon
[7, 8].
In a distribution system, due to the unbalancing of load, the flow of high neutral
current is there and is being considered as one of the most common problem. There
are various 3-phase 4-wire APFs for harmonic, unbalancing and neutral current
compensation, but 4-leg topology is the best. The fourth leg is specially introduced
in inverter for the alleviation of high neutral current flow causes due to unbalancing
[9, 10].
The control strategy development and its implementation to the APF with sat-
isfactory results for ideal and non-ideal source has become a serious issue for the
researchers. On available of various control strategies, the id -iq is most suitable [11].
For controlling the dc-bus voltage of inverter, the FLC well able to normalize the
PI controller drawbacks. The inverter dc-bus capacitor voltage control is required
because it has a great impact on the harmonic current compensation performance
process. After the generation of the reference current, the switching pulses need to
be produced for the power devices of the interleaved buck inverter by some pulse
width modulation (PWM) techniques. From various research papers, a conclusion
can be drawn that the hysteresis band current controller (HBCC) is well enough for
having good accuracy and fast response [12].
This paper presents the 4L IB APF based on photovoltaic (PV) and id -iq control
strategy using FLC. Section 2 puts the clear idea about the 4-leg interleaved buck
inverter and photovoltaic-based active power filter. Section 3 describes clearly about
the fuzzy-based id -iq control strategy. Section 4 presents the simulation and OPAL-
RT followed by Sect. 5 describing conclusion.

2 3-Phase 4-Leg APF (4L APF) Topology

The 3-phase 4-leg conventional shunt APF is illustrated in Fig. 1a. It consists of
an additional leg, which has been solely added for neutral current compensation
being raised due to the unbalancing of loads as compared with split capacitor (2C)
conventional inverter-based APF [1]. In this topology, the load neutral current is
being directly controlled hence more well alleviation of the neutral current.
This conventional 4-leg inverter used as APF suffers from the dangerous occur-
rence of shoot-through that takes place if two power switches, however, turned on at
same instant of the same limb. The shoot-through can be eliminated by the dead time
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System … 51

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1 a 3-phase 4-leg conventional shunt APF and b dead time in the switching pulse

introduction as illustrated in Fig. 1b, but it causes complicacy in its control scheme
and non-uniformity in the output. So, the interleaved buck inverter topology has been
chosen.
The interleaved buck inverter is formed by replacing the two power device limb
of the conventional inverter with one power device limb. The arrangement is made
like a cell of having two limbs for one conventional inverter limb. The each limb
consists of one power device and on series with a diode as can be seen in Fig. 2.
The circuit principle is as conventional inverter circuit [8]. Hence, the conventional
inverter is replaced by power devices with discrete diodes in series; as no two power
switches in each limb, therefore, no occurrence of shoot-through phenomenon having
no necessity of dead time introduction in the switching pulse.

Fig. 2 4-leg interleaved buck active power filter (4L IB APF)

52 R. Patel et al.

In, 4L IB APF arrangement, the conventional filter inductor of each phase has been
replaced by two coupling inductors for the respective phase as can be seen clearly in
Fig. 2. However, with no shoot-through, the presented 4L IB APF topology is more
reliable and has a more prolonged lifetime with a comparison to conventional [6].
In this topology, the three-phase voltage (400 V) exists across the interleaved buck
inverter. The minimum requirement of dc-link voltage by the 4-leg IB APF is given
by the calculation as follows:
√ √
Vdc,min = 3 × 2 × Vs,rms (1)

Here, only one dc-bus capacitor exists and hence the only voltage needs to be
tracked as required for generation of compensating current using id -iq control strat-
egy. The control scheme is very easy to implement due to one dc-link capacitor. As
same as the 2C IB APF topology [10], it is being used for the low-power applica-
tion, and some researchers being chosen this topology as the most adept alternate in
3-phase 4-wire distribution power network to be employed in shunt APFs.

3 id -iq Control Strategy with Fuzzy Logic Controller

for PV-Based 4L IB APF

Figure 3 presents the control strategy that is FLC-based id -iq for PV-based 4L IB APF.
The id -iq control strategy employs the Clarke’s followed by Park’s transformation
∗ ∗ ∗
for reference compensating currents (i ca , i cb , i cc ) generation.
The Clarke’s (αβ0) transformation applied to source voltage (va , vb , vc ) and load
current (i La , i Lb and i Lc ) to get (vα , vβ ) and (i Lα , i Lβ and i L0 ) are depicted as follows:
⎡ ⎤
    va
vα  −1/2 −1/2
1√
= 2/3 . √ .⎣ vb ⎦ (2)
vβ 0 3/2 − 3/2
vc
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
i Lα  1 √−1/2 −1/2
√ i La
⎣ i Lβ ⎦ = 2/3 . ⎣ 0 3/2 − 3/2 ⎦.⎣ i Lb ⎦ (3)
√ √ √
i L0 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 i Lc

Again, with the application of Park’s transformation, the active, reactive and zero
sequence equivalence current (i Ld , i Lq , i L0 ) is as follows,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
i Ld cos θ sin θ 0 i Lα
⎣ i Lq ⎦ = ⎣ − sin θ cos θ 0 ⎦.⎣ i Lβ ⎦θ = tan−1 vβ (4)
vα
i L0 0 0 1 i L0
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System … 53

Fig. 3 Block diagram of id -iq control for 4-leg interleaved buck active power filter (4L IB APF)
using FLC

where θ represents the instantaneous voltage vector angle. Equation (4) can also be
represented as in terms of vα and vβ .
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
i Ld vα vβ 0 i Lα
⎣ i Lq ⎦ = 1
.⎣ −vβ vα 0 ⎦.⎣ i Lβ ⎦ (5)
i L0 vα + vβ
2 2
0 0 vαβ i L0

The value of the direct voltage component can be found in terms of αβ as vd =

|v̄dq | = |v̄αβ | = vα2 + vβ2 and with zero q-axis voltage.
The instantaneous active (i Ld ) and reactive (i Lq ) load current comprises of both
average as well as oscillating current. The average component needs to be blocked
and the oscillating part needs to be passed out and injected by the 4L IB APF as
made known in Fig. 3. The high-pass filter may be implemented directly to pass out
the oscillating component, but here an alternate arrangement has been done where
the average component is allowed to pass out by the help of low-pass filter and then
deducted the average component from the total active load current (i Ld ).
+
i Ldnh = i Ld − i Ld1h (6)
54 R. Patel et al.

+
i Lqnh = i Lq − i Lq1h (7)

+ +
where i Ld1h , i Lq1h are the average component and i Ldnh , i Lqnh are the oscillating
component.
The Butterworth filters are being used as low-pass filter and designed for cut-off
frequency 25 Hz. As can be seen in Fig. 3, another component called the first harmonic
+
positive sequence direct current (i d1h ) required to produce the compensating current
+
reference. This component i d1h is obtained from the voltage regulator system of dc-
+
bus. Here, the FLC is castoff for the generation of i d1h . The two requisite dc-bus
voltage regulator inputs are dc-bus reference voltage Vdc∗ and inverter sensed dc-bus
+
voltage Vdc producing the output as i d1h .
The error voltage Vdc = Vdc∗ − Vdc of the dc-bus is being minimized here by
implementing FLC. The two requisite inputs to the FLC are named as error (E)
dc-bus voltage and change in error (E) dc-bus voltage which has been depicted
in Fig. 3. The seven variables of E and E are negative (big, medium and small),
zero and positive (small, medium and big) [12]. They are sequentially noted as NB,
NM, NS, 0, PS, PM and PB. With these two inputs, 49 rules need to be formed
+ ∗ ∗
to get the output i d1h . After extracting the i cd and i cq that is the dq compensating
current reference as can be noted in Fig. 3, the inverse Park’s followed by Clarke’s
∗ ∗ ∗
transformation applied to excerpt the compensating current reference i ca , i cb and i cc
which is presented below in Eqs. (8) and (9).
⎡ ∗
⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ∗ ⎤
i cα vα −vβ 0 i cd
⎣ i cβ ∗ ⎦ 1
= .⎣ vβ vα 0 ⎦.⎣ i cq∗ ⎦ (8)
∗
i c0 vα
2 + v2
β 0 0 vαβ ∗
i c0
⎡ ∗ ⎤ ⎡ √ ⎤⎡ ∗ ⎤
i ca  1 √ 0 1/√2 i cα
⎣ i ∗ ⎦ = 2/3.⎣ −1/2 3/2 1/ 2 ⎦.⎣ i cβ∗ ⎦
(9)
cb
∗
√ √ ∗
i cc −1/2 − 3/2 1/ 2 i c0

The neutral reference compensating current can be calculated by the formula as:
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
i cn = i ca + i cb + i cc (10)

3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) System with Boost Converter

and MPPT

Here, the PV array has been taken in edict to make available the active power during
the sudden hike in distribution system load. The energy stored by the inverter dc-bus
capacitor can provide the active power for a very short time, but for a long time, it
cannot handle during the load hike, and hence, it becomes a good idea to associate
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System … 55

the renewable PV energy with APF for sudden compensation of active power and for
a long time. However, PV can supply power during daytime only and load change
can be expected more in daytime. The daytime load hike can be handled well in this
method.
The PV array maximum power can be hauled out by employing the maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) scheme by means of the boost converter that has been
instanced in Fig. 4a. From existed MPPT schemes, the simplest schemes perturb and
observe (P&O) is executed for tracking the PV system maximum power as illustrated
in Fig. 5 [4]. The algorithm is being started by setting the value of maximum power
as an initial. In the curve of power versus voltage, the power is said to be maximized
when slope P/V is equal to zero. Then, at specific intervals, the actual PV voltage
as well as current are tracked out to calculate the instantaneous power P(k). Then,
a slight perturbation is made to cause the change in solar PV module power and
calculated power at some delay that is P(b).
Then a comparison is done between the P(k) and P(b) and the resultant is P.
If P is zero, then the duty cycle (D) is being updated, and if P is not equal to
zero, then needs to check whether it has greater value than zero or not, with this, also
requires verifying the V . If the slope is greater than zero, and relying on the sign,
the duty cycle (D) has to be perturbed to get the peak point which is clearly explained
in Fig. 4c. The used PV module’s voltage versus current and power versus voltage
curves is shown in Fig. 4b and c, respectively. The characteristics of the PV panel
that has been used here represent: maximum rated power at standard test condition
(STC) is 500 W, maximum power voltage (V mp ) is 48.35 V and maximum power
current (I mp ) is 9.93 A. The STC defines the condition of irradiance 1000 W/m2 ,
module temperature 25 °C and air mass 1.5. The used PV system consists of nine
series modules and then the boost converter has been used to get the required dc-bus
voltage. The conversion ratio of input to out is well known as:

1
Vdc = V (11)
1− D

where Vdc depicts the boost converter output voltage, V and D are PV voltage the
duty ratio respectively.

(a) (b) (c)

12 500
10 400
Power(W)
Current(A)

8
300
6
4 200
2 100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Voltage(V) Voltage(V)

Fig. 4 a Detailed diagram of boost converter with MPPT system, b PV panel curve of current
versus voltage, c and PV panel curve of power versus voltage
56 R. Patel et al.

Fig. 5 Perturb and observe maximum power point tracking system used by solar array

4 Simulation and OPAL-RT Results

The parameters that applied for simulation and OPAL-RT implementation of 4L

IB APF using fuzzy-based id -iq control strategy are as: 400 V(line voltage) supply
voltage (RMS), 50 Hz supply frequency, 2800 µF dc-bus capacitance, 800 V dc-bus
capacitor voltage, APF coupling capacitor 600 µH, nonlinear load value : two three-
phase nonlinear load R1 = 16  and L 1 = 50 mH and one single-phase nonlinear
load R2 = 16  and L 2 = 50 mH connected with phase-b, fuzzy logic controller
Mamdani (Type-1), Input-2, output-1, 7 triangular MFs, 49 rules, continuous universe
of discourse fuzzification and Mamdani’s min operator implication and centroid of
area defuzzification.
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System … 57

5 Conclusion

Figure 6 depicts the OPAL-RT lab consisting of the console monitor, OP5142 recon-
figurable board based OPAL-RT and data storage oscilloscope. Figure 9a represents
the Simulink of surface viewer of the used FLC. Figure 7a, b presents the switch
current of single-phase conventional and IB inverter, respectively. As can be realized
that in conventional inverter too much high (shoot-through) current nearly 3500 A
is flowing at some instant, in IB inverter, the shoot-through eliminated. Figure 8a, b
illustrates the simulation results for steady and dynamic state with unbalanced load
for ideal and non-ideal voltage supply. Figure 9b provides the OPAL-RT results of

Fig. 6 OPAL-RT lab set-up (a) (b)

Ethernet
Link

(c) Probe Link

(a) OPAL-Real Time Simulator

Lab Command Station
(b) OPAL-Real Time Simulator
(c) TPS 2014 Tektronix DSO

Fig. 7 a Conventional (a)

inverter switch current and
3500
Switch current(Amp)

b interleaved buck inverter

switch current
2500

1500

500
0
0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Time(sec)

(b)
50
Switch current(Amp)

40
30
20
10
0
0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Time(sec)
58 R. Patel et al.

(a)
300
Vs(Volt) 50

Vdc(Volt)
iL(Amp)
0 800
0
-300
-50 400
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)

icb(Amp)
ica(Amp)

50 50

icc(Amp)
50
0 0 0
-50 -50 -50
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)
50
is(Amp)

isn(Amp)
20

iLn(Amp)
20
0 0 0
-50 -20 -20
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)

(b)
300 50 50
Vs(Volt)

IL(Amp)

is(Amp)
0 0 0
-300 -50
-50
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)

50 50 50
ica(Amp)

icb(Amp)

icc(Amp)
0 0 0
-50 -50 -50
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)
1000 20
Vdc(Volt)

iLn(Amp)

20
is(Amp)
0 0
500 -20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -20
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)

Fig. 8 a Steady-state simulation results of source voltage (vs ), load current (iL ), capacitor voltage
(V dc ), phase compensating current (ic ), source current (is ), load neutral current (iLn ) and source
neutral current (isn ). b Dynamic state simulation results of unbalanced source voltage (vs ), load
current (iL ), source current (is ), phase compensating current (ic ), capacitor voltage (Vdc ), load
neutral current (iLn ) and source neutral current (isn )

(a)

vs iL

(b)

ica iLn
Vdc icb
icc is isn

Fig. 9 a Surface viewer of FLC from MATLAB/Simulink. b OPAL-RT steady-state results of

source voltage(vs ), load current (iL ), capacitor voltage (Vdc ), phase compensating current (ic ),
source current (is ), load neutral current (iLn ) and source neutral current (isn )
Performance Analysis of 4-Leg IB APF for 3-Phase 4-Wire System … 59

Table 1 THD before and

Supply State Without APF With APF
after compensation
voltage Ph-a, Ph-b, Ph-a, Ph-b,
condition Ph-c Ph-c
Sinusoidal Steady state 29.81, 19.79, 3.08, 3.18,
29.68 3.17
Unbalanced Dynamic 28.03, 41.02, 4.86, 4.72,
sinusoidal state 36.03 4.10

steady state. The proposed PV-based 4L IB APF well proved that it is more reliable
as there is no shoot-through. With this, the harmonic compensation is well below 5%
as per the IEEE 519 standard being tabulated in Table 1. Due to the PV arrangement,
the 4L IB APF is able to provide the active power during the sudden load hike and
also during the unbalance condition.

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Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification
of Conventional and Mono-Lattice
Structural System for Tall Wind Mill
Towers

Hemal J. Shah and Atul K. Desai

Abstract Wind energy is a renewable source of energy and as it provides clean

and green energy and is vigorously pursued in the last few years in the world as
well as in India. A country like India has approximately 102,790 MW wind power
generation capacity. Wind structures are tall and characterized by slender structural
geometry. The height of wind mill plays an important role in wind power generation.
One can extract more energy from wind by increasing height of tower, the major
obstacle in height increase is the slenderness of the wind mill towers. To extract
more energy various researcher has tried steel-concrete tower and octagonal shape
tower to overcome slenderness effect. To avoid the slenderness effect on tall towers
a combination of lattice-monopole structural system is proposed and investigated. A
finite element model of 125 m tall tower is developed for comparison of conventional
and proposed mono-lattice supporting structural systems. Detailed dynamic analysis
under working loads of wind turbines and nonlinear seismic loads are carried out. The
response of both structural systems is quantified in terms of dynamic amplification,
displacement, and base shear. It is observed that mono-lattice structural system is less
sensitive to dynamic forces and system proves economical for tall towers compared
to conventional systems and can be used for tall towers to extract more power at low
and unsteady wind sites.

1 Introduction

Wind turbine structures are very tall structure with very less thickness of wall. It will
extract wind energy and generates power. The hub height plays very important role
in power generation. At elevated hub heights, one can get higher wind speed and less

H. J. Shah (B)
Government Engineering College, Bharuch, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. K. Desai
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 61

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_6
62 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

fluctuations in wind velocity. This will also increase wind energy harvesting time
and production of power. Increased hub height can be effectively used in regions
where favorable conditions are only available at higher elevations.
Various researchers has tried different types of materials to achieve more height.
One method is to use ultra-high performance concrete with post-tensioning [1] for
tall towers. In study FE model of tower prepared and analyzed. Another method is
Hexcrete tower [2] in which combination of two different materials such as steel and
concrete is proposed. It consists of hexagonal-shaped columns with post-tensioning
and rectangular panels as the bracing elements of tall tower. To get more hub heights
triangular-shaped cross-section made up of three columns at each corner of tower is
also used [3]. These columns are connected with concrete panels. The steel-concrete
both materials can also be used to resist wind load more effectively [4] and towers are
designed as steel-concrete hybrid tower. The concrete is provided in lower part and
steel is provided in upper parts. In his work author has designed tower of 80–175 m
height same concrete steel material is used to design 1.5, 3.6 and 5 MW steel-
concrete hybrid tower for 100 m hub height of tower [5]. The cost analysis of all
towers performed and recommendations for design of towers suggested.
The wind mill towers are also modeled considering different types of soil [6]. The
equation of motions is derived. He has modeled tower and simulates it with seismic
excitations. Ultra high-performance concrete can be used for tall towers. It is also
required to perform experimental works [7]. He has also carried out experimental
testing of all precast elements in the laboratory. He has assessed the performance of
tower in laboratory and after certain modifications, it is applied at site. Wind turbines
are constructed at site, so to get actual behavior of wind turbine full scale seismic
testing is carried out for 65 KW capacity having 22 m hub height [8]. The study of
degradation of grout and losses in torque of various bolts provided for connection
between various segments due to seismic loading on tower is carried out. It was
observed that higher modes are significant for large turbines in case of wind towers
the design of tower also depends on type of soil.
It is required to consider types of soil available at site in design of tower. For
this, various types of foundation system for wind mill towers at various location in
Alaska are evaluated [9]. In his research, he has investigated large mat foundation
and pile foundation. He has investigated effect of pile foundation and optimized
pile system in such a way that resonance conditions are avoided. The design of
wind mill tower depends on wind and seismic loads. The 5 MW tower is modeled
with different soil conditions [10] in FEM software and model was excited by the
1985 Canada earthquake. Wind forces are also applied, and it was found that for
stiff soils earthquake forces will not govern design but for softer soils base moment
and deflection may govern design of tower. The wind mill structures are subjected
to cyclic loading [11]. For that experimental cyclic loading test are carried out on
the wind mill tower. Detailed scaled-down model is prepared, and it is subjected to
32,000–17,200 cycles of load. The change in natural frequency of the tower will
strongly dependent on the shear strain level in the soil next to the pile. Mathematical
fragility functions are also derived for towers subjected to seismic excitations [12]
for that 80 m tall 2.4 MW tower is modeled and subjected to nonlinear dynamic loads
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 63

using ground motions considering near field and soft soil conditions. The fragility
functions for a severe damage states of tower are also derived.
The wind mill towers are subjected to very large turbine load on the top of the
tower. Very large mass of the rotor is also procured at top of tower which is rotating
under operational conditions. This rotating mass produces dynamic effect on the
supporting structural systems. In most of the cases, this tower is either monopole
or lattice tower. In the present investigation combination of mono-lattice structural
system is proposed. In mono-lattice structural system top portion is provided by con-
ventional monopole shape and bottom portion is provided by lattice tower. Figure 1
shows comparison of load transfer mechanism for monopole and mono-lattice tower.
The conventional monopole system resists the external forces acting on it by bending
action. In the proposed lattice-monopole system bottom portion of tower is provided
with lattice system and top portion is constructed with monopole system.
At the bottom portion of tower more stiffness is required so it can be achieved
by providing lattice structure. The lattice system resists forces by axial stiffness, we
know that axial stiffness of structure is more compared to the bending stiffness. By
providing this combined monopole lattice structural configuration we can use axial
stiffness at bottom where more strengths are required, and we can use monopole
structure in top portion where less strengths required.
In the regions like Gujarat state of India towers are constructed in seismically
active area. Therefore, in present research seismic capacity of both towers are eval-
uated by applying seismic acceleration records available for the area. The Artificial

Fig. 1 Load transfer in mono-lattice and monopole system

64 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

seismic time histories are also produced for soils having different shear wave velocity
using SeismoArtif [13] and effect of different soils are investigated.

2 Validation of Numerical Model

In the present research, we are using the FE model so like any other methods FE
model is required to be validated before any use. This procedure is required to ensure
the accuracy of modeling of material used, correct use of elements of FE model and
modeling methods. In the present research data is obtained from [14] and it is used to
validate the models. In his research author has given the details of 78 m high tower
including the mass of rotor and mass of nacelle and point of application of these
loads. The turbine is 78 m high with 1.65 MW capacity. The diameter at bottom of
turbine is 3.65 m which is reduced to 2.282 m at top. The wall thickness is varying
from 35 to 18 mm.
Based on the details given by the author the steel properties are assigned to tower
the loads acting on tower are considered as mentioned in Table 1. The 3D model
of tower is prepared in FE software. In this model, the walls are modeled as shell
element with varying thickens given by the author. It is not required to model the
blades of the tower as we are not disturbing the mass distribution of the model. The
blades are not modeled due to the fact that local modes of the blades will not affect
the modal properties of the tower. The mass of nacelle and mass of rotor and its
point of application is defined by the author. Table 1 summarizes load applied on top
of tower and is point of application form top of tower. These masses are applied at
distances given from top of tower as joint mass. The modal load case is defined in
such a way that these masses are considered in the calculation of modal frequencies.
The modal analysis is performed for first 50 modes. The effective modal mass
participation factor is checked, and it is found to be 90% of total mass. The time
period for first 3 modes is checked from FE analysis. The time period for first 3 modes
is obtained as 3.17, 0.38, and 0.15 s, respectively. As per the details given by the
researcher in his work he obtained time period of 3.24, 0.38, and 0.14 s, respectively.
The time periods obtained in this study is matching with the results from previous
research very well. So, we can use modeling methods and FE software for further
investigations.

Table 1 Loads applied on

S. No. Component Mass (ton) Eccentricity
tower [14]
1 Tower 108 –
2 Nacelle 52 80 m level
3 Rotor 43 3.447 m from C/L
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 65

3 Description of 125 m High Monopole Tower and Its

Finite Element Model

It is shown earlier we can extract more power form the wind mill turbines by providing
larger hub height of the wind mill tower. In the present study, the height of wind mill
is increased to 125 m. The diameter of the tower at the base is kept as 4.2 m which
is reduced to 2.282 m at the top. The walls of the tower are modeled as thin shell
element. At the base of the tower, all nodes are restrained in all directions. The
details of Vestas turbine are taken from the research work carried out on Vestas
tower [14]. The loads mentioned in Table 1 are applied to the 125 m high tower.
This load is applied as joint mass, it is required to transfer loads on the tower. The
2-joint link element with displacement and rotations restraint in all directions are
modeled between tower top joints and point of application of mass of rotor and
nacelle. Proper meshing of shell element is given in FE software. Figure 2a shows
FE model of tower with joint masses applied on it. The detailed modal analysis is
performed in FE software. For detailed modal analysis of structure, it is required that
dynamic mass participation factor obtained after analysis is higher than 90%. The

(a) Monopole system (b) Mono-Lattice structural system

Fig. 2 Displacement in monopole and mono-lattice system

66 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

number of mode shapes considered in the present study to satisfy the above condition.
The first natural frequency of tower obtained in dynamic analysis is 0.21 Hz.
For dynamic design of wind mills supporting structures two frequencies are very
important.
(1) For any wind mill tower rotor loading frequency which is commonly referred
to as 1P frequency is very important. This frequency is not a single frequency,
but it is a range of frequency. In the present Vesta’s turbine, the 1P frequency is
0.18–0.24 Hz.
(2) The other important frequency is blade passing frequency which is generated due
to effect of wind deficiency that will occur due to the passing of blades through
shadow of tower. This frequency is also known as shadowing frequency and it
is 2P in case of 2 blade turbine and 3P in case of 3 blade turbines. In present
research, this frequency is 0.54–0.72 Hz
This 1P frequency and 3P frequency plays an important role in design of wind
mill tower this frequency must not coincide with modal frequencies to avoid res-
onance conditions during operations of wind mill tower. The dynamic design of
tower depends on this blade rotating and tower natural frequencies. During design,
it must be ensured that natural frequency of system must be separated form forcing
frequencies of turbine.
If the natural frequencies and forcing frequencies coincides dynamic amplification
takes place. This dynamic amplification depends on the frequency ratio which is
ratio of operating frequency to natural frequency of the structure. It also depends on
the damping in the structure. In order to study the effects of the dynamic loads on
the structure dynamic amplification factor is computed for 125 m high monopole
tower. In the computation of dynamic amplification factor forcing frequencies are
considered as 1P and 3P frequency of rotor. The results of dynamic amplification
are presented in Fig. 2 it shows that dynamic amplification is observed in monopole
structural system under operational conditions of tower.

4 Description of 125 m High Mono-Lattice Tower and Its

Finite Element Model

The design of tower supporting structure must be such that it will not create reso-
nance condition under operational life of wind mill tower. Earlier it was observed that
monopole structural system will result in dynamic amplification of tower. Therefore,
in the present investigation, combination of mono-lattice structural system is pro-
posed for same 125 m high tower. Figure 2 shows the schematic view of monopole
and mono-lattice structural system and its deformed shape of under seismic load
conditions.
To combine the effect of mono and lattice structural system in tower the bottom
68 m portion of tower is designed as lattice-type structure and top 57 m portion is
designed as monopole type structure. As the width of tower plays an important role
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 67

to provide stability to tower the width is kept as 16 m at base of tower and it is

gradually decreased to 4.1 m at 68 m, height of tower. The bracing system is very
important in lattice system to reduce buckling of members and to reduce effective
length of the various members of tower. M type bracing system is provided between
main legs of the tower. The connection between monopole and lattice portion at
68 m level is required to be model such that all forces and moments of monopole
can be transferred to lattice portion. To join this, two-structural system two joint
rigid link is defined in FE software. All the three displacement and rotational degree
of freedom are restricted in link so that it can transfer forces and moments. The
structural members of lattice portions are designed considering angle sections for
the loads acting on it.
The mono-lattice system is analyzed for first 50 modes and modes are decided
in such a way that modal mass participation factor obtained after analysis is higher
than 90%. From the analysis, the natural frequency of the structure is obtained. The
value of the first modal frequency is 0.12 Hz.
The results obtained by detailed dynamic analysis of both structural systems
are plotted in Fig. 3. The first comparing parameter is natural frequency of tower.
After complete investigation, it is observed that in mono-lattice system we get less
frequency so mono-lattice tower is more flexible compared to the conventional lattice
system.
Figure 3 shows that for mono system dynamic amplification is 7.5, but on the other
hand for mono-lattice system dynamic amplification is only 0.9 so we can conclude
that dynamic amplification of various parameter is very less in mono-lattice structural
system compared to monopole system for very high towers.

8 MONOPOLE
7
HYBRID

6
AMPLIFICATION

-1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
FREQUENCY (HZ)

Fig. 3 Comparison of dynamic amplification in structural systems

68 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

5 Details of Seismic Simulation of Tower

The wind mill towers are constructed in the seismic regions and they may be sub-
jected to seismic loads during life span. In state like Gujarat of India, the wind
mill towers are constructed in Bhuj area which is seismically active. Bhuj area was
triggered by severe earthquake of 6.7 magnitude in 2001. In the present time his-
tory analysis two recorded accelerograms of severe earthquakes considered. The
E-W and N-S component of Bhuj (2001) earthquake and Nepal earthquake (2015)
is considered to compare seismic capacity of both structural systems. The details
of acceleration time history considered are as per Table 2. The time history is the
record of actual acceleration observed at a site at specified time intervals. It contains
thousands of accelerations recorded at specified time intervals say 0.005 s. The time
history acceleration record for Bhuj earthquake recorded at Ahmedabad station as
shown in Fig. 4a. As shown in Table 2 another important parameter in acceleration
time history is time of peak ground acceleration (PGA). The peak ground accel-
eration of Bhuj and Nepal earthquake is 1.0382 and 1.601 m/s2 , respectively. The
occurrence time of PGA is different for both simulated records. The structure will
also get peak response at time of PGA depending on damping and stiffness of it. For
the designer, the value of peak displacement and peak base shear is very important,
and it is considered in design. The wind mill structure is simulated in FE software
and the acceleration time history is applied to the structure. In the present study, the
response quantities considered is displacement and base shear as an earthquake load
quantification.
The design of both the models in done and total dead weight of both structural
system come out to almost same. This is the major criteria to compare the structural
response of both systems under dynamic loads. The total weight of mono system is
3082 kN while for mono-lattice system total weight is 2857 kN.

Table 2 Details of acceleration time history

Detail Bhuj, Gujarat, India Nepal
Richter magnitude 7.7 7.8
Total time of earthquake (s) 133.53 322.955
Peak ground acceleration (m/s2 ) 1.0382 1.601
Time of PGA (s) 46.940 49.310
Total acceleration records 26,706 64,591
Recording time intervals (s) 0.005 0.005
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 69

0.10 ACCLERARTION
Acclerartion

ACCLERARTION (g)
1.0
Acclerartion (m/sec 2 )

0.05
0.5
0.00
0.0
-0.05

-0.5 -0.10

-1.0 -0.15

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Time (sec) TIME (sec)

(a) Bhuj Acceleration Time History (0 degree) (b) Artificial 1 Velocity 620 m/s

Acceleration Acclerartion
0.10
0.10
Acceleration (g)

Acclerartion (g)
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00
-0.05 -0.05
-0.10 -0.10
-0.15 -0.15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (sec) Time (sec)

(c) Artificial 2 velocity 310 m/s (d) Artificial 3 velocity 255 m/s

Fig. 4 Bhuj time history and its artificial time history

6 Generation of Artificial Time History

In the case of strong earthquake, the acceleration time histories are recorded at
places where seismographs are procured. The local soil condition where structure is
provided has significant effects on the characteristics of ground motion. It may be
possible that soil exhibits nonlinear type behavior under strong ground shaking. The
earthquake motions applied during strong earthquake can be drastically modified in
amplitude as well as frequency content. In the present study accelerogram record is
available at Ahmedabad station and epicenter of earthquake is at Bhuj.
If one requires to construct structure at locations where soil conditions are different
than soil conditions of measured acceleration, it is required to modify the measured
accelerograms. So to study the effect of various soil conditions three artificial ground
motions are generated using SeismoArtif [13].
The artificial time history is obtained from acceleration time history of Bhuj
earthquake considering 3 different categories of soil. The synthetic time history for
soil with shear velocity of 620 m/s is termed as artificial 1 (A-1), with shear velocity
of 310 m/s is termed as artificial 2 (A-2) and with shear velocity of 255 m/s is
termed as artificial 3 (A-3). Same way acceleration time history of Nepal earthquake
is considered and for three different soil conditions, the artificial time history is
calculated for Nepal acceleration records.
70 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

7 Simulation of Artificial Time History

The artificial time history is obtained in form of acceleration record at various time
interval for three different soil conditions. These time histories are applied as acceler-
ation loads at the base of the tower. The N-W and S-E component of all time histories
are applied in X and Y direction of the structure. The nonlinear time history analysis
is carried out in FEM software. The number of modes considered in analysis are
such that modal mass participation is more than 90%. The time steps are 0.005 s for
both earthquake record. Total number of steps are assigned based on the number of
acceleration records available for acceleration time history. In all cases, the tower is
assumed fixed at the base of tower. For simulation the walls of tower are modeled
as thin shell elements. The shell elements are properly meshed to achieve accurate
results. After performing detailed nonlinear analysis, the response of earthquake is
quantified in form of base shear and displacement at top of the tower.

8 Result and Discussions

8.1 Mono-lattice Structural System

The time history of variation of Base shear obtained by applying acceleration load in
both earthquake for mono-lattice system is presented in Fig. 5. The variation of base

(a) A1
100
A2
A3
Base Shear (KN)

50

-50

-100

-150
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (sec)

(b) A1
300 A2
Base Shear (KN)

A3
200

100

-100

-200

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

Fig. 5 Base shear for a Bhuj, b Nepal earthquake for mono-lattice tower
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 71

(a) 150 A-1

A-2
A-3
100
Displacement (mm)

50

-50

-100

-150

-200
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (sec)

(b) 800 A1
A2
600 A3
Dispalcment (mm)

400
200
0
-200
-400
-600

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

Fig. 6 Top displacement for a Bhuj, b Nepal earthquake for mono-lattice tower

shear is agreeing with the acceleration time history applied at base of tower. It can
be observed that base shear variation is only 1–2% in case of Bhuj earthquake for
soil having different shear wave velocity. But in case of Nepal earthquake variation
of its base shear is 40%. In soil having artificial 3-time history the base shear value
is 40% higher than soil having A-1 artificial time history. The value of base shear in
artificial 2-time history is 17% more compare to A-1 time history.
The variation of base shear for different soil condition presented shows that change
in base shear largely depend on shear wave velocity of soil. Among different types of
soil, we are getting higher base shear in Nepal earthquake when wind mill structure
is constructed in soil having less shear wave velocity.
The variation of displacement at top joint of tower is plotted in Fig. 6. The maxi-
mum difference in variation of displacement for Bhuj earthquake is 31% for different
soil conditions. The maximum variation in the displacement for Nepal acceleration
record is only 5%.

8.2 Monopole Structural System

The variation of base shear for monopole structural system is shown in Fig. 7. The
plot of time versus base shear is having same pattern of applied time history at base of
tower. Figure 7 shows that in Bhuj earthquake variation in the base shear is less under
72 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

(a) A1
300 A2
A3
Base shear (KN)

200

100

-100

-200

-300

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

(b) 500 A1
400 A2
A3
Base Shear (KN)

300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

Fig. 7 Variation of base shear for a Bhuj, b Nepal earthquake for monopole

3 different synthetic time histories compared to Nepal earthquake. The reaction at

base due to Bhuj earthquake in A-3 soil is only 4.8% higher compared to A-1 soil.
The shear at base for Nepal earthquake is 22% higher in soil A-3 compared to soil
A-1 so it can be concluded that decrease in shear wave velocity will increase the shear
at base of soil. The variation of base shear also depends on frequency and nature of
acceleration time history.
In order to study displacement response at top of tower displacement with respect
to time is plotted in Fig. 8. The displacement response for 3 different soil conditions
are compared. No significant difference in displacement is observed at top of tower
for Bhuj earthquake and this difference in displacement at top of tower is only
6% in Bhuj earthquake. The response in form of displacement is shown Fig. 8 for
Nepal earthquake. It is observed that difference in deflection is more for Nepal
earthquake under 3 different artificial time history conditions. The displacement is
12% more in A-1 artificial time history compared to A-3 artificial time history. From
the displacement time history observed at three earthquakes it is seen that variation
of displacement is almost identical same asp per input time history.

8.3 Comparison of Mono and Mono-lattice Structural System

To examine the effects of various soil conditions on the base shear and displacements
on mono and mono-lattice system the wind mills are exposed to different artificial
time histories obtained for different shear wave velocity of soil. The results in the
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 73

(a) A1
150 A2
Displacement (mm)

100 A3

50
0
-50
-100
-150
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

A1
(b) 600 A2
A3
Dispalcement (mm)

400

200

-200

-400

-600
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Sec)

Fig. 8 Displacement for a Bhuj, b Nepal earthquake for monopole

form of base shear and displacement are plotted for in Fig. 9. It is observed form
Fig. 9 that total mass of mono and mono-lattice structure is approximately same, but
base shear is half for mono-lattice structure system for Bhuj earthquake. The base
shear is reduced by 77% for Nepal Earthquake under different soil conditions. For a
shear wave velocity of 620 m/s the mono-lattice structural system reduces base shear
by 172% for Bhuj earthquake and 43% for Nepal earthquake. It is also observed that
mono-lattice system reduces total dead weight of structure as well as it reduces at
base due to various earthquake under all soil conditions of study.

(a) (b)
450 Monopole
Mono- Lattice 412
400 391
600 Monopole 576
355 560
350 336 Mono- lattice 530 528 516 502
Base Shear (KN)

500
Displacment (mm)

300 278 281 286

250 237 400

200
200 300
150
105 113 200
102 153 136 154 141
100
105
100 85
50

0 0
Bhuj A-1 Bhuj A-2 Bhuj A-3 Nepal A-1 Nepal A- 2 Nepal A-3 Bhuj A-1 Bhuj A-2 Bhuj A-3 Nepal A-1 Nepal A- 2 Nepal A-3

Time History Time History

Fig. 9 Comparison of a base shear, b displacement for mono and mono-lattice structure
74 H. J. Shah and A. K. Desai

It is also observed that displacement at top of tower can be also minimized by

using mono-lattice structural system. This minimized displacement will also help
to prevent failure of towers under severe earthquakes in soil having less shear wave
velocity.

9 Conclusions

Dynamic amplification analysis under turbine operational conditions and seismic

conditions considering 3 different synthetic time histories has been carried out in
this study. FE model of wind turbine was developed for both structural system. The
artificial acceleration time history was obtained for three soil types having different
shear wave velocity. This acceleration time history is applied as acceleration load at
base of tower and nonlinear analysis were performed.
Three different types of soil types were examined in this study for mono and
mono-lattice structural systems. Fundamental modal frequencies for both structural
systems were evaluated and compared with operating frequencies of wind turbine.
It was shown that mono structural systems natural frequency match with turbine
operating frequency which results in resonance conditions for tall towers. Due to
increased stiffness of mono-lattice structural system the dynamic amplification can
be avoided for towers having higher hub heights.
Synthetic time history developed for soils having different shear wave velocity
has significant effect on base shear and top displacement of the tower. It is observed
that in case of Bhuj earthquake effect of different soil conditions are less on struc-
tural response. The effect of different soil condition is more predominated in Nepal
earthquake. Peak values of base shear are magnified for soils having less shear wave
velocity for both structural systems.
Two supporting structural system were also studied for different artificial seismic
acceleration records. The mono structural system is long and slender while mono lat-
tice is combination of both system, it was observed that mono-lattice has advantages
of both structural system. It was observed that mono-lattice structural system results
in less base shear and less displacement in all cases. It was also observed that more
stiffness was achieved in mono-lattice structural system due to axial force resisting
mechanism at bottom portion of tall towers. It was also concluded that mono-lattice
structural system can be efficiently used to resist dynamic forces generated due to
seismic excitation and operation of wind mill towers for towers having more hub
heights. We can use mono-lattice system for very high hub height and to extract
more wind power at given location.
Evaluation of Dynamic Amplification of Conventional … 75

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Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar
Heat Driven NH3 –LiNO3 and NH3 –H2 O
Absorption Refrigeration System

Nishant Modi , Bhargav Pandya and Jatin Patel

Abstract The objective of this paper is to compare the thermal performance

and evaluation of critical parameters for single effect ammonia/lithium nitrate
(NH3 –LiNO3 ) and aqua-ammonia (NH3 –H2 O) based absorption chiller coupled
with various collectors at Ahmedabad city in India. Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR),
Parabolic trough collector (PTC) and evacuated tube collector (ETC) are attached
through thermally insulated storage tank to produce three ton of refrigeration (TR) at
−4 °C evaporator temperature. The effect of heat source temperature on the perfor-
mance parameters such as coefficient of performance (COP) and exergetic efficiency
has been investigated for each chiller. Furthermore, the required optimum area and
associated cost for each collector type have been determined. Thermo-economic
comparison between various solar coupled absorption chillers depicted that maxi-
mum solar COP (SCOP) of ETC based system is 31.37% higher compared to that
of LFR based system, whereas the cost of ETC based system is only 10.13% higher
compared to LFR based system. Moreover, LFR occupies the 94% more land area
for installation of solar field compared to ETC, which altogether recommended ETC
coupled NH3 –LiNO3 absorption refrigeration system.

1 Introduction

To fulfil the increasing demand for refrigeration in food processing industries and
other special applications [1], most industries are utilising the vapour compression
refrigeration systems (VCRS). These chillers are consuming electrical energy which
dominantly utilises fossil fuel resources. In the past decades, VCRS was operating on
chlorofluorocarbons which had caused ozone layer depletion [2]. Therefore, now it

N. Modi (B) · J. Patel

School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat,
India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Pandya
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 77

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_7
78 N. Modi et al.

has been replaced by hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs). However, HFCs have thousands

of time higher global warming potential compared to carbon dioxide [3]. There-
fore, research activities were focused to develop alternative refrigeration system
which utilises natural and eco-friendly refrigerants [4]. Vapour absorption refriger-
ation system (VARS) can be a viable option as it is operating upon natural refrig-
erants and can easily be coupled with high- and low-temperature sources such as
industrial waste heat, solar thermal energy, and by-product heat from the fuel cell.
Since the absorption chiller utilised the low-grade energy, it depicts lower COP
compared to VCRS. Conventional VAR system operates on lithium bromide-water
(LiBr–H2 O) and NH3 –H2 O (refrigerant = Ammonia, absorbent salt = water) pairs.
The LiBr–H2 O pair is not utilised to produce the cooling below 4 °C due to the uneven
expansion of the water and faces the crystallization issues. Hence, it cannot employ
for the refrigeration purpose. Moreover, NH3 –H2 O pair requires additional bulky rec-
tification column to separate out water vapour from the ammonia [5]. Through the
financial evaluation, Elsafty and Al-Daini [6] have recommended a solar heat driven
double effect absorption cooling system over the traditional compression cooling
system. Pandya et al. [7] have determined the optimal parameters for the ammonia-
water absorption system. However, the integration of rectifier declines the overall
performance of the NH3 –H2 O based system. Therefore, the investigations were going
on to develop ammonia refrigerant-based novel salts for the VARS. Sun [8] has
suggested the ammonia/sodium thiocyanate (NH3 –NaSCN) and ammonia/lithium
nitrate (NH3 –LiNO3 ) pairs by comparing them with conventional aqua-ammonia
(NH3 –H2 O) VARS. Also, these proposed pairs do not have the need of rectifier as
the solid salts are non-volatile in nature. Since NaSCN is rated as hazardous by NFPA
704 [9], this makes LiNO3 suitable for vapour absorption cycle as an alternative to
NH3 –H2 O. Performance of NH3 –H2 O was compared with NH3 –LiNO3 in the dou-
ble effect VARS and authors [10] have spotted higher COP for NH3 –LiNO3 than
NH3 –H2 O. Later, many researchers [11, 12] have studied the NH3 –LiNO3 working
pair for absorption cycle and recommended the NH3 –LiNO3 working pair.
In all reported studies, authors have utilised an electric heater as the heat source
equipment. Hence, there are very fewer research studies available that compare the
performance of traditional (NH3 –H2 O) and novel salt (NH3 –LiNO3 ) based VARS
driven by solar thermal collectors [13]. Also, the publication did not include the
financial criteria to choose the most sustainable system. While the integration of
solar thermal collectors will insist the designer to consider economic criteria for
the better thermo-economic solution. Therefore, numerical simulation is carried out
for comparing the NH3 –H2 O and NH3 –LiNO3 absorption system driven by various
solar collectors such as ETC, LFR and PTC to identify and suggest optimum solar
cooling system by considering SCOP as a thermodynamic parameter and minimum
solar collector area ( Acol ) and cost as the economic parameters, which reflects the
newness of present work.
Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar Heat … 79

2 System Description

The single effect vapour absorption refrigeration system powered by solar energy
has been examined in the present study. Pressurised water is considered as the heat
transfer fluid inside the collectors to avoid the vapour formation. Schematic diagram
of the examined model is presented in Fig. 1.

2.1 Thermodynamic Modelling

To avoid complexity during the analysis, some theoretical assumptions are consid-
ered:
1. The system producing the cooling under steady-state condition.
2. Piping and convection losses to surrounding are considered as negligible.
3. The refrigerant is assumed to be saturated liquid at the exit of the condenser and
saturated vapour at the exit of an evaporator.
4. Enthalpy remains constant during the expansion processes.

Solar Collector Modelling

The following sub-section provides the basic equations to analyse the thermal
behaviour of the solar collector [15–17].

Q̇ sol = Acol · G T (1)

Solar
Irradiation QG QC
Tc,out Storage
tank
m col 14 Ts,in 11
mr
Node-1 m Generator Condenser
s
8
Solar
collector Node-2
4 5
9 mr
Solution Heat
Tc,in 12
Exchanger Expansion
13 Node-3
m SS 3 6 mws valve
Ts,out
10 mr
2 7
mr
Absorber Evaporator
1

QA QE

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of examined solar-driven single-effect vapour absorption system

80 N. Modi et al.

 
Q̇ u = ṁ col · Cp · Tc,out − Tc,in (2)
 
TETC,in − To
ηthermal,ETC = 0.82 − 2.19 · (3)
GT
 
TLFR,in − To
ηthermal,LFR = 0.4687 − 0.05 · (4)
Gb
   
TPTC,in − To TPTC,in − To 2
ηthermal,PTC = 0.762 − 0.2125 · − 0.001672 · G b
Gb Gb
(5)

Here, Q̇ sol and Q̇ u are the falling solar energy and useful heat gain of collector,
respectively. G T and G b represent the radiation on a tilted surface and beam radiation,
respectively. T stands for temperature and subscript c represents the collector. η is
the thermal efficiency of the respective collector. To is the ambient temperature. ṁ col
and Cp illustrate the flow rate of mass and specific heat of the collector fluid, i.e.,
water.

Storage Tank Modelling

A stratified storage tank is considered to utilised the solar heat after sunset. It is
important to state that the storage tank is modelled by considering three equal nodes
having a steady temperature in the uni-directional manner [14, 15].

Absorption Cycle
The coefficient of performance and exergetic efficiency (ηII,chiller ) of the refrigeration
system is defined by Eqs. (6–7), respectively. Here, pump work is comparatively very
less. Therefore, it is neglected in the present study.

Q̇ E
COP = (6)
Q̇ G
  
 
 Q̇ E · 1 − To
TE 
ηII,chiller =   (7)
Q̇ G · 1 − To
TG

Here, Q̇ E and TE are the evaporator load and temperature, respectively.

Solar COP (SCOP) is calculated as below to check the legitimacy of the examined
sustainable system.

Q̇ E
SCOP = (8)
Q̇ sol

The total cost of solar collector is the product of the required collector area (Acol )
and specific cost of a particular solar collector (Ccol ).
Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar Heat … 81

Table 1 Validation results for NH3 –H2 O and NH3 –LiNO3 absorption chiller [8]
T G = 100 °C T E = −5 °C T C = 30 °C T A = 25 °C T o = 25 °C QE = 18.5974 kW
Parameters Literature [8] Present model Difference (%)
NH3 –H2 O NH3 –LiNO3 NH3 –H2 O NH3 –LiNO3 NH3 –H2 O NH3 –LiNO3
Q̇ G (kW) 30.13 29.71 29.99 29.69 −0.46 −0.067
Q̇ C (kW) 18.46 18.46 18.46 18.46 0.00 0.00
Q̇ A (kW) 30.32 29.90 30.19 29.88 −0.42 −0.066
COP 0.6160 0.6247 0.6188 0.6250 +0.45 +0.048

Costcol = Acol · Ccol (9)

3 Model Validation and Methodology

The examined absorption chillers are validated by comparing the obtained results
with the study presented by Sun [8]. As seen from Table 1, the obtained values
are matching within ±0.46% tolerances suggest that the presented models can be
acceptable.
Simulating programs are prepared in MATLAB tool [18]. Furthermore, the ther-
mophysical properties of working fluids are taken from [8, 19]. After this, the perfor-
mance of a solar-assisted refrigeration system has been examined. The solar radiation
data (G T ) [20] is considered as 973 W/m2 for Ahmedabad (23.03°N 72.58°E) city
in India. The chiller is designed for the generator temperature (TG ) of 10 °C lower
than heat source temperature (Ts,in ) to ensure the heat transfer from source water to
the strong solution [21].

TG = Ts,in − 10 (10)

4 Results and Discussion

Figure 2 illustrates the comparison of COP for two absorption cycles (NH3 –H2 O and
NH3 –LiNO3 ) at different (30 and 35 °C) ambient temperatures (To ). As depicted the
COP of absorption cycle rises with source temperature (Ts,in ) up to some critical value
and then starts to fall. The reason behind this behaviour is that higher temperature
causes more exergy destruction in the component. Therefore, it is concluded that
there is a critical Ts,in for every specific ambient condition where the system performs
optimally.
It is remarkable that NH3 –LiNO3 based absorption chiller depicts higher per-
formance compared to NH3 –H2 O. At 30 °C ambient temperature, the NH3 –LiNO3
82 N. Modi et al.

Fig. 2 Comparison of COP NH3-LiNO3 (To=30°C) NH3-LiNO3 (To=35°C)

with Ts,in at different NH3-H2O (To=30°C) NH3-H2O (To=35°C)
ambient temperature
0.6
0.5
0.4

COP
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
Source temperature (°C)

chiller has maximum COP of 0.5473 at 118 °C, whereas the NH3 –H2 O chiller has
maximum COP of 0.5420 at 119 °C. Also, higher To causes degradation in system
performance. Nearly, 8.49 and 7.41% degradation is observed in maximum COP with
5 °C rise in ambient condition for NH3 –H2 O and NH3 –LiNO3 chillers, respectively.
Furthermore, it is interesting that NH3 –LiNO3 based absorption chiller depicts
higher performance compared to NH3 –H2 O for lower Ts,in , afterwards both perform
nearly the same. Moreover, it is noteworthy that NH3 –LiNO3 system requires around
5 °C lower source temperature than NH3 –H2 O to commence the cooling as depicted in
Figs. 2 and 3. The NH3 –LiNO3 chiller has maximum exergetic efficiency (ηII,chiller )
of 38.88% at 100 °C, whereas, the NH3 –H2 O chiller has a maximum ηII,chiller of
37.34% at 105 °C for 30 °C ambient temperature as seen from Fig. 3.
It is important to state that both systems can be optimised at different source
temperature depending upon the objective function. Figures 4, 5, and 6 compare the
variation of SCOP and Acol with Ts,in for ETC, LFR, and PTC coupled NH3 –H2 O
and NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.
It is remarkable that with the rise in Ts,in , SCOP rises up to the maximum value and
then starts to fall, whereas, the required collector area ( Acol ) fluctuates in the opposite
manner. It is important to mention that SCOP and Acol is determined according to
summer condition in India. Maximum SCOP for PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS is
24.34 and 63.33% greater compared to ETC and LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.

Fig. 3 Comparison of NH3-LiNO3 (To=30°C) NH3-LiNO3 (To=35°C)

ηII,chiller with Ts,in at NH3-H2O (To=30°C) NH3-H2O (To=35°C)
different ambient
temperature 0.5
0.4
ηchiller

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
Source temperature (°C)
Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar Heat … 83

Fig. 4 Alteration in SCOP SCOP (NH3-LiNO3) SCOP (NH3-H2O)

and Acol with Ts,in for ETC Acol (NH3-LiNO3) Acol (NH3-H2O)
coupled NH3 –LiNO3 and
NH3 –H2 O absorption system 0.35 100
0.3
80
0.25

Acol (m2)
SCOP
0.2 60
0.15 40
0.1
20
0.05
0 0
100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
Source temperature (°C)

Fig. 5 Alteration in SCOP SCOP (NH3-LiNO3) SCOP (NH3-H2O)

and Acol with Ts,in for LFR Acol (NH3-LiNO3) Acol (NH3-H2O)
coupled NH3 –LiNO3 and
NH3 –H2 O absorption system 0.25 200

0.2
150

Acol (m2)
0.15
SCOP

100
0.1
50
0.05

0 0
100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
Source temperature (°C)

Fig. 6 Alteration in SCOP SCOP (NH3-LiNO3) SCOP (NH3-H2O)

and Acol with Ts,in for PTC Acol (NH3-LiNO3) Acol (NH3-H2O)
coupled NH3 –LiNO3 and
NH3 –H2 O absorption system 0.4 120
0.35 100
0.3
80
SCOP

Acol (m2)

0.25
0.2 60
0.15 40
0.1
0.05 20
0 0
100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
Source temperature (°C)

Also, this value for ETC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS is 31.37% higher compared to
LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.
Same things can be observed for solar coupled NH3 –H2 O VARS. Same as COP
behaviour, solar-driven NH3 –LiNO3 based absorption chiller depicts higher SCOP
compared to NH3 –H2 O for lower source temperatures, afterwards both perform
nearly the same. ETC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS has spotted maximum SCOP
84 N. Modi et al.

Fig. 7 Cost comparison for ETC (NH3-LiNO3) ETC (NH3-H2O) LFR (NH3-LiNO3)
various solar-assisted LFR (NH3-H2O) PTC (NH3-LiNO3) PTC (NH3-H2O)
NH3 –LiNO3 and NH3 –H2 O
absorption system 10500 10197.50610201.4
10000 9759.4 9780.975

Cost (€)
9500

9000 8861.63858868.6

8500

8000
Various solar coupled VARS

of 0.3036 at Ts,in of 120 °C and for NH3 –H2 O VARS, it is 0.3029 at Ts,in of 125 °C.
For LFR coupled absorption systems, these values are 0.2311 at 134 °C and 0.2307
at Ts,in of 135 °C for NH3 –LiNO3 VARS and NH3 –H2 O VARS, respectively. For
PTC coupled absorption systems, these values are 0.3775 at Ts,in of 130 °C and
0.3768 at Ts,in of 130 °C for NH3 –LiNO3 VARS and NH3 –H2 O VARS, respectively.
These again imply that solar driven NH3 –LiNO3 based VARS requires lower source
temperature then traditional NH3 –H2 O pair.
It is noticed that the required collector area ( Acol ) is minimum at optimum thermal
performance conditions. These values are 39.03, 75.74 and 46.35 m2 for ETC, LFR
and PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS, respectively. Hence, minimum area requires
in case of PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS is 18.75% more than ETC coupled
NH3 –LiNO3 VARS. LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 occupy the 94 and 63.40% more land
area for installation of solar field compared to ETC and PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 ,
respectively.
For economic analysis, the specific cost is considered as 250, 117, and 220 e m−2
for ETC, LFR, and PTC [22, 23]. The minimum investment cost of solar collector
for different absorption system is illustrated in Fig. 7. There is no major difference
between the cost of NH3 –LiNO3 and NH3 –H2 O VARS for the same collector.
It is impressive that LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 has 9.19 and 13.10% lower cost
compared to ETC and PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS. Moreover, the cost for
PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 is 4.48% higher than ETC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.
Furthermore, the cost for ETC and PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS is 10.13 and
15.10% higher compared to LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.

5 Conclusion

In present work, thermodynamic as well as economic performance of NH3 –LiNO3

vapour absorption system combined with different solar collectors have examined
and compared with traditional NH3 –H2 O pair. For lower source temperatures, it is
observed that novel salt-based NH3 –LiNO3 chiller performs better than traditional
Thermo-economic Comparison of Solar Heat … 85

NH3 –H2 O pair, afterwards, both perform nearly same. Also, it has been proved that
NH3 –LiNO3 chiller requires 5 °C lower source temperature than NH3 –H2 O pair to
commence the system. Moreover, the rise in ambient temperature lowers down the
system performance. PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS exhibits the best thermody-
namic performance with a maximum SCOP of 0.3775. Besides this LFR coupled
NH3 –LiNO3 VARS has the least investment cost for collector field close to e8867,
although, it has comparatively poor thermodynamic performance. ETC coupled
NH3 –LiNO3 VARS has 19.57% lower and 31.37% higher SCOP than PTC and LFR
coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS, respectively. Moreover, required Acol for ETC coupled
NH3 –LiNO3 VARS is 39.04 m2 which is nearly half of that is required in LFR cou-
pled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS. However, the cost for ETC and PTC coupled NH3 –LiNO3
VARS is 10.13 and 15.10% higher compared to LFR coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS,
which altogether endorsed the ETC coupled NH3 –LiNO3 VARS.

Acknowledgements Authors are grateful to Mr. Vinay Kumar for their considerable contribution
in the analytic calculations, critical explanation of process, and proofreading of manuscript.

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Thermo-economic Analysis
of Biomass-Powered Single Effect
LiBr/H2 O Absorption Refrigeration
System

Bhaumik Modi, Bhavesh Patel and Anurag Mudgal

Abstract This work presents thermo-economic performance analyses of the absorp-

tion refrigeration system (ARS) having a capacity of 1 TR. The present ARS uses
different types of biomass (wheat straw, rice straw, and soybean stalk) and produces
a cooling effect at a temperature of 8 °C. The thermo-economic optimum generator
temperature about 93.5 °C is obtained for the present ARS. In addition, the coefficient
of performance (COP) is obtained about 0.678. The break-even point for the ARS
is calculated about 10.8 years using wheat straw biomass. Further, the break-even
point and biomass consumption are found the maximum for soybean stalk due to its
higher cost and lower calorific value compared to wheat straw biomass.

Nomenclature

A Area (m2 )
C Cost (INR)
W Work (kW)
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
Ċ Annualized cost (INR)
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Dn Dean number

B. Modi (B) · A. Mudgal

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar, India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Patel
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adani Institute of Infrastructure and Engineering,
Gandhinagar, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 87

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_8
88 B. Modi et al.

Greek Symbols

ρ Density (kg/m3 )
δ Thickness of film (m)
μ Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)

Abbreviations

ARS Absorption refrigeration system

SHX Solution heat exchanger
TR Tonne of refrigeration
CRF Capital recovery factor
LMTD Log mean temperature difference, °C

Subscripts

abs Absorber
Cond Condenser
eva Evaporator
i Inside
bio Biomass
Comp Compressor
gen Generator
o Outside
l Liquid phase

1 Introduction

Around 16% of the total global energy demand is fulfilled by the renewable energy
source in which 3% of the energy from the hydroelectric and 13% of the energy from
the biomass which is mainly utilized for the heating purpose [1]. Also, Biomass has
a minimal generation of greenhouse gases so that can be substituted for traditionally
fossil fuel. Solid biomass, as a renewable energy source is acquired from various
living organisms such as cornflakes, wood waste, agriculture residue, and vegetable
seeds as well as further post-processing it can be converted to biofuel. Recently,
biomass-fuelled system has been significantly utilized for heating, cooling and power
generation. Direct combustion of mixed solid biomass and pulverized coal is the most
common process utilized to generate power.
Thermo-Economic Analysis of Biomass-Powered Single Effect … 89

Biomass integrated thermal energy systems are most widely used in the field
of the bio-waste recovery. Pantaleo et al. [2] proposed concentrating solar biomass-
based system having 1.3 MW capacity with gas turbine (externally fired) and organic
Rankine cycle (bottoming ORC) in which fixed electricity output through modulat-
ing biomass is more profitable compared to variable electricity output through fixed
biomass in order to the revenue from electricity sale is higher than the biomass raw
material cost. Khalid et al. [3] compared the solar-biomass-based multi-generation
system with stand-alone biomass driven system. The result reveals that the solar inte-
gration with biomass system decreases the cost of about 50% compared to biomass-
based system. Ghaffarpour et al. [4] proposed biomass assisted power generation
system and compared various biomasses such as municipal solid waste, fowl manure,
and pine sawdust reported that the pine sawdust and fowl manure fuelled biomass
have highest thermo-economic and global warming potential (GWP), respectively.
Moharamian et al. [5] investigated three combined cycles with co-fired, post-firing
and externally fired. It is observed that biomass with post fired combined cycle has
the maximum first law and second law efficiencies about 0.37 and 0.34, respec-
tively. Similarly, the lower capital cost is exhibited by externally fired combined
cycle (5 USD/GJ). Pantaleo et al. [6] analyzed externally fired micro gas turbine
using various heat input ratio from 100% biomass to 100% natural gas and reported
lowest annualized cost is achieved at 70% of biomass and natural gas ratio because
of further increase in biomass concentration lead to increase the capital cost. Patel
et al. [7] proposed novel cascaded ORC for low-temperature application is powered
by the combination of solar and biomass energy and reported 7.71 years of BEP for
straw type biomass.
As summarized in literature, absorption refrigeration systems are analyzed for the
typical capacity in a range of 30–1000 TR. However, the research works on small
scale ARS up to 10 TR capacities for a household application is ongoing. Moreover,
the detailed economic analysis for indigenously developed ARS is reported with
limited data. Thus, the present work is focused on biomass-powered small scale 1 TR
capacity ARS. The detailed thermodynamic and economic analyses are presented
for biomass-powered ARS in the present analyses. To optimize the energy source,
biomass in the present case, thermo-economic optimum generator temperature is
found and reported. Further, the thermo-economic analysis of ARS with various
biomasses is presented in this paper.

2 System Description

Figure 1 represents a Line diagram of biomass-powered single effect absorption

refrigeration system. The present ARS equipped with a generator, condenser, expan-
sion valve, evaporator, absorber, solution heat exchanger (SHX) and pump. The
present system was used to generate 1 TR cooling at the 8 °C evaporator tempera-
ture. According to Fig. 1, the cyclic process of ARS with specific state point described
as follows: Water vapour left from generator solution is passed to the double-helical
90 B. Modi et al.

Fig. 1 Line diagram of biomass-powered absorption refrigeration system

coil condenser where the heat of the water vapour rejected to the external water
circuit and converts it to the liquid phase (process 12–13). After condensation, sub-
cooled liquid refrigerant undergoes an adiabatic expansion process in the throttling
valve (process 13–14). In the flooded-type evaporator, multiphase low pressurized
refrigerant gained heat from the cooling space and change the phase from liquid to
saturated vapour (process 14–5). Further, the low pressurized vapour refrigerant is
absorbed in falling film of the weak solution by an exothermic process where the
generated heat is carried out through the external water circuit (process 5–6). The
strong/rich solution is passed through the DC cooler pump to the SHX (process 6–7).
The heat duty of strong and weak solution is exchanged in the SHX thus the overall
COP of the system is improved (processes 7–8 and 9–10). Due to an external waste
heat source, the refrigerant is separated from the generator solution and remaining
weak solution is supplied to the SHX (process 8–9). The solution passed through the
pressure reducing valve (PRV) where the pressure of the weak solution is decreased
up to absorber pressure (process 10–11). Processes 1–2–3–4 are the external water
circuit which used to cool the absorber and condenser using the cooling tower.

3 Thermo-economic Modeling of ARS

In this paper, a mathematical model of the 1 TR ARS system with various solid
biomasses namely rice straw, wheat stalk and soybean stalk is formulated using the
principles of mass conservation, LiBr concentration and energy conversation given
Thermo-Economic Analysis of Biomass-Powered Single Effect … 91

by the equations as follows:

 
ṁ i − ṁ o = 0 (1)
 
ṁ i xi − ṁ o xo = 0 (2)
   
Q̇ − Ẇ = ṁ o h o − ṁ i h i (3)

where Q̇ and Ẇ are heat and work transfer rate, respectively.

In order to evaluate the thermodynamic performance of the system, the coefficient
of performance (COP) is calculated as follows:

Q eva
COP = (4)
m fuel ∗ CV

where Q eva , m fuel and CV are evaporator heat duty (kW), mass flow rate (kg/s) and
Calorific value (kJ/kg) of biomass, respectively.
The economic model of ARS is developed and simulated to obtain the economic
performance parameters of the system using the cost data as tabulated in Table 1. The
break-even point is calculated based on performance comparison between biomass
integrated ARS and stand-alone vapour compression system. The heat exchanger
costs are obtained using the following expression [8],

Chx = 130 ∗ A−0.737

total ∗ϕ (5)

where ϕ is the currency exchange rate from USD to INR and the total heat transfer
area (Atotal ) can be calculated as

Table 1 Design and cost data of biomass-powered ARS system

Parameter Value References
Calorific value of rice straw 15,540 kJ/kg [9]
Calorific value of wheat stalk 17,150 kJ/kg [9]
Calorific value of soybean stalk 16,990 kJ/kg [9]
Cost of rice straw 2200 INR/ton [10]
Cost of wheat straw 2000 INR/ton [10]
Cost of soybean stalk 2500 INR/ton [10]
Operation and Maintenance cost 1.5% of capital cost [11]
Capital cost of biomass boiler 255 * ϕ INR/kW [7]
Stand-alone VCR cycle cost (1TR) 50,000 INR [12]
Cost of electricity 6.5 INR/kWh [13]
Currency conversion rate (ϕ) 1 USD = 71.63 INR [14]
92 B. Modi et al.

Atotal = Agen + Acond + Aeva + Aabs + Ashx (6)

The individual heat exchangers area is estimated by following the procedure given
in Appendix.
The annualized cost of the absorption refrigeration system is calculated by,

Ċ = Ċars
cl
+ Ċars
OM
+ Ċbio
cl
+ Ċbio
fuel
(7)

cl OM
where Ċars is annualized capital investment (INR/year), Ċars is annualized operation
cl
and maintenance cost (INR/year), Ċbio is annualized capital investment of biomass
fuel
plant (INR/year) and Ċbio is annually biomass consumption cost (INR/year).
The following expressions calculate the annualized cost of the biomass and ARS
system.
cl
Ċsys = CRF ∗ Csys (8)

OM
Ċsys = θ ∗ Csys (9)

where Csys is a capital investment cost and θ is a percentage factor taken as 0.015
[11] which is used to obtain operation and maintenance cost of the system. CRF
converts the capital investment into equal annual instalment for a specific time k =
20 years and discount rate n = 10% [7].

n(1 + n)k
CRF = (10)
(1 + n)k − 1

In order to calculate the Break-Even Point (BEP), the absorption refrigeration

system is compared with a conventional vapour compression system for the same
cooling capacity and expressed by the following expression

Cars + Cbio − Cvcr

BEP =   
OM − (C OM fuel
 (11)
(Cvcr ∗ CRF) + Wcomp ∗ 8760 ∗ Cele + Ċvcr ars ∗ CRF) + Ċars + (C bio ∗ CRF) + Ċbio

4 Results and Discussion

Thermo-economic analysis of the present 1 TR ARS system has been carried out
using engineering equation solver (EES). It may be noted that the LiBr–H2 O pair
is used in the present biomass-based ARS. The temperature of the generator and
evaporator are varied between the range of 80–105°C and 8–17 °C, respectively,
to obtain the optimum COP and minimum annualized cost of the proposed system.
Moreover, the input temperature of the evaporator, condenser, and absorber are taken
Thermo-Economic Analysis of Biomass-Powered Single Effect … 93

at 8, 40, and 40 °C. As a result of the simulation, the strong/rich solution by mass
concentration, weak solution mass concentration, pump work, refrigerant flow rate,
strong solution mass flow rate, weak solution mass flow rate are obtained as 56%,
65%, 0.0000467 kW, 0.00923 kg/s and 0.001491 kg/s, respectively. Besides, the
minimum annualized cost of about 48,000 INR is achieved for wheat straw biomass,
and BEP are calculated about 10.8 years. Hence, optimum economic temperature
is obtained at about 93.5 °C. On the other hand, the increment in the evaporator
temperature raise the COP up to 0.71 and also reduces the annualized cost by about
45,000 INR.

4.1 Effect of Generator Temperature on COP

and Annualized Cost of Biomass-Powered ARS

Figure 2 gives the variation of generator temperature on COP and various biomass-
based annualized system cost. It can be seen that COP is sharply increased with the
increase in generator temperature up to 95 °C and then remain almost unchanged up to
105 °C on account of increase in irreversibility at higher generator temperature [15].
Thus the optimum COP of 0.68 is achieved at a generator temperature of 96.8 °C.
Various biomasses such as rice straw, soybean stalk, and wheat straw are con-
sidered to optimize the annualized cost of the ARS system. It may be noted that
the annualized cost of the proposed system is initially decreased and then increases
because of Ugen and LMTDgen are reduced by 77 and 54% respectively, while Q gen
is marginally improved by 0.1% in the generator with further increased the Tgen
from the optimized temperature 93.5–105 °C. Moreover, annualized cost for wheat

0.68 70000

COP
66000
0.66 Rice straw
Soy bean stalk
Cost (INR/year)

Wheat straw 62000

0.64
COP

58000

0.62
54000

0.6
50000

0.58 46000
80 85 90 95 100 105

Tgen [°C]

Fig. 2 Variation of COP and annualized cost with generator temperature

94 B. Modi et al.

0.72 58000

56000
0.71
54000

Cost (INR/year)
0.7
52000
COP

COP
Rice straw 50000
0.69
Soybean stalk
Wheat straw 48000
0.68
46000

0.67 44000
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Teva [°C]

Fig. 3 Variation of COP and annualized cost with evaporator temperature

straw-based biomass is lower about 10.4 and 8.5% compared to soybean stalk based
biomass and rice straw-based biomass, respectively. However, the cost of the biomass
is varied with location and season so that the cost parameter is considered as a con-
stant in the present study.

4.2 Effect of Evaporator Temperature on COP

and Annualized Cost of Biomass-Powered ARS

Figure 3 shows that the evaporator temperature is increased from 7 to 16 °C keep-

ing other input parameters constant and generator temperature is taken as 93.5 °C.
Moreover, COP of the system is linearly increased up to 0.71 on account of heat
duty of the generator is decreased by 6%. On the other hand, annualized cost of the
biomass-based ARS is reduced by 8.1% for given evaporator temperature change.
The biomass consumption is reported minimum about 9 ton for wheat straw and 1.5
and 10% higher consumption of soybean stalk and rice straw biomass, respectively.
This variation in biomass consumptions is due to lower calorific value (kJ/kg).

5 Conclusion

In this proposed work, biomass-powered small scale vapor absorption refrigeration

system is analyzed. The thermo-economic optimization of the system is carried out
for 1 TR capacity and 8 °C evaporator temperature considering various biomass,
Thermo-Economic Analysis of Biomass-Powered Single Effect … 95

namely, wheat straw, rice straw, and soybean stalk. The optimum generator temper-
ature for the proposed system is obtained about 96.8 °C for maximum system COP
(0.679) and 93.5 °C for minimum system cost (2,44,600 INR). It may be noted that
93.5 °C generator temperature is thermo-economically optimum as COP remains
almost constant after it. The break-even point for proposed system is obtained min-
imum about 10.8 years using wheat straw type biomass. Moreover, the break-even
point is calculated 14 years for rice straw and 15 years for soybean stalk type biomass.
In case the cost of biomass is neglected for especially rural area, the break-even point
for wheat straw biomass is reduced by about 5.8 years.

Appendix

In this work, the heat exchanger surface area for the given heat load can be estimated
as

Q = U ∗ A ∗ LMTD (12)

1/U = 1/ h o + 1/ h i + x/kc + Fi + Fo (13)

where Q is total heat transfer rate in kW, LMTD is a logarithmic temperature differ-
ence in °C, U is overall heat transfer in kW/m2 K includes inside and outside heat
transfer coefficient as component-wise tabulated in Table 2, Fi and Fo are inside and
outside fouling factor in m2 K/kW respectively

Table 2 Heat transfer correlations for ARS system

Component Heat transfer correlation
Generator Inside h i,gen =
  (1/4)
gρl,gen (ρl,gen −ρv,gen )kl,gen
3 h fg,gen
0.555 μl,gen (Tsat,gen −Tgen )
di,gen

Outside −0.5 gen −0.55 n

h o,gen = 55Q 0.67
s gen Mgen Prgen agen ∗
1.7 for horizontal copper cylinder
where, n gen = 0.12 − 0.2 log Rp gen and agen =
log Pr gen
Double helical coil condenser Inside Nu =
 i,cond 
3 (3/2) (1/3)
Dn cond
3.657 + 4.343
x 1cond + 1.158 x 2 cond
 2
where, x1cond = 1 + 957
Prcond Dn 2cond
and
x2cond = 1 + 0.477
Prcond
(continued)
96 B. Modi et al.

Table 2 (continued)
Component Heat transfer correlation
Outside  (1/4)
gρ (ρ −ρ )h cond ki3cond
h o,cond = 0.729 μl lcondl(T13v−Tsfgcond )do cond

d
Falling film absorber Inside 0.065 Li abs Reabs Prabs
N u i,abs = 3.66 +  abs
d
(2/3)
1+0.04 Li abs Reabs Prabs
abs

Outside 0.53 Pr 0.344 kabs

h o,abs = 0.029Reabs abs δabs
 0.3333
3μabs m abs
where, δabs = ρ2 g abs

Helical coil SHX Inside Same as double helical coil inside correlation
(1/3)
Outside N u o,shx = 0.683Reshx
0.466 Pr
shx
Flooded evaporator Inside  0.33  0.14
deva μeva
N u i,eva = 1.86 Neva Preva L eva μeva

Outside Same as generator outside correlation

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Issue and Challenges
with High-Temperature Solar Selective
Material for Solar Thermal Application

Rajesh Kumar and Ambesh Dixit

Abstract Solar selective coatings (SSC) are integral part of the receiver in any
concentrated solar thermal system for efficient conversion of incident solar energy
into thermal energy. The most common solar thermal systems are based on parabolic
trough collectors, which are operating at 350 °C. Thus, the absorber coating should
be robust and efficient to operate at such temperatures without any degradation. There
are limited such solar selective coatings and very few are commercially available.
These are cermet based structure and are stable at high temperature in vacuum.
These structures are prone to chemical reaction in open-air condition, which results in
degraded optical performance of SSC structures. Thus, there are issues and challenges
in SSCs, especially for higher operating temperatures, which is essential to realize the
higher efficiency of solar thermal systems. The work is focusing on such constraints
towards realizing high temperature solar selective coatings.

1 Introduction

Renewable energy is getting attention due to the depletion of fossil fuel, increasing
everyday environmental pollution and global warming. Solar energy is one of the
abundant resources of renewable energy, which can be harnessed to mitigate such
adverse impacts. Solar thermal technology is a direct and the simplest way to con-
vert incident solar energy to thermal energy. This is possible by the use of specially
designed spectrally selective coatings on receiver tubes, to harnessing solar energy
effectively for solar thermal energy conversion. A solar selective coating is charac-
terized by the high absorptance > 0.95 in UV-Vis-NIR range (0.25 < λ < 2.5 µm) to
realize the maximum absorption of incident solar irradiance and low thermal emit-

R. Kumar · A. Dixit (B)

Department of Physics and Center for Solar Energy, Indian Institute of Technology,
Jodhpur 342037, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Kumar
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 99

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_9
100 R. Kumar and A. Dixit

Fig. 1 AM1.5 solar spectral characteristics in conjunction with the optical reflectance for ideal
solar selective coating (i.e., absorber)

tance < 0.05 in IR range (2.5 < λ < 25 µm) to mitigate the thermal losses and is
shown schematically in Fig. 1, in conjunction with solar spectrum [1, 2]. Low and
mid-temperature (< 250 °C) stable solar selective coatings are used for domestic
(like solar water heater) and distributed solar thermal applications. High tempera-
ture stable selective coatings are used for electricity generation in concentrated solar
power (CSP) plants. CSP plants include parabolic trough, Fresnel reflector, and solar
towers as energy converging systems. Among them, parabolic trough based CSP
plants are accounted for more than 90% of total solar thermal power generation. The
parabolic trough and Fresnel reflector based CSP systems operate at 300–550 °C [3].
The operating temperature for solar tower may reach beyond 800 °C. In addition,
solar dishes are also used for distributed solar thermal applications, where the oper-
ating temperature may go beyond 1600 °C. The thermal efficiencies of solar tower
collectors and solar dish collectors are much higher as compared to that of parabolic
trough collectors [4]. The thermal efficiencies of parabolic trough based systems
can be improved by enhancing the operating temperatures. Thus, there is a need of
high-temperature SSC, which are efficient absorbers in 0.2–2.5 µm region and poor
emitters in 2.5–25 µm region in conjunction with robustness against thermal and
environmental variations.
There are limited high temperature stable solar selective coatings, reported in
literature and very few are scaled for field applications. The available such high-
temperature selective coating is summarized in Table 1. Mo–SiO2 and W/W-
Al2 O3 /Al2 O3 based SSC structures are considered thermally stable up to 580 and
550 °C respectively, in vacuum and are scaled by Angelantoni-ENEA, Italy for their
use as an efficient absorber for solar thermal applications [5–7]. Al2 O3 based cermet
SSCs such as Mo–Al2 O3 and W-Al2 O3 showed thermal stability up to 400 and 500 °C,
respectively, in vacuum and are produced by Siemens (formerly Solel), Germany for
field applications [8]. These high-temperature SSCs are fabricated using physical
Table 1 High temperature solar selective coating materials with absorptance and emittance values in conjunction with respective thermal stability limits
SSCs materials Absorptance Emittance Thermal stability References
Mo–SiO2 0.94 0.13 (580 °C) 580 °C in vacuum Angelantoni-ENEA, Italy http://www.
W/W-Al2 O3 /Al2 O3 0.93 0.10 (400 °C) angelantoni.it/
0.14 (550 °C [5–7]
Al2 O3 based cermet 0.96 0.10 (400 °C) 400 °C Siemens (formerly Solel), Germany https://
Mo–Al2 O3 0.16 (350 °C) 350–500 °C in vacuum www.energy.siemens.com [8]
W-Al2 O3 0.16 (350 °C) 350–500 °C in vacuum
--- 0.95 0.10 400 °C SCHOTT, Germany [9]
Issue and Challenges with High-Temperature …

W-AlN, Mo–AlN 0.92–0.94 0.08–0.10 350–500 °C in vacuum Turbosun, China [10]

CeO2 /Rh2 O3 /CuO/Ag, Pt/SS 0.91 0.1 500 °C (700 °C in vacuum) [11, 12]
TiO2 –Au/SS 0.85 0.01 >500 °C in vacuum [13]
Al2 O3 /ZrCx Ny /Ag 0.91 0.05 700 °C in vacuum [14]
ZrOx /ZrCx /Zr 0.90 0.05 700 °C in vacuum [15]
ZrOx /ZrC–ZrN/Zr/SS, Cu 0.85–0.88 0.04–0.10 700 °C in vacuum [16]
AlOx /ZrCx Ny /Al 0.85–0.93 0.07 600 °C in vacuum [17]
AlTiN/AlTiON/AlTiO/W/SS 0.95 0.08 600 °C in vacuum [18]
--- The coating material from SCHOTT, Germany is not known in public domain
101
102 R. Kumar and A. Dixit

vapor deposition in general. Yet there are some reports on oxide-based SSCs such
as CeO2 /Rh2 O3 /CuO/Ag, Pt/SS structures reported by Farrauto et al. and Jefferson
et al. [9, 10], which are realized using low-cost organo–metallic spray process. This
coating showed thermal stability up to 500 °C in air and 700 °C in vacuum, thus show-
ing potential for high-temperature applications against thermal and environmental
degradations. There are several other spectrally selective coatings, as summarized
in Table 1, however, showing thermal stability in vacuum and not yet explored for
field applications. Thus, most of these high-temperature selective coatings are stable
in vacuum and only up to ~700 °C. There are very rare or no coating structures are
reported, showing thermal stability beyond 700 °C even in vacuum.
These high temperature solar selective structures are mostly metal-dielectric struc-
tures, consisting of high-temperature stable metal in dielectric matrix. In these struc-
tures, metal is prone to the oxidation at higher temperatures, even if the considered
metal is refractory in nature. In addition, the diffusion of substrate elements in the
absorber layer is additional problem of degrading SSC structures, especially at higher
temperatures. This may happen in vacuum-based absorbers as well in case of vac-
uum breach and thus degradation of optical and thermal performance. Further, the
requirement of vacuum-based absorber systems increase the fabrication complexity
and prone to vacuum breaching, thus increasing the overall cost of system and power
production.
Thus, there is a need for the development of suitable SSCs which can not only
with stand high temperature (> 350 °C) in open-air but also should be thermally and
environmentally robust. There are issues with open-air operating conditions because
of oxygen and moisture content, which may lead to even corrosion of the SSCs.
This may lead to the degradation of microstructural and mechanical properties of
SSC structures, ending up with degraded optical and thermal performance. Further,
thermal radiation will shift towards lower wavelength in the solar spectrum with
increasing temperature. Thus, there is a tradeoff between low thermal emittance and
high absorptance for spectrally selective coating structures [2]. The low thermal
emittance in conjunction with high absorptance is the major hurdle in SSCs design.
The associated challenges and issues for high-temperature SSCs are reviewed in this
work, with the probable potential material systems as efficient absorbers.
The review papers published so far have reported various mid to high temperature
solar selective coatings [3, 4]. It is reported that few SSCs have potential for high-
temperature application, however, very few are commercially produced. Hence, there
is need to address the current scenario and difficulties associated with HTSSCs.
This review paper is addressing the different issues and challenges associated in
development of high temperature solar selective coating for solar thermal application.
Issue and Challenges with High-Temperature … 103

2 Associated Issues and Challenges in Developing

High-Temperature Stable Selective Coating

The high-temperature SSCs should be thermally stable and chemically inert with
desired solar thermal properties for efficient thermal conversion. There are very lim-
ited SSCs, which are stable at high temperature in vacuum up to 500 °C, whereas
very rare or no SSCs are thermally stable in air beyond 400 °C. Thus, SSC mate-
rials should have high melting points and chemically inert to the ambient oxygen
to avoid their oxidation and interdiffusion of intralayer and substrate materials into
SSCs. This will avoid optical and thermal degradation of SSCs degrades during oper-
ations. Further, material undergoes structural and morphological changes at higher
temperature. These changes also affect the optical and thermal properties of SSCs.
Thus, the major challenge is the availability of suitable materials and their combi-
nation, showing thermal and chemical robustness in conjunction with desired optical
properties (α > 0.95 in 0.2–2.5 µm and ε < 0.05 in 2.5–25 µm). These materials
should exhibit oxidation resistance for open-air operations and also to avoid corro-
sion of the SSCs. Optical properties of various HTSSC reported in different literature
[7–10, 12, 15–20] are summarized in graph, Fig. 2. Variations of absorptance and
emittance are observed between ~0.88–0.96 and ~0.03–0.18, respectively. Among
these, few are commercially available which is listed in Table 1.

3 The Current Status of High-Temperature Solar Selective

Coatings

Various structures such as semiconductor-metal tandem, multilayers, single layer,

and multilayer metal-dielectric structure and cermet paints are investigated for high-
temperature absorbers as spectrally selective coatings (SSCs). A silicon absorber
with silver as infrared reflector is used to get the low thermal emittance with Si3 N4

Details of different SSCs

A- Al2O3 based cermet [8-10]

B- AlTiN/AlTiON/AlTiO/W/SS [20]
C- AlOx/ZrCxNy/Al [19]
D- W-AlN, Mo-AlN [12]
E- Mo-SiO2 [7]
F- TiO2-Au/SS [15]
G- Al2O3/ZrCxNy/Ag [16]
H- ZrOx/ZrCx/Zr [17]
I- ZrOx/ZrC-ZrN/Zr/SS,Cu [18]

Fig. 2 Absorptance (Blue color) and emittance (Red color) values for different SSCs
104 R. Kumar and A. Dixit

as antireflection coating. These structures are deposited using chemical vapor depo-
sition, showing stability up to 650 °C in vacuum with absorptance ~0.91 and thermal
emittance ~0.09 [21–23]. The use of Ge with Si as the absorber showed enhanced
thermal performance with absorptance ~0.89 and thermal emittance ~0.05 at 500 °C,
which is lower than that of pristine Si-based absorbers [24, 25]. The boron-doped
silicon with TiO2 and SiO2 consecutive layers is explored as an absorber on Al
substrate showing absorptance ~0.79–0.81 and emittance ~0.12–0.16. This struc-
ture showed thermal stability up to 400 °C. There are reports on SSCs [26, 27]
with desired optical properties, showing thermal stability up to 500 °C, Table 1
and Fig. 2. However, among these reported coatings, none is scaled for commercial
applications in CSPs. Physical vapor deposited (PVD) multilayer coating structures
such as Cr–CrOx , Al–CrOx –Cr2 O3 , Al-AlNx –AlN, Ag–Snx Ox –SnO2 are reported
as efficient SSCs, showing thermal stability up to 500 °C. The absorption proper-
ties of these SSCs can further be improved by employing antireflection coating [28,
29]. CuO-based solar selective coatings are used in flat plate collector and Fresnel
reflector in CSP plant [30, 31]. These CuO SSCs showed thermal stability up to
600 °C on platinum-coated substrates. CeO2 /Rh2 O3 /CuO/Ag, Pt/SS multilayer coat-
ings showed absorptance ~0.91 and emittance ~0.1 with promising thermal stability
up to 500 °C in air and 700 °C in Vacuum [13, 14].
ZrN layer in conjunction with SiO2 /TiO2 top layers are reported as SSCs for space
application with α ~ 0.99 and emittance ~0.95–0.97 at 100 °C [32]. The thermal emit-
tance of this SSC structure is very high, yet showed relatively superior temperature
stability. The emittance of such SSCs can be minimized by using additional transmit-
ting layers such as highly doped semiconductor, e.g., F or Sb-doped SnO2 , Sn-doped
In2 O3, and Al-doped ZnO and thus can be used for high-temperature applications
such CSPs for power generation. Chemical vapor deposited ZrB2 layer with Si3 N4 as
antireflection coating may be a potential SSC structure for high-temperature applica-
tions. Among these various structures, cermet layer is very commonly used because
of their easy fabrication and integration with the receivers. Ni–Al2 O3 cermet layer
is stable in open air up to 400 °C and employing SiO2 as an antireflection coating,
the temperature stability can be increased up to 500 °C in vacuum [33]. Mo–Al2 O3
cermet structure is fabricated using sputtering, showing high absorptance ~0.96 and
low emittance ~0.16 up to 500 °C in vacuum [34]. Solel Solar Systems Ltd., Israel
developed Al2 O3 based SSC with high absorptance ~0.97–0.98 and low thermal
emittance ~0.07–0.1 at 400 °C in open air. However, this structure is still not used
in CSP pants for power generation [35]. High melting point metals such as tung-
sten, platinum with dielectric layer are also explored for high temperature stable
solar selective coating. W-Al2 O3 /Cu cermet coating showed absorptance ~0.85 and
emittance ~0.14 at 500 °C [36]. Pt–Al2 O3 cermet coating with Al2 O3 as antireflec-
tion layer is showing high absorptance ~0.90–0.97 and low emittance ~0.08. This
structure shows thermal stability up to 600 °C in vacuum [37, 38]. The black cobalt
with titanium-tin oxide as antireflection coating is reported as good absorber with
absorptance ~0.94 and thermal emittance ~0.34, showing thermal stability up to
400 °C [39]. Thus, black cobalt with a top protecting layer may be further explored
for high-temperature applications. Mo–MoO2 with Si3 N4 on top as AR layer shows
Issue and Challenges with High-Temperature … 105

absorptance ~0.94 and emittance ~0.3 at 500 °C [40]. Further, studies suggested that
replacing molybdenum with tungsten may exhibit enhanced thermal stability due
to its higher oxidation resistance. W or Mo in AlN with double layer compositions
is explored as SSCs, exhibiting thermal stability beyond 500 °C [41]. Quasicrys-
tals with high-temperature stable dielectric such as TiO2 , HfO2 , Y2 O3, and Al2 O3
are reported with absorptance ~0.86–0.92 and 0.92 and emittance ~0.31–0.05, with
relatively enhanced thermal stability up to 500–600 °C [42, 43]. TiO2 -Au/SS fab-
ricated using solution route showed absorptance ~0.80 and emittance ~0.01 with
very good thermal stability beyond 500 °C in air [44]. MgF2 /Mo and Al2 O3 /Mo
based multilayer metal-dielectric structure with absorptance ~0.85–0.9 and emittance
~0.06–0.16 are reported with thermal stability up to 540 °C in vacuum [45]. Zir-
conium/aluminum oxides and nitrides Al2 O3 /ZrCx Ny /Ag-based SSCs are reported
with high-temperature stability up to 700 °C in vacuum [46]. ZrOx /ZrCx /Zr/SS SSCs
showed absorptance and emittance 0.90 and 0.05, respectively, with thermal stabil-
ity up to 600 °C in vacuum [47]. ZrOx /ZrC–ZrN/Zr SSCs on SS and Cu substrates
are investigated, showing absorptance ~0.85–0.88 and emittance ~0.04–0.01, with
enhanced thermal stability up to 700 °C in vacuum and 200 °C in air with reduced
emittance ~0.24 [18] Lithum–zinc ferrite coated on Ni–Mo alloy showed absorptance
~0.85 and emittance 0.1 with thermal stability up to 870 °C [48]. Silicon Pyromark,
basically a cermet paint, developed for space application showed absorptance and
emittance ~0.97 and 0.9, respectively, at 1000 °C [49]. The problem with the paint
is high emittance, causing thermal losses. Surface textured metallic surfaces are also
reported with high absorptance and relatively higher emittance values. This struc-
ture showed high-temperature stability. For example, texture tungsten, stainless steel
showed thermal stability up to 550 °C and > 440 °C, respectively. Thus, there are
various SSCs proposed for high-temperature applications, especially in vacuum, yet
very few SSCs are available for field applications. There is no SSC, which is air-stable
and used for such high-temperature applications. Thus, the design and development
of suitable SSCs are essential, which not only can withstand the high temperature in
open air but also show the desired optical properties such high absorptance and low
emittance simultaneously in the respective wavelength windows.

4 Potential High-Temperature Solar Selective Coatings

For the development of high temperature stable solar selective coating, there is a
requirement of material which can sustain its structural as well as physical proper-
ties. These materials should have high melting point, oxidation resistant and inertness
towards moisture and various gases present in open air. Considering this, refractory
transition metal such as W, Au, Pt, Zr, Hf in conjunction with chemically inert
and thermally stable ZrO2 , AlN, MgO, MnO, TiO2 dielectric matrix may be the
potential promising SSCs for high-temperature applications [50]. Cermet layer con-
sisting of these high-temperature stable metal and dielectric can developed with
thermally stable infrared and antireflection layers as efficient absorbers for high-
106 R. Kumar and A. Dixit

temperature applications. Further, quasicrystal based multilayer structures such as

ZrB2 , ZrC–ZrN, Ti1-x Alx N, Cr–SiO, ZrO2 , TiO2 , MgF2 with metal like Co. Mo, W
as infrared reflectors can be considered as the high temperature solar selective coat-
ings [51]. So far physical vapor deposition is employed to realize such SSCs, which
is a complex and expensive deposition process. A solution derived process such as
sol-gel assisted dip coating, electrodeposition or spray deposition process can be
explored as alternate routes, realizing the fabrication of SSCs. These processes are
relatively simpler and cost-effective as compared PVD deposition processes.

5 Conclusion

There are limited SSCs reported for high-temperature applications and some of them
are scaled for coatings on receiver tubes for their applications in CSPs. These struc-
tures are mostly cermet based single or multilayers, deposited using PVD process.
There is a need for design and development new high-temperature stable SSC and
refractory metal in oxide dielectric materials may be the current choice for real-
izing high-temperature SSCs. Further, all oxide-based SSCs may be an alternative
with enhanced thermal and environmental stability. These all oxide coatings can also
be developed using low-cost solution processes and scaled easily for deposition on
large surfaces. The coatings report so far are stable up to 700 °C in vacuum, and
used in receiver of parabolic troughs for efficient absorption of incident solar energy.
The other CSP technologies such as central tower (~800 °C), parabolic dish collector
(~1500 °C) work at much higher temperatures as compared to that of parabolic trough
collectors (~350 °C). The requirement of spectrally selective coatings for such tech-
nologies is more stringent and is still in developing stage. All oxide coating systems,
especially a suitable combination of conducting and insulating oxides materials may
be the better choice for developing efficient absorbers with high absorptivity and low
emissivity at such operating temperatures.

Acknowledgements Author Ambesh Dixit acknowledges Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Govt. of India through grant 15/40/2010-11/ST and Department of Science and Technology, Govt.
of India through grant DST/INT/Mexico/P-02/2016 for this work.

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Investigation on the Relative Influence
of Absorber Layer Defect States Over
Performance of Pb-Based and Sn-Based
Perovskite Solar Cells

Piyush Baldha, Krunal Patel and Kshitij Bhargava

Abstract Currently, the research in third-generation solar cells is proliferating in an

exponential manner. Among these, the Perovskite solar cell has been the preferred
research matter among the researchers. This study consists of numerical simulation-
based comparison between various standard parameters of the lead-free perovskite
solar cell and tin-based (lead-based) perovskite solar cell using SCAPS-1D. The
comparison is performed based on performance parameters viz. open-circuit voltage,
short circuit current density, fill factor and efficiency. We observed that despite the
presence of severe order of defect states the performance of tin-based perovskite solar
cell was superior which could be critical from the perspective of lead-free perovskite
solar cell manufacturing and commercialization.

1 Introduction

In the twenty-first century, the use of renewable energy has increased manifolds,
and particularly solar and wind are considered to be the superior renewable energy
resources and therefore a considerable amount of research is going on in these direc-
tions. A perovskite solar cell, which has a multi-layer structure, has been the lucrative
topic of research in photovoltaics in the past decade or so [1–3]. Due to the constant
efforts of scientists and researchers, the efficiency of perovskite solar cells has grown
up to 22.7% [4, 5]. In thin-film solar cell technology, it is also important to reduce
the active material wastage and to minimize the area occupied over the substrate
in order to reduce its cost. Therefore, exploring the different types of materials and
their non-toxic alternatives is currently an active research issue for perovskite solar
cells. Like conventional solar cells, the perovskite solar cell absorber layer thickness
plays a vital role in harvesting energy of photons although controlling the presence
of defect states is a challenging issue during fabrication. As lead is a toxic element,

P. Baldha · K. Patel · K. Bhargava (B)

Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research
and Management (IITRAM), Ahmedabad 380026, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 109

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_10
110 P. Baldha et al.

so it has harmful impact on the environment. Hence, the current research is moving
towards finding an alternative of the lead-based perovskite absorber layer material
which could be as efficient, stable, and eco-friendly. In our research, we used Tin
(Sn) as an alternative of Lead (Pb) and compared the performance parameters like
Open Circuit Voltage, Short Circuit Current, Fill Factor, Efficiency, and Quantum
Efficiency with different thickness of absorber layer.

2 Simulation Details

The simulation-based analysis is important from the perspective of saving both time
and resources for optimizing the performance of electronic devices [6]. Therefore,
a simulation-based comparison of Pb-based and Sn-based solar cells is expected to
reveal some critical performance variation aspects of the two types of cells based on
different absorber layer materials.

2.1 Model Description

SCAPS-1D is designed for 1-D simulation of solar cells. SCAPS-1D efficiently pro-
vides simulation of solar cell model and provides accurate results which are nearly in
agreement with those obtained experimentally. SCAPS-1D software actually works
on the basis of semiconductor physics, and all numerical iterations did by the simu-
lator are based on Poisson’s equation (Eq. 1), and continuity equation for electrons
(Eq. 2) and holes (Eq. 3) which are given below.
 
d d
−ε(x) = q[ p(x) − n(x) + Nd (x) − Na (x) + pt (x) − n t (x)], (1)
dx dx
dn p n p − n p0 dξ dn p d2 n p
= Gn − + n p μn + μn ξ + Dn 2 (2)
dt τn dx dx dx
d pn pn − pn0 dξ d pn d2 pn
= Gp − − pn μp − μp ξ + Dp 2 (3)
dt τp dx dx dx

where  is electrostatic potential, q is electron charges, D is diffusion coefficient,

G is generation rate, ξ is permittivity, p, n, n t , and pt are free electrons, free holes,
trapped holes, and trapped electrons, respectively. Nd refers to ionized donor-like
doping concentration and Na stands for ionized acceptor-like doping concentration.
Conventionally, in perovskite solar cells, p- and n-type semiconductors are gener-
ally used but in our study, we assumed a P-I-N type solar cell structure. In perovskite
solar cells, the p-type semiconductor is acknowledged as Hole Transport Layer (HTL)
and n-type semiconductor as Electron Transportation Layer (ETL) (Table 1).
Investigation on the Relative Influence of Absorber Layer … 111

Table 1 List of incorporated simulations parameters for Pb-based and Sn-based solar cell archi-
tectures
Parameter ZnO CH3 NH3 SnI3 CH3 NH3 PbI3 Cu2 O
Thickness (nm) 500 [7] 450 (variable) 450 (variable) 350
Bandgap (eV) 3.47 [7] 1.30 [8] 1.50 [8] 2.17
Electron affinity (eV) 4.3 [9] 4.20 [8] 3.9 [8] 3.2
Dielectric permittivity (relative) 9 [10] 10 10 7.1
CB effective density of State 2 × 1018 1018 2.25 × 1018 2.5 × 1018
(cm−3 )
VB effective density of State 1.8 × 1020 1018 1018 1.8 × 1019
(cm−3 )
Electron thermal velocity (cm/s) 107 107 107 . 107
Hole thermal velocity (cm/s) 107 107 107 107
Electron mobility (cm/s) 100 1.6 2.20 200
Hole mobility (cm2 /Vs) 25 1.6 2.20 800
Shallow uniform acceptor 0 3.2 × 1015 1018 9 × 1021
density, N A (cm−3 )
Shallow uniform donor density, 1019
ND (cm−3 )
Defect type – Neutral Neutral Neutral
Capture cross section electrons – 10−16 10−13 10−15
(cm2 )
Capture cross section hole (cm2 ) – 10−14 10−13 10−15
Energetic distribution – Single Single Single
Reference for defect energy level – Above E V Above E V Above
Et EV
Energy level with respect to – 0.7 0.7 0.10
reference (eV)
Nt total (cm−3 ) uniform – 2 × 1016 1012 1014

2.2 Pb-Based Solar Cell Device Architecture

Pb-based perovskite solar cells have been the most investigated as compared to the
other perovskites solar cells. CH3 NH3 PbI3 and CH3 NH3 PbBr3 are the most used
perovskite materials and a considerable amount of investigations are going on in
these materials owing to its availability and lower cost. Also, thin-film solar cells
fabricated using these materials show good efficiency values (Fig. 1).
112 P. Baldha et al.

Fig. 1 Architecture of
Pb-based solar cell

2.3 Sn-Based Solar Cell Device Architecture

Despite the fact that Pb-based perovskite materials provide an adequate amount of
efficiency but these are also considered to be a toxic element for the environment and
human being. Therefore, it is the utmost requirement to find a satisfactory non-toxic
substitute of Pb-based perovskite material such as Sn. Therefore, extensive research
is currently going on in the area of Sn-based (or Pb-free) perovskite solar cells. In
this study, we have simulated and compared the performances of Pb-based and Sn-
based perovskite solar cells with a vision to highlight the prospective replacement
of Pb with Sn in perovskite solar cells without sacrificing the high-efficiency values
obtained in Pb-based solar cells. The simulated architecture of Sn-based solar cell is
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Architecture of
Sn-based solar cell
Investigation on the Relative Influence of Absorber Layer … 113

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Optimization of Absorber Layer Thickness in Simulated

Pb-Based and Sn-Based Solar Cells

The absorber layer is an absolutely essential part of solar cell architecture and the
performance of a solar cell is mainly governed by the properties of the absorber
layer. The performance parameters of solar cells are directly affected by the varying
thickness of the absorber layer most critical of those is the power conversion effi-
ciency. Therefore, in the initial phase of our study, we first optimized the absorber
layer thickness in both types of simulated solar cells for maximum efficiency as it
would be critical from the perspective of reducing the material wastage during the
fabrication of solar cells/modules. For this purpose, we assumed that our absorber
layer is ideal and do not include defect states in both types of simulated cells.
For the adopted model we varied the thickness of the absorber layer from 0.1
to 1.0 μm. Figure 3 shows that the extreme values of efficiency in Sn-based cell
were higher in comparison to Pb-based cell. The efficiency values obtained for the
optimized thickness of the absorber layer (0.6 μm) were 20.08 and 30.18% for Pb-
based and Sn-based solar cell, respectively, which is nearly a difference of 10%.
Apart from achieving the optimized absorber layer thickness we observed that Sn-
based cell showed better performance over Pb-based cell under the ideal defect-free
condition of the absorber layer. Table 2 summarizes the comparison of performance
parameter values with respect to the different thickness of the absorber layer in both
types of cells.
Further, we validated our observation through “QE-λ” variations with respect to
absorber layer thickness in both the cells (Fig. 4a, b). We noticed that the quantum

35

30

25
Efficiency (%)

20

15

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Thickness (μm) Pb-based Sn-based

Fig. 3 The plot of efficiency versus absorber layer thickness variation in Pb-based and Sn-based
solar cells
114 P. Baldha et al.

Table 2 Performance parameter values for both types of solar cells at different thicknesses
Thickness (μm) V oc (V) J sc (mA/cm2 ) FF (%) η (%)
Sn Pb Sn Pb Sn Pb Sn Pb
0.1 1.21 0.85 19.75 15.93 72.89 85.48 17.46 11.68
0.2 1.32 0.86 26.47 20.97 67.23 85.59 23.59 15.54
0.3 1.37 0.86 29.95 23.70 64.85 85.64 26.77 17.65
0.4 1.40 0.87 31.87 25.27 63.75 85.66 28.53 18.86
0.5 1.41 0.87 32.99 26.23 63.25 85.67 29.55 19.60
0.6 1.42 0.87 33.68 26.84 63.05 85.68 30.18 20.08
0.7 1.42 0.87 34.12 27.25 63.01 85.68 30.58 20.40
0.8 1.42 0.87 34.42 27.53 63.07 85.69 30.84 20.62
0.9 1.41 0.87 34.62 27.74 63.18 85.69 31.02 20.78
1.0 1.41 0.87 34.77 27.89 63.33 85.69 31.14 20.90

(a) 100.00
0.10
Quantum Efficiency (%)

80.00 0.20
0.30
60.00
0.40
0.50
40.00
0.60

20.00 0.70
0.80
0.00 0.90
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1.00
Wavelength (nm)

(b) 100.00 0.10

0.20
Quantum Efficiency (%)

80.00
0.30
60.00 0.40
0.50
40.00
0.60

20.00 0.70
0.80
0.00 0.90
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1.00
Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 4 a Plot of “QE-λ” dependence on absorber thickness for Pb-based solar cell. b Plot of “QE-λ”
dependence on absorber thickness for Sn-based solar cell
Investigation on the Relative Influence of Absorber Layer … 115

Table 3 Performance parameter values for both type solar cells at different defect density
Defect density (cm−3 ) V oc (V) J sc (mA/cm2 ) FF (%) η (%)
Sn Pb Sn Pb Sn Pb Sn Pb
1 × 1012 1.42 1.24 33.68 26.62 63.09 59.83 30.18 19.88
5 × 1012 1.41 1.23 33.68 25.84 63.26 60.37 30.16 19.19
1 × 1013 1.40 1.21 33.67 25.01 63.47 60.94 30.13 18.46
5 × 1013 1.36 1.13 33.67 21.34 65.03 63.42 29.95 15.30
1 × 1014 1.32 1.08 33.67 19.32 66.72 64.69 29.74 13.60
5 × 1014 1.14 0.99 33.64 14.88 74.25 66.64 28.51 9.89
1 × 1015 1.05 0.96 33.60 13.14 77.69 66.74 27.56 8.44
5 × 1015 0.93 0.89 33.32 9.76 78.08 64.76 24.39 5.65
1 × 1016 0.90 0.87 32.98 8.62 75.00 62.91 22.42 4.72
5 × 1016 0.82 0.82 30.53 6.45 62.19 56.53 15.75 3.02
1 × 1017 0.79 0.81 28.10 5.61 55.27 52.59 12.32 2.39
5 × 1017 0.71 0.74 19.04 3.58 44.52 44.31 6.023 1.18
1 × 1018 0.675 0.66 14.91 2.72 41.79 44.79 4.2091 0.81

efficiency values were more prominent in the near-UV as well as in the infrared
region for Sn-based solar cell leading to its higher efficiency over Pb-based solar
cells (Table 3).

3.2 Influence of Defects in the Absorber Layer Over

the Performance of Simulated Cells

Generally, a semiconductor thin film always consists of some defect states although
its level can be optimally reduced depending upon the precision of the thin-film depo-
sition technique. Therefore, we simulated the two cells in the presence of different
levels of defect density and compared their performance. It is important to note that
here we have used the optimized thickness of the absorber layer, i.e., 0.6 μm and var-
ied the defect states in the range 1012 –1018 cm−3 in both the simulated cells. Table 2
shows the comparison of a performance parameter of the two types of cells under
varying defect density. Figure 5 demonstrates the comparison of efficiency values
of both the cells under different levels of defect state density. It was evident that for
the extreme levels of defect density values there are significant differences in the
efficiency values in the two cells with Sn-based cells showing superior performance
compared to Pb-based cell. We confirmed our observation through the variation of
“QE-λ” under different levels of defect states (Fig. 6a, b). It was clearly evident that
the increasing level of defect led to reduction in the quantum efficiency in the visible
as well as the infrared regions in both types of cells although this reduction was
severely lesser in Sn-based cells that demonstrated significantly lower dependence
116 P. Baldha et al.

35
30
25
Efficiency(%)

20
15
10
5
0
1.00E+12

5.00E+12

1.00E+13

5.00E+13

1.00E+14

5.00E+14

1.00E+15

5.00E+15

1.00E+16

5.00E+16

1.00E+17

5.00E+17

1.00E+18
Defect State Pb-based Sn-based

Fig. 5 Plot of efficiency versus absorber layer defect state variation in both type of absorber layer

(a) 100.00 1.00E+12

Quantum Efficiency (%)

80.00 5.00E+12
1.00E+13
60.00
5.00E+13
1.00E+14
40.00
5.00E+14
20.00 1.00E+15
5.00E+15
0.00
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1.00E+16

Wavelength(nm) 5.00E+16

1.00E+12
(b) 100.00
5.00E+12
Quantum Efficiency (%)

80.00 1.00E+13
5.00E+13
60.00
1.00E+14

40.00 5.00E+14
1.00E+15
20.00 5.00E+15
1.00E+16
0.00
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 5.00E+16
Wavelength (nm) 1.00E+17

Fig. 6 a Plot of “QE-λ” dependence on defect density for the Pb-based solar cell. b Plot of “QE-λ”
dependence on defect density for the Sn-based solar cell
Investigation on the Relative Influence of Absorber Layer … 117

on increasing defect density values thereby pointing towards its appropriateness over
Pb-based cells for the manufacturing the solar modules.
Our observations reveal that Sn-based absorber layer material for perovskite solar
cell can be a more preferred alternative over Pb-based absorber material as it shows
lesser deterioration in its performance even at higher levels of defect values. This
important observation is attributed to the superior optical and electronic properties of
the Sn-based material over Pb-based material leading to the far superior performance
of Sn-based solar cell.

4 Conclusion

The comparison of the simulation results of the Pb-based and Sn-based solar cells,
done in terms of performance parameter values and quantum efficiency variation,
showed that although both the cells experienced degradation in their performance
with rising levels of defect density but the Sn-based cell seems to be lesser prone to
these variations and could become a preferred choice for solar module manufacturing
over Pb-based solar cell. The observations are attributed to the superior properties
of Sn-based absorber layer compared to the Pb-based absorber layer. These results
are vital from the perspective of manufacturing the Pb-free solar modules which are
less harmful to the environment and human beings.

Acknowledgements Author Kshitij Bhargava is grateful to Dr. Marc Burgelman, Department

of Electronics and Information Systems (ELIS), University of Gent, Belgium, for providing the
SCAPS-1D simulation software.

References

1. Liu, D., Kelly, T.L.: Perovskite solar cells with a planar heterojunction structure prepared using
room temperature solution processing techniques. Nat. Photonics 8, 133–138 (2014)
2. Green, M.A., Snaith, H.J., Ho-Baillie, A.: The emergence of perovskite solar cells. Nat. Pho-
tonics 8, 506 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2014
3. Liu, M., Snaith, H.J., Jonston, M.B.: Efficient planer hetrojunction perovskite solar cells by
vapor deposition. Nature 501(7467), 395–398. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12509
4. Du, H.J., Wang, W.C., Zhu, J.Z.: Device simulation of lead-free CH3 NH3 SnI3 perovskite solar
cells with high efficiency. Chin. Phys. B. 25, 108802 (2016)
5. Mandadapu, U., Vedanayakam, S.V., Thyagarajan, K., Raja Reddy, M., Babu, B.J.: Design and
simulation of high efficiency tin halide perovskite solar cell. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 7(4)
(2017)
6. Bhargava, K., Singh, V.: Electrical characterization and parameter extraction of organic thin
film transistor using two dimensional numerical simulations. J. Comput. Electron. 13, 585–592
(2014)
7. Lee, Y.-J., Ruby, D.S., Peters, D.W., Mckenzie, B.B., Hsu, J.W.: ZnO nanostructure as efficient
antireflection layers in solar cells. Nano Lett. 8(5), 1501–1505 (2008)
118 P. Baldha et al.

8. Anwar, F., Satter, S.S., Ullah, M., Mahbub, R.: Effect of different HTM layers and electrical
parameter on ZnO nanorod-based lead-free perovskite solar cell for high-efficiency perfor-
mance. Hindawi Int. J. Photoenergy 2017, Article ID 9846310, 9 pages
9. Hossain, M., Daif, O., Alharbi, F., Amin, N., Tabet, N.: TMS Middle East—Mediterranean
Materials Congress on Energy and Infrastructure Systems (MEMA 2105) (2013)
10. Bansal, S., Aryal, P.: Evaluation of new materials for electron and hole transport layers in
perovskite-based solar cells through SCAPS-1D simulation. In: 2016 IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic
Specialist Conference (PVSC), Portland, OR, USA, June 2016
Application of Fuzzy Linguistic Modeling
Aggregated with VIKOR for Optimal
Selection of Solar Power Plant Site:
An Empirical Study

Bhavin Shah, Harsh Lakhani, Kumar Abhishek and Soni Kumari

Abstract Fast development of the economies and technology leads a tremendous

increase in the demand for electrical energy. The primary energy sources viz. coal,
natural gas, petroleum, etc. replenished day by day as they require millions of years
for their formation. To address this issue, utilization of renewable energy sources
such as wind energy, solar energy, hydropower, marine energy, etc. have been con-
sidered as one of the vital solutions to meet the energy demand. But they require huge
investment; hence, feasible studies are essentially needed for finding the large sys-
tems associated with aforesaid resources. Therefore, this work highlights the several
suggestions for selection of site which is an important stage in the establishment of
solar power plant. Moreover, a hierarchy multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM)
approach based on fuzzy logic and VIKOR method has been adopted for the selection
of site in the Gujarat state of India.

1 Introduction

With the increase in population the requirement of electricity to cater the needs of
people has also increased. This energy forms widely include non-renewable sources
of energy which involves a lot of pollution as well as noise. The conventional and
non-renewable energy sources are also on the verge of extinction. Global warm-
ing, shortage of resources and economic condition has forced us to shift our focus
from non-renewable energy source. The usage has swiftly been shifted to renewable
energy sources. The use of this type of energy sources helps to attain the goal of
sustainability. As these forms of energy are available in abundance and the amount
of noise is certainly very less. These energy sources include forms like tidal energy,

B. Shah · H. Lakhani · K. Abhishek (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure, Technology, Research and
Management (IITRAM), Ahmedabad 380026, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Kumari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 119

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_11
120 B. Shah et al.

wind energy, hydroelectric, biomass, geothermal energy, and solar energy. Among
all these sources solar energy is available in tremendous quantity. It is free, clean and
doesn’t cause pollution. In while ago the production of solar energy has increased to
a very large extent. Many countries are supporting the production of solar energy and
also subsidizing for the installation of the same. The installed capacity of solar power
plants has increased at a very high rate in the couple of years. The production of solar
energy is directly dependent on the solar radiation captured by the solar power plant.
This is majorly dependent on the site of solar power plant. A lot of factors influence
proper selection of the city for installment for the power plant.
Khan and Rathi [1] have studied factors which are affected to suitable site selec-
tion for solar PVPP in Indian states using GIS software. Factors have classified as
“exclusion criteria” and “analysis criteria”. Exclusion criteria considered as mod-
ule soiling, variation of local climate and topography of sites, etc. Analysis criteria
considered as availability of vacant land, availability of solar radiation, existing trans-
mission lines and Distance from highways, etc. After using GIS software, Rajasthan
of India was found out as most optimal area for solar PVPP. This region is called
as “Green region”. Also, various PV technologies were considered for executions. It
was found that CPV technology gives high efficiency and high generation potential
for solar power plant. Akkas et al. [2] have solved environmental problem which
is caused by more using primal energy sources. This paper has shown solution as
using more renewable energy resources (RES). The criteria for choosing the suitable
location are studied by MCDM methods. Five cities of Turkey region is selected
for analyzing criteria which are Aksaray, Kanya, Karaman, Nevsehir, and Nigde.
Among all five cities, it was found out that Karaman was the most optimal place
for installation of solar power plants. Al Garni and Awasthi [3] have studied solar
PV power plants site selection and reviewed paper of highest disturbance factor.
Ozdemir and Sahin [4] have found suitable site for solar power plant of Melekeli,
Igdir University, and Kulluk by two ways: The first one is real data measurement
of Azimuth angle and the second one is AHP method (decision maker). Optimum
Azimuth angle found out by pyranometer and PVGIS. Kulluk was the most suitable
site for solar power plant by analyzing the main criteria, which are distance, potential
energy production, safety, environment factors, from topographical properties and
existing transmission line. Fang et al. [5] have proposed prospect theory by observing
different novel integrated method which is completed in two stages: The first one
is the calculation of criteria using variable precision rough number and the second
one is selecting optimal PVPP with taking prospect theory. For those factors are
considered as climate, social acceptance, and geology. The novel method indicates
the application of precision rough number bounded rationality by flexing dealing
with the merit of prospect theory and vague information in manipulating decision-
makers. Prospect theory found out by experimenting and comparing result of novel
method which occurred in 10 MW PVPP site selection in China. It used to show the
efficiency and effectiveness of proposed method. Wu et al. [6] have proposed effec-
tiveness of the decision framework in China. Decision framework includes three
stages: The fuzzy measure is used to weight the degrees of criteria with avoiding
independent assumption of site selection, Potential feasible sites are identified based
Application of Fuzzy Linguistic Modeling … 121

on infrastructure, energy, land, environment and social factors and the linguistic vari-
able reflects intuitive preferences. The decision framework of STPP site selection
under the fuzzy measure environment and linguistic variable is stated. The first merit
solved the integrating problem of the various kinds of calculative information by
integrating the linguistic variables the numerical values together. The second merit
will assist the project managers to analyze the disadvantages and advantages of solar
thermal power plant sites easily. By considering the above two merits, Possibility of
decision-making mistake would be less. Liu et al. [7] have proposed grey cumulative
prospect theory for site selection of PVPP from the best point of view by naturally.
This theory considered eight decisions making and identify as divided into three
categories: economic profits, environmental benefits, and geographical conditions.
Finalizing optimal site selection is based on comparison between MCDM methods
and sensitive analysis of criteria. Four cities of China are selected for analyzing this
theory which are Haidong, Yuzhong, Zhongwai, and Yulin. Yulin is the most opti-
mal site for PVPP by grey cumulative prospect theory. Vasel and Iakovidis [8] have
observed result of wind direction on the performance of SPVP which is placed in
Hadley solar farm in the UK. The SPVP used to fixed tilted system facing south at 20
degree with PV panels and found when the wind blows from south the total power
production of SPVP doesn’t reduce by some determining factors like the ambient
temperature, solar irradiance, and the wind speed are same. There were experimented
different direction of system and conclude that along west–east direction is the most
optimal solar PV plant. Bijarniya et al. [9] have investigated of Concentrated Solar
Power technology and outlined site selection criteria. Also this paper represents the
several barriers of CSP plant-like complex, insufficient DNI data, land acquisition
system, improper policies, availability of water, expensive finance and permitting
issue, etc. PDT is preferred for small scale power generation and PTC, CRT, LFR are
preferred to large scale power generation. Ogunmodimu and Okoroigwe [10] have
studied Concentrating solar power technology in Nigeria whereas electric generation
based on gas, oil and water level for steady electricity and hydropower generation
in this country is not certain. This study found that CSP technologies will be more
optimal than PV systems in this region. Kumar et al. [11] have evaluated the avail-
ability factor which is very important for solar PV power plant. The evaluations
occurred based on inverter running periods and generations. This paper suggested
that the availability factor options of decrease energy losses. The major reasons for
not gaining 100% availability factor lead to failure in the solar inverter. Chuang et al.
[12] have analyzed renewable energy resources and estimated power generation of
solar and wind power station using WRF model and Windographer Software. This
paper could be beneficial for working of energy policy makers. Pravalie et al. [13]
have proposed the theory of intensity and solar radiation distribution globally. This
analysis occurred that of behind aim is the solar geographical potential in a nar-
rowness sense without looking into the total quantity of land area for solar usages.
Jamil and Bellos [14] have estimated energy efficiency factor for solar radiation in
the term of clearness index and relative sunshine period. Chen et al. [15] have opti-
mized parameters and determined the size of the heliostat field. Also thermal energy
stored in solar thermal power plants. This storage has developed to explore the suit-
122 B. Shah et al.

able combination of parameters which are sizing the STPP, including design solar
multiple, direct normal irradiance and thermal storage hours at four sites in China.
Fernández-Peruchena et al. [16] have studied assessment of CSPP using the EVA
methodology. This methodology is presented for generating meteorological year’s
representative of given annual possibilities of addition of solar irradiation which is
depending on the variability and seasonality of monthly DNI values. Mohammad
et al. [17] have tested solar thermal power plant for prediction of performance in the
form of code. Heat transfer, Temperature and pressure range was provided by this
code. The PTPPPP code is observed with stand-alone parabolic trough SPP through
simulating power cycles in University Technology PETRONAD (UTP), Malaysia.
Wagner et al. [18] have optimized dispatch for concentrated solar power (CSP) in
California using Tool R while addressing excitability and long term maintenance
requirement. Saracoglu et al. [19] have found site location for solar PV power plants
using fuzzy theories. Merrouni et al. [20] have proposed the suitability of Morocco
east to large CSP plants by combining AHP method and GIS software.
Hence, the site selection process for solar power plant is a rigorous process. The
effect of various parameters is to be critically analyzed

2 Case Study: Selection of the Alternatives for Solar Power

Plant Setup

Generally, decision-making |issues are dealing working with some alternatives which
may be ranked regarding the distinct criteria. The most significant factor that may
influence the outcome of the decision-making problems rating of the alternatives
and the weight assigned to each criterion. Therefore, this study utilized the fuzzy
VIKOR method in order to evaluate the certain weight of criteria and ranking of the
alternatives. Here, linear triangular membership functions have been considered for
capturing the vagueness of these linguistic valuations.
The proposed algorithm consists of the following steps:
There are five cities, i.e., alternatives (A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and A5 ) for the selection
process in order to choose a site for solar power plant. In order to evaluate the
alternatives (city) following six qualitative criteria have been considered:

C1 : Gross Solar Radiation, C2 : Sunshine Hours,

C3 : Surface Slope, C4 : Cost,
C5 : Transportation convenience, C6 : Distance to the transmission line.

In order to solve the selection problems, four groups of decision-makers (DMs)

have been formed to assign the linguistic variables to aforesaid criteria. They utilized
the five linguistic variables for weighting and rating the cities which help to determine
the corresponding fuzzy numbers of linguistic variables for weight and ratings [21].
The importance of weight for each criterion and rate the alternatives in the linguistic
Application of Fuzzy Linguistic Modeling … 123

terms by the DMs are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. Then, aggregated fuzzy
decision matrix for weight of each criteria and rating of cities have been assessed
which is furnished in Table 3. After that, the crisp values of decision matrix and
weight of each criterion have been determined and presented in Table 4. Then, S, R

Table 1 Importance weight of criteria from four decision-makers

DM1 DM2 DM3 DM4
Gross solar radiation High (H) Medium (M) High (H) High (H)
(C1 )
Sunshine hours (C2 ) High (H) Very high (VH) High (H) Very high (VH)
Surface slope (C3 ) Medium (M) Very high (VH) Very high (VH) High (H)
Cost (C4 ) High (H) Medium (M) Medium (M) Medium (M)
Transportation Very high (VH) High (H) High (H) Medium (M)
convenience (C5 )
Distance to the Very high (VH) Medium (M) High (H) Very high (VH)
transmission line
(C6 )

Table 2 Ratings of five cities under each criterion in terms of linguistic variable determined by
DMs
DMs Cities Criteria
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
DM1 A1 Fair (F) Very good Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Very good
(VG) (VG)
A2 Good (G) Very good Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Very good
(VG) (VG)
A3 Very good Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Fair (F)
(VG)
A4 Very good Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Poor (P) Very good
(VG)
A5 Very good Good (G) Fair (F) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G)
(VG)
DM2 A1 Good (G) Fair (F) Fair (F) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G)
A2 Fair (F) Very good Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Good (G)
(VG)
A3 Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Very good Fair (F) Very good
(VG) (VG)
A4 Very good Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Very good
(VG) (VG)
A5 Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Very good Very good
(VG) (VG)
(continued)
124 B. Shah et al.

Table 2 (continued)
DMs Cities Criteria
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
DM3 A1 Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Very good Very good
(VG) (VG)
A2 Very good Good (G) Good (G) Fair (F) Fair (F) Fair (F)
(VG)
A3 Fair (F) Fair (F) Very good Good (G) Good (G) Good (G)
(VG)
A4 Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Poor Fair (F)
A5 Very good Very good Good (G) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G)
(VG) (VG)
DM4 A1 Good (G) Good (G) Fair (F) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G)
A2 Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Very good Very good
(VG) (VG)
A3 Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Very good Very good
(VG) (VG)
A4 Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G)
A5 Very good Good (G) Fair (F) Good (G) Good (G) Good (G)
(VG)

Table 3 Fuzzy decision matrix

Weight A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
C1 (0.437, (0.375, (0.437, (0.375, (0.625, (0.625,
0.687, 0.625, 0.687, 0.625, 0.875, 1) 0.875,
0.937) 0.875) 0.875) 0.812) 0.937)
C2 (0.625, (0.5, 0.75, (0.625, (0.437, (0.312, (0.562,
0.875, 1) 0.937) 0.875, 1) 0.687, 0.562, 0.812, 1)
0.937) 0.812)
C3 (0.562, (0.312, (0.375, (0.437, (0.437, (0.312,
0.812, 0.562, 0.625, 0.687, 0.687, 0.562,
0.937) 0.812) 0.875) 0.875) 0.937) 0.812)
C4 (0.312, (0.312, (0.375, (0.562, (0.437, (0.437,
0.562, 0.562, 0.625, 0.812, 1) 0.687, 0.687,
0.812) 0.812) 0.875) 0.937) 0.937)
C5 (0.5, 0.750, (0.562, (0.5, 0.75, (0.437, (0.25, 0.5, (0.5, 0.75,
0.937) 0.812, 1) 0.937) 0.687, 0.75) 0.937)
0.875)
C6 (0.562, (0.625, (0.562, (0.562, (0.562, (0.562,
0.812, 0.875, 1) 0.812, 0.812, 0.812, 0.812, 1)
0.937) 0.937) 0.937) 0.937)
Application of Fuzzy Linguistic Modeling … 125

Table 4 Crisp values for decision matrix and weight of each criterion
Criteria
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Weight 0.6875 0.8333 0.7708 0.5625 0.7291 0.7708
A1 0.6250 0.7291 0.5625 0.5625 0.7916 0.8333
A2 0.6666 0.8333 0.6250 0.6250 0.7291 0.7708
A3 0.6041 0.6875 0.6666 0.7916 0.6666 0.7708
A4 0.8333 0.5625 0.6875 0.6875 0.5 0.7708
A5 0.8125 0.7916 0.5625 0.6875 0.7291 0.7916

Table 5 S, R and Q values for cities

City Method
S R Q
A1 1.507401 0.624454 0.260384
A2 2.220958 0.770837 0.648501
A3 2.861367 0.770837 0.791195
A4 3.359849 0.833330 1.000000
A5 1.115486 0.513891 0.000000

Table 6 S, R and Q (decreasing order) to rank cities

Ranking of city
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
Using S 2 3 4 5 1
Using R 2 3 3 4 1
Using Q 2 3 4 5 1

and Q values for all alternatives of city has been evaluated and presented in Tables 5
and 6 presents the rank of cities based on the S, R and Q values in decreasing order.

3 Conclusions

The present paper proposed a new method, to resolve site selection problems and
choose the best city through multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) process under
fuzzy environment. In decision-making process, it is difficult for the decision-maker
to express the ideas in numerical values as it leads to imprecision. Therefore, fuzzy
set theory has been used in order to handle such type of issues as the evaluation
is defined in the linguistic terms. This paper dedicated to the VIKOR under fuzzy
126 B. Shah et al.

environment method to manage both qualitative and quantitative criteria and select
the right site for the solar energy plant. Finally, the proposed method is easy, flexible,
and systematic approach which may be applied in other decision-making problems.

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L., Silva, M., Pavón, M., Moreno, S., Bermejo, D., Pulgar, J., Rita, X.: “Probabilistic assessment
of concentrated solar power plants yield: the EVA methodology” from Spain
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gram of a stand-alone parabolic trough solar thermal power plant: Code description and test. In:
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for a concentrated solar power tower. In: Proceedings of the National Renewable Energy Labo-
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Controller Design for Buck–Boost
Converter Using State-Space Analysis

Dhrumil Daftary and Chirag H. Raval

Abstract In this paper, the small-signal model of buck–boost DC–DC Converter

is presented. The final model is obtained in terms of state matrix (A), input matrix
(B), output matrix (C) and feedforward matrix (D). The small-signal modelling
for buck–boost converter is done in order to construct a robust controller for it by
using state-space analysis and root-locus technique. The entire system is analyzed
by giving a step-input to the system, which is modelled in Laplace domain. This
paper primarily focuses on reduction of steady-state error for the dynamic model
of buck–boost converter. The controller, comprising of lag compensator, is designed
with the help of root-locus technique according to the need of the designed parameters
such as settling time, peak overshoot, steady-state error, relative stability, etc. By
taking various values of zeros and poles of compensator, the unit step response is
analyzed in detail. The presented system also has an inherent characteristic of inverse
time response generally exhibited by non-minimum phase system.

1 Introduction

Power electronic converter is used extensively with the renewable energy resources
for the grid integration and manipulation for the flow of electrical energy. For the
optimal flow of energy, it must be well-designed and controlled [1, 2]. The controller
deployed is the brain for any converter. For the design of control system, various
tools such as root-locus technique, bode plot analysis, Nyquist plot are used. The
control system is designed by reckoning the requirements of the small-signal transfer
function of various PEC [3]. The transfer function can be obtained by various methods

D. Daftary (B) · C. H. Raval

Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
C. H. Raval
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 129

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_12
130 D. Daftary and C. H. Raval

such as small-signal modelling of PEC in canonical form or by using state-space

equations such as ẋ = Ax + Bu and y = C x + Du. Based on the requirement of
model, various strategy such as sliding mode PID control, model predictive control,
current boundary control is used [4].

2 Modelling of DC–DC Converter

2.1 State-Space Averaged Model of DC–DC Converter

The main functioning of DC–DC converters consists of two-linear major circuit viz.
during the switch ON time (T on ) and OFF time (T off ) as depicted in Fig. 1 [5]. The
independent variables are generally chosen as state variables, but it is convenient to
choose inductor current and capacitor voltage as the state variables [6]. The collecting
of small-signal transfer function is basically divided into three parts—averaging,
perturbing and linearizing of the state-space equations [7]. Circuit averaging consists
of blending of two heterogeneous circuits during T on and T off time as shown in figure.
The state variables are averaged with different state-space equations,

ẋ1 = A1 x + B1 u (1)

ẋ2 = A2 x + B2 u (2)

y1 = C1 x + D1 u (3)

y2 = C2 x + D2 u (4)

For averaging the state-space model, multiplying (1) and (2) by δ and 1 − δ,
respectively, which gives,

Fig. 1 Duty cycle for a power electronic converter

Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using … 131

ẋ = [A1 δ + A2 (1 − δ)]x+[B1 δ + B2 (1 − δ)]u (5)

Similarly multiplying (3) and (4) by δ and 1 − δ, respectively gives,

y = [C1 δ + C2 (1 − δ)]x+[D1 δ + D2 (1 − δ)]u (6)

All the above equations are valid for a quiescent operating point. These equations
are not valid for a continuous dynamic model. For a dynamical model (ac) these
equations are to be manipulated by introducing a small-signal quantity into each
constraint as follows,

x = X + x (7)

y = Y + y (8)

u = U + u (9)

ẋ = Ẋ + ẋ (10)

δ = δ + δ (11)

Here, X, Y, U, Ẋ and δ are steady-state quantities, while x, y, u, ẋ and δ
are small-signal (ac) quantities. The assumption made, implies that the value of ac
quantities is small as compared to steady-state quantities. The steady-state equation
remains intact as follows, wherein off time duty ratio 1 − δ is represented by δ

Ẋ = (A1 δ + A2 δ)X + (B1 δ + B2 δ)U (12)

By replacing the constraints with newly obtained constraints in (5) and (6), a
small-signal model can be obtained as follows:
    
Ẋ + ẋ = A1 (δ + δ) + A2 δ − δ (X + x)
  
+ B1 (δ + δ) + B2 δ − δ (U + u) (13)
   
Ẋ + ẋ = A1 δ X + A1 δ X + A2 δ X − A2 δ X + A1 δx + A1 δx + A2 δx − A2 δx
 
+ B1 δU + B1 δU + B2 δU − B2 δU + B1 δu + B1 δu + B2 δu − B2 δu (14)

From (14) and (12), eliminating Ẋ ,

 
ẋ = A1 δ X − A2 δ X + A1 δx + A1 δx + A2 δx − A2 δx
 
+ B1 δU − B2 δU + B1 δu + B1 δu + B2 δu − B2 δu (15)
132 D. Daftary and C. H. Raval

In Eq. (15), A1 δx, A2 δx, B1 δu and B2 δu are in the form of
mn, which are non-linear quantities as multiplication of two different time-
variant variable is involved. Also, multiplication of two small-signal quantities is
extremely small as compared to linear quantities such as km, kn. Hence quan-
tities in the form of mn can be neglected and the whole equation can be easily
linearized. Thus, the final equation can be derived as,
 
ẋ = A1 δ X − A2 δ X + A1 δx + A2 δx
 
+ B1 δU − B2 δU + B1 δu + B2 δu (16)

   
ẋ = A1 δ + A2 δ x + (A1 X − A2 X + B1 U − B2 U )δ + B1 δ − B2 δ u
(17)

Equation (17) is in the form of ẋ = Ax + (B1 + B2 )u with A = A1 δ + A2 δ,

while a new input variable emerges as δ known as small-signal duty cycle input.
It signifies what variation it must provide for a specific change in output variable.
The similar approach can be done for y = C x + Du and the final output state-space
equation can be obtained as
   
y = C1 δ + C2 δ x + (C1 X − C2 X + D1 U − D2 U )δ + D1 δ − D2 δ u
(18)

2.2 Small-Signal Transfer Function of Buck–Boost

Converter

The steady-state model of buck–boost converter simply follows a switched circuit

as described in the Fig. 2. This switched circuit can be dissected for analysis into
two circuits during T on and T off time, respectively, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The
transfer function can be obtained using (17) and (18). The analysis of small-signal
transfer function can be done based on various variables such as output voltage to
duty ratio, output voltage to line voltage and output current to line voltage [4, 8].
The ratio that is relevant while designing the compensator for maintaining the output

Fig. 2 Power circuit

of Buck–Boost converter
Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using … 133

Fig. 3 Circuit during Ton

Fig. 4 Circuit during Toff

voltage constant is output voltage to duty cycle ratio [9, 10]. The user has no control to
manipulate the line voltage, until it is a highly sophisticated DC–DC converter, while
manipulation of duty cycle can be easily done. On analyzing the dynamic model (ac
model) the provision for controller design can be made. The inductor current and
capacitor voltage are taken as state variables such that,
 
i
[x] = l (19)
vc

[y] = [vo ] (20)

The linear differential equation for both the models will be different and needs to
be clubbed together using state-space averaged equation as described in Sect. 2.1.
During ON state the linear differential equation for i l and vc will be,

di l
L = vg
dt
di l vg
ẋ1 = = (21)
dt L
Similarly, for another state variable vc , the differential equation will be,

∫ i c dt vo
vc = −vo = , ic =
C R
dvc −vc
ẋ2 = = (22)
dt RC
134 D. Daftary and C. H. Raval

For the output equation,

vo = −vc (23)

In this case, there is no feedforward input from source to the output, hence, D-
matrix from the state-space equation will be zero. From Figs. 3 and 4, Eqs. (21), (22)
and (23) state-space equations for T on time can be depicted as,
   di l
   1
ẋ1 0 0il
= dt = + L [vi ] (24)
ẋ2 dvc
dt
0 − RC
vc1
0
 
  il
[y] = [vo ] = 0 −1 (25)
vc

Carrying out the same procedure for OFF circuit, the state-space equation for T off
time is as follows,
   di l
  
  
1
ẋ1 0
il 0
= dt= L
1 −1 + [vi ] (26)
ẋ2 dvc
dt
vc
C RC
0
 
  il
[y] = [vo ] = 0 −1 (27)
vc

In order to calculate the averaged model for one cycle of T time, the model derived
from (25), (26), (27) and (28) must be multiplied by each equations’ respective time
interval, i.e. (25), (26) by δ and (27), (28) by δ, the averaged state-space model of
the buck–boost converter is obtained as,
   dil     δ
ẋ1 0 Lδ il  
= dv dt = δ
+ L vg (28)
ẋ2 dt
c
C
− RC
1 vc 0
 
  il
[y] = [vo ] = 0 −1 (29)
vc

Here, (28) and (29) are in the form of ẋ = Ax +Bu and y = C x +Du, respectively,
wherein D (feedforward matrix) is a null matrix as there is no direct correlation
between input and output. The very next and important step is perturbation. Changing
all the time-variant quantities into steady-state and small-signal quantities will form
a detailed model for buck–boost converter. Replacing variables x, y, ẋ and δ by
X + x, Y + y, Ẋ + ẋ, and δ + δ, respectively. A change in x implies change
in i l by Il + i l and vc by Vc + vc . Similarly, change in y implies change in vo
by Vo + vo and vg changes to Vg + vg . Hence, the detailed and enlarged model is
obtained as,
Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using … 135

      
d(Il +i l )
Ẋ 1 + x1 0 δ̄−δ Il + i l
= dt
d(Vc +vc ) = δ̄−δ
L
Ẋ 2 + x2 dt C
− 1
RC
Vc + vc
 δ+δ 
 
+ L Vg + vg (30)
0
δVc − δVc + δvc − δvc + δVg + δVg + δvg + δvg
I˙l + i̇ l =
L
(31)
δ Il + δi l − δ Il − δi l vc Vc
V̇c + v̇c = − − (32)
L RC RC

Here, Il , Vc are the quiescent (constant) point, therefore I˙l = V̇c = 0, ∴ Ẋ =

AX + BU = 0 and δVc + δVg = δLIl − RC Vc
= 0. Linearizing the Eqs. (31) and (32)
and comparing it with (17) and (18), δvg , δvc and δi l are negligible. A
new input quantity δ emerges from small-signal equations. This is the control input
to the plant; by varying it about the quiescent point the output can be manipulated.

di l δvc − δVc + δvg + δVg dvc δi l − δ Il vc

= & = +
dt L dt C RC
 dil      Vg −Vc δ
0 δ
i l  
dt = δ L1 + L [δ] + L vg (33)
dvc
dt C
− RC
v c − CIl 0

Where

δ
0
A= δ
L
C
− RC
1

Vg −Vc
B1 = L
− CIl
 δ

B2 = L
0
 
C = 0 −1

There is no feedforward input from source to output, therefore feedforward matrix

D = 0. The quiescent current Il can be written as Vc /δ R and Vc = −Vo . On taking
Laplace transformation of state-space equations, the small-signal transfer function
can be obtained as,

y(s)
= C · (s I − A)−1 · B1 (34)
u(s)
136 D. Daftary and C. H. Raval

For output vo (s) to control input δ(s), transfer function can be derived as
shown in (35). The input matrix B2 = 0 as transfer function is only valid for single
input to single output variable only.

Vo δ R
vo (s) δ
− VoδLs
∴ = (35)
δ(s) R LCs 2 + Ls + δ R
2

3 Designing the Parameters of Buck–Boost Converter

The design process of a buck–boost DC–DC converter is an arduous process as

compared to buck or boost DC–DC converter as it involves the verification step, in
which it must function as buck as well as boost mode of operation [9]. The design
value of inductor along with duty cycle value decides the buck or boost operation [11].
The design process is done keeping in mind a finite number of output parameters such
as output voltage (Vo ), output current (i o ), load (Rl ). A set of predefined parameters
must be known prior to design process such as input voltage range Vi min & Vi max ,
output voltage (Vo ), output current (i o ), power rating (Po ) are required. The modelling
of circuit of bust boost DC–DC converter is done in SIMULINK/MATLAB with
parameters as Vo = 75 V, Vi = 100 V, L = 4.2875 mH, Co = 0.22857 × 10−6 μF
and Rload = 37.5 . Substituting all these values in (35), the desired output to duty
ratio small-signal transfer function is obtained as,

vo (s) 8.57 × 10−4 − 7.346 × 10−8 s

G(s) = = (36)
δ(s) 3.672 × 10−8 s 2 + 4.258 × 10−3 s + 12.24

4 Analyzing the Transfer Function G(s)

The control system uses either time-domain or frequency-domain tools to analyze the
transfer function [1]. Analyzing part basically includes the knowledge of steady-state
error, stability, steady-state value, peak overshoot, damping ratio, etc. The transfer
function G(s) has one positive zero at s = 1.16 × 104 and two negative poles at
s1 = −1.13 × 105 , s2 = −0.0293 × 105 , respectively. The system has a right-hand
zero, which reduces the stability of the system whenever subjected to sudden change
or external noises. These types of systems, which possess right-hand zero are non-
minimum phase system. Such system exhibits a negative overshoot when a step input
R(s) = 1/s is given to the system as shown in Fig. 5.
The voltage (vo ) will reduce to a certain point before increasing if the duty cycle
is increased. The switching frequency is of kHz range, and we expect the response
Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using … 137

Fig. 5 Unit step response of G(s)

to be in realized in less than milliseconds, which is not fulfilled by the converter’s

poles. The system G(s) has very high steady-state error, while the transient response
of the system is acceptable. The steady-state error for a second-order system is given
by,

s R(s)
ess = lim (37)
s→0 1 + G(s)H (s)

where R(s) = 1/s and H (s) = 1 (unity feedback). On substituting G(s) in (37), we
get ess ≈ 1. Also, from Fig. 5 it can be clearly observed that steady-state error is 1.
Hence the first and foremost requirement of the controller is to reduce the steady-state
error. On observing Fig. 5, we can see that a negative overshoot is also appearing
which also needs to be mitigated.

5 Designing the Controller for Transfer Function G(s)

Various control system tools such as bode plots, root locus can be used for design-
ing the controller [1, 7]. Here, root-locus technique is used explicitly to design the
controller to reduce the steady-state error and to mitigate the inverse response of
the system. For reducing the steady-state error, a lag compensator is needed to be
designed. The lag compensator is of, kc s+s+z
p
, z > p form. Let’s assume that,

G n (s)
G(s) =
G d (s)
∴ G n (s) = 8.57 × 10−4 − 7.346 × 10−8 s
∴ G d (s) = 3.672 × 10−8 s 2 + 4.258 × 10−3 s + 12.24
∴ G n (0) = 8.57 × 10−4 ∴ G d (0) = 12.24
G n (0) 8.57 × 10−4
∴ G(0) = = = 7.0015 × 10−4
G d (0) 12.24
138 D. Daftary and C. H. Raval

As shown in Fig. 6 the assumed closed-loop poles (desired operating points) are
taken as s1 = −2.8 × 104 + j1.6 × 104 , s2 = −2.8 × 104 − j1.6 × 104 and the gain
is 3.04 × 104 . Let the steady-state error after compensation assumed to be 0.1. The
ratio of zero to pole of compensator is given by,

z G d (0) − ess G d (0)

= = 5.4236
p ess G n (0)

Thus, there is infinite no. of sets that correspond to the solution of zero and pole
of the lag compensator, but as the transient response is required to be realized in less
time, they are needed to be placed accordingly in s-plane. The various values that
(z, p) can be taken are (5.4236, 1), (54.236, 10), (542.36, 100) or (5423.6, 1000)
… infinite solution lying to the right side of desired poles in s-plane. As going on
increasing the numeric value of zeros and poles of the compensator, the response
becomes fast as the poles are shifted more towards the left half of the plane, hence,
the settling time also improves. From Fig. 7, with (z, p) = (5.4236, 1) and (z, p) =

Fig. 6 Root locus plot of G(s)

Fig. 7 Step response for various value of (z, p)

Controller Design for Buck–Boost Converter Using … 139

(542.36, 100), the response of system with (z, p) = (542.36, 100) is fast. Similarly,
on comparing (z, p) = (542.36, 100) and (z, p) = (5423.6, 1000) it can be clearly
depicted that system is extremely fast when (z, p) = (5423.6, 1000) is selected.
However, at the same time on taking (z, p) = (5423.6, 1000) the overshoot and
undershoot of the system also increases if we move the roots of compensator farther
from origin as observed in Fig. 7. Thus, from the response of the step-input for
various values of (z, p), we can say that the best suitable value of zero and pole
compensator is 5423.6 and 1000 due to acceptable settling time. The control system
designer should choose the value of zero and pole accordingly as per need of the
system as described in Sect. 4.

6 Conclusion

The controller design is an extremely crucial process as it involves a lot of parameters.

The controller design is fully based on quiescent values of the parameters of the
power circuit. Any disarray in the circuit design leads to improper functionality
of the controller. Many methods have been developed such as state-space analysis,
space error-based method, current mode control, sliding mode control, fuzzy mode
control, ANN-based technique for controlling the PEC [12, 13]. The simplest method
of designing the controller parameters using state-space equation and root locus has
been presented in this paper. Besides lag compensator, various parameters of PI,
PID, PD controller such as k p , ki and kd can also be designed in the similar manner
by obtaining the desired poles, and assuming the desired parameters either using
root-locus technique or bode plot method. The primary function of this controller is
to reduce the effect of noise and unwanted signal such as EMI/EMC interferences.
Further, various method can be employed to reduce the inverse time response of the
system and design the controller in a more robust way.

References

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7. Su, J.-H., Chen, J.-J., Wu, D.-S.: Learning feedback controller design of switching converters
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Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power
Capability of Renewable Energy Based
Distributed Generation for Improved
Performance of Distribution Network

Praghnesh Bhatt, Chao Long, Bhinal Mehta and Nilay Patel

Abstract Increasing penetration of distributed generation (DG) in distribution net-

works (DNs) may increase the voltage level beyond the statutory permit. Normally,
DGs operate at unity power factor (UPF) and does not contribute to reactive power
generation. In this work, the reactive power capability of DGs has been assessed
to mitigate the overvoltage problem in DN due to increased penetration of DGs.
Two objective functions, minimization of energy loss of a DN and minimization of
average voltage deviation of all bus bars, are proposed by optimizing reactive power
of DGs as control variables. It is shown that DGs with reactive power support can
enhance the performance of DN. Particle swarm optimization with time series power
flow solution is used to optimize the control variables of wind- and solar-based DGs.

1 Introduction

Presently, the electrical power systems are facing tremendous changes in power
generation, operations, and controls. In this scenario, renewable power generation
is expected to play a significant role for environment and climate change [1, 2].
The integration of distributed generations (DGs) in distribution networks (DNs)
has proved to be a promising solution to fulfill these ambitions of reducing carbon
emissions and enhancing energy security and affordability. The penetration of DGs

P. Bhatt (B) · B. Mehta

Electrical Engineering, School of Technology,
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
C. Long
School of Engineering, Institute of Energy,
Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK
N. Patel
Electrical Engineering, Charotar University of Science and Technology,
Changa, Gujarat, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 141

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_13
142 P. Bhatt et al.

in DNs can offer several benefits such as reduction in power losses [3–5], improved
voltage profile, voltage stability, and power quality [6, 7].
Multi-objective approach using particle swarm optimization was proposed in [3]
where taxicab method is combined to enhance search capability in minimizing energy
losses, voltage deviation, and overloading of lines in DNs. In [4], soft open points
(SOPs) have been implemented for achieving energy loss minimization, enhancement
of voltage profile, and load balancing in DNs. Time series power flow analysis has
been presented with varying DG penetration levels considering renewable energy
sources of wind and solar in DN as DG. The integrated operation of dispatchable
biomass-based DG unit and non-dispatchable wind-based DG unit has been presented
in [5]. An analytical expression for determining the optimal location and size for both
types of DG sources was formulated with the objectives of loss minimization. The
effect of optimal choice of power factor for these DG sources was also addressed in
[5] for loss reduction and voltage profile improvement in network.
The authors in [6] presented extensive studies on optimal placement of DGs
considering enhancement of voltage stability rather than loss minimization where
optimal placement of different types of DG was ascertained by modal analysis. A
dual index based on a new multi-objective analytical approach is presented in [7]
for deciding optimal size and optimal power factor of DG for reduction in loss
minimization and enhancement of loadability. The limitation in DG penetration in
rural areas due to voltage rise problem was handled in [8] by passive solution after
determining fixed power factor of DG and tap setting of substation transformer by
linear programming. The reactive power capability by wind farms was explored in
[9] for better utilization of transmission network reactive power resources and to
allow higher penetration of DGs in a network. It is observed from the above recent
literature survey that major emphasis has been given on loss minimization after
finding optimal location and size of DG for one or two locations, and penetration
of DGs at multiple locations has been ignored. The research papers which have
considered higher penetration of multiple DGs did not address their optimal reactive
power capability. Hence, in this work, an attempt is made to address both these issues
simultaneously where optimal utilization of reactive power capability of DGs can
fulfill the ambitious demand of utility operators to integrate these renewable energy
sources at the highest penetration level without violating any constraints.

2 Classification of DG Technologies

The DGs depending on their capability to generate real and reactive power are clas-
sified into different categories [10].
Type 1: Generation of both real power and reactive power by DGs
Synchronous generators used for small hydro, geothermal, and combined cycle-based
DG units are capable to control both real and reactive power. DGs in this category
can operate either in voltage control mode to regulate bus voltage or in reactive
Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable … 143

power control mode to regulate power factor. Modern wind turbine generating units
employ doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) and permanent magnet synchronous
generator (PMSG) which are also capable to operate in either voltage control mode
or power factor control mode. Nowadays, new regulatory codes demand that all
DGs connected to DN should be capable to vary its power factor in a specified
lagging–leading band to control bus voltages [11].
Type 2: Generation of real power only by DGs
DG units such as photovoltaic (PV), micro-turbines, and fuel cells can be integrated
to main grid through converters/inverters. Generally, they are set to operate only real
power and always operate at UPF.
Type 3: Generation of reactive power only by DGs
Synchronous compensator-based DG units fall in Type 3 category and generates only
reactive power (Q) when set to operate in overexcitation.
Type 4: Generation of real power, but absorption of reactive power
Small wind turbine generating units with squirrel-cage induction generator (SQIG)
falls under Type 4 category. Super-synchronous mode operation of fixed-speed SQIG
generates real power but at the same time absorbs reactive power from the system.

3 Problem Formulation

3.1 Real Power Loss Representation for DNs

“Exact loss formula” for the real power loss representation in DN is given by (1)
[12].


Nbus 
Nbus
    
PLoss = A pq Pp Pq + Q p Q q + B pq Q p Pq − Pp Q q (1)
p=1 q=1

r pq   r pq  
where A pq = V p Vq
cos δ p − δq , B pq = V p Vq
sin δ p − δq and z pq = r pq + j x pq
are pqth element of [Z bus ] matrix with [Z bus ] = [Ybus ]−1 . Pp and Q p are active and
reactive power injections, respectively, at bus p. Nbus is the total number of buses in
distribution network. V p and Vq are bus voltages determined by forward–backward
sweep method at bus p and bus q, respectively [12].

3.2 Representation of Active Power Losses in Terms of Power

Factor of DG

Reactive power (Q) of DG can be represented as (2).

144 P. Bhatt et al.

Q DG p = ±u × PDG p (2)
  
where u = (+1)  tan cos−1 P FDG p when DG supplying reactive power and u =
(−1) tan cos−1 P FDG p when DG absorbing reactive power. Power factor of DG
connected at bus p is denoted by P FDG, p . Real power and reactive power injected at
bus p are represented by (3) and (4), respectively, with integration of DG.

Pp = PDG, p − PD, p (3)

Q p = Q DG, p − Q D, p = u PDG, p − Q D, p (4)

Real power loss using (1)–(4) can be rewritten in (5).

 Nbus 
Nbus      
A pq PDG
 p − PDp Pq + u PDGp − Q Dp Q q
PLoss = (5)
+B pq u PDG p − Q Dq Pq − PDG p − PDp Q q
p=1 q=1

It is apparent from (5) that the placement of DG at node p affects the net real
and reactive power injections; thus, it can modify real power loss of entire DN. In
this paper, it is intended to use entire availability of active power PDG p at bus p by
optimizing the reactive power capability of DG such that the voltage constraints in DN
should not be violated. The forward–backward sweep-based power flow analysis [13]
has been carried out to determine bus voltage and branch current and subsequently
to find real power loss of DN as given in (5).

3.3 Optimization Problem

Two different objective functions (OFs) are set in this work, namely minimization of
real power losses in a DN as given in (6) and minimization of bus voltage deviation
(VD) for each bus in DN as given in (7). The control variables selected for this
minimization problem are the reactive power output of DGs located at different
nodes of DN as listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Feeder load category and type, location, and peak capacity of DGs
Feeder number Load parameters DG parameters
Type of load Peak values DG type DG locations Rating of DG
(MVA) (MVA)
F1 Commercial 3 Wind 5, 9 4.25, 2
F2 Residential 2.5 PV 11, 14, 17 2, 4.25, 5.25
F3 Industrial 3 Wind 22, 25 1, 5.25
F4 Residential 2.5 PV, wind 30, 33 1, 1
Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable … 145

 Nbus 
Nbus      
Minimize, PLoss =  p − PDp Pq + u PDGp − Q Dp Q q
A pq PDG
+B pq u PDG p − Q Dq Pq − PDG p − PDp Q q
p=1 q=1
(6)

Nbus
 2
Minimize, VD = Vnom − V p (7)
p=1

Above both objective functions are subjected to the constraints given in (8).

Q DG p,low ≤ Q DG p ≤ Q DGi,high
(8)
V p,low ≤ V p ≤ V p,high

where Q DG p,low and Q DG p,high are lower and higher reactive power limits for DG
placed at bus p. Inductive reactive power (Ind.) is represented by negative values of
Q DG p , whereas capacitive reactive power (Cap.) is represented by positive values of
Q DG p . V p,low and V p,high are lower and higher limits on voltage at bus p, respectively.
Vnom is the nominal bus voltage set at 1 pu. The optimization of (6) and (7) will give
the optimal set of reactive power output of all DGs such that the performance of
the network will produce minimum real power loss and voltage deviation. Particle
swarm optimization is used for the optimization [14].

4 Case Studies’ Simulation, Results, and Discussions

4.1 Medium Voltage (MV) Distribution Network

A typical 11 kV DN shown in Fig. 1 is modified in this work [15]. There are four
feeders of different load categories such as residential, commercial, and industrial.

Fig. 1 Typical MV distribution network

146 P. Bhatt et al.

Each segment of feeder is assumed to be of 1 km. Table 1 shows load categories

of feeder, type, location, and peak capacity of various installed DGs. Normalized
generation pattern for wind and solar generating units is shown in Fig. 2, whereas
Fig. 3 shows normalized profile of different load categories. Two-day profile for the
load and generation on feeders at half-hour interval is considered for analysis. The
power factor for residential, commercial, and industrial load is assumed to be 0.98,
0.95, and 0.90 lagging, respectively.

1
Wind
PV
Normalized wind and solar

0.8
Power Generation

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM

Fig. 2 Normalized power generation of wind and solar-based DGs

1
Residential
0.8 Industrial
Normalized Load Profile

Commercial

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
12 am 12 pm 12 am 12 pm 12 am

Fig. 3 Normalized load patterns

Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable … 147

1.06

1.05 Main Bus

F1 Bus-8
1.04
F2 Bus-10
1.03 F3 Bus-6
F4 Bus-9
Voltage, pu

1.02

1.01

1.00

0.99

0.98

0.97
12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am
Time

Fig. 4 Voltage profile without optimizing reactive power of DG

4.2 Performance of DN Without Optimizing Reactive Power

of DGs

In this work, the time series power flow analysis is carried out to assess the per-
formance of the DN corresponding to load–generation data discussed in Sect. 4.1.
The DGs are assumed to generate only active power depending on the availability of
wind and solar radiation at their respective locations. As DGs are assumed to operate
without reactive power generation capability, they are said to be operated with unity
power factor mode. Figure 4 shows the voltage profile of the end nodes in different
feeders for a given load–generation pattern over two days. The upper and lower limits
for bus voltage are set at 1.03 and 0.97 pu, respectively. It can be shown in Fig. 4 that
voltages of feeder 1 and feeder 4 stay within the limits, but the voltages of feeder
2 and feeder 3 violate the upper bus voltage limit. These overvoltage problems in
feeder 2 and feeder 3 put the restriction on further penetration of DG in DN.

4.3 Performance of DN with Optimizing Reactive Power

Capability of DGs

For this case study, reactive power output of DG as given in (2) is set as control
variable to optimize the performance of DN. The values of Q DG, p are constrained
by the variation of power factor of DG in a range between 0.9 (capacitive) and 0.9
(inductive). The simulation results of bus voltage profile with the minimization of (6)
and (7) are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively, after setting DGs in reactive power
148 P. Bhatt et al.

Main Bus F1 Bus-8 F2 Bus-10 F3 Bus-6 F4 Bus-9

1.04

1.03

1.02
Voltage, pu

1.01

1.00

0.99

0.98

0.97
12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am

Fig. 5 Optimized reactive power output of DGs: minimization of real power loss function

1.04

1.03

1.02
Voltage, pu

1.01

1.00

0.99 Main Bus

F1 Bus-8
F2 Bus-10
0.98 F3 Bus-6
F4 Bus-9
0.97
12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am

Fig. 6 Voltage profile with optimizing reactive power of DGs: minimization of VD function

optimization mode. The optimal settings of reactive power outputs for different DGs
to minimize (6) and (7) are also shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Figures 5 and 6
clearly depict the significance of operating DGs with optimized values of its reactive
power output. The optimal setting of reactive power output of DGs can successfully
bring the voltages of end nodes of all feeders very close to nominal values of 1 pu
and thus limits the voltage within statutory limit. Moreover, Figs. 7 and 8 show
that DGs are operating in its allowable range of reactive power set between 0.9
inductive/capacitive power factors to bring the voltage within the allowable range.
The simulation studies revealed that still more penetration of DGs can be allowed
Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable … 149

1
DG5

0 DG9

DG11
Q Output of DGs

-1
DG14

DG17
-2
DG22

-3 DG25

DG30

-4 DG33

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time

Fig. 7 Optimized reactive power output of DGs: minimization of voltage deviation function

5
DG5

DG9

DG11
Q Output of DGs

DG14

0 DG17

DG22

DG25

DG30

DG33
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time

Fig. 8 Optimized reactive power output of DGs: minimization of real power loss function

without violating any constraints on bus voltages if the reactive power output of DGs
is optimally determined.
The average voltage deviation index (AVDI) to measure the deviation of bus
voltage from its nominal value of 1 pu is given by (9). Figure 9 shows the variation
of AVDI as obtained from the simulation results during optimization of both objective
functions given by (6) and (7). It can be observed from Fig. 9 that AVDI is less for
all time segments when reactive power output of DGs is optimized with objective
function of voltage deviation as given in (7). In this case, the PSO will try to identify
the optimal reactive power set point of DGs to minimize average voltage deviation
of DN. The larger variations in reactive power set points of all DGs to minimize
average voltage deviations for this case can be clearly observed from Fig. 7.
150 P. Bhatt et al.

0.50
VD Min
P Loss Min
0.40

0.30
AVDI

0.20

0.10

0.00
12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am
Time

Fig. 9 Comparison of AVDI for two different objective functions


N
AVDI = abs(Vnom − Vi ) (9)
i=1

Figure 10 has shown that real power losses are less when it is subjected to opti-
mization problem of real power loss minimization of (6) as compared to the objective
function set in (7). To achieve minimum loss in DN, the reactive power set points
need to be changed in narrow ranges as can be shown in Fig. 8. Hence, clear obser-

0.90
VD Min
0.80
Ploss Min
0.70
Real Power Loss (pu)

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am
Time

Fig. 10 Comparison of real power loss for two different objective functions
Optimal Utilization of Reactive Power Capability of Renewable … 151

vation can be drawn from Figs. 9 and 10 that the reactive power capability of DGs
can have greater impact on voltage control rather than loss minimization.

5 Conclusion

The impact of increasing penetration of DGs on the performance of DN has been

evaluated in relation to voltage deviation and real power losses. Time series power
flow optimization has been presented considering practical renewable power gener-
ation from renewable energy sources such as wind and solar and load variations over
a time period of two weekdays. The increasing penetration of DGs without reactive
power generation capability has resulted in bus voltage violation beyond allowable
limits. The optimized reactive power support from DGs can successfully control
the bus voltage violations. The capability of DGs in both inductive and capacitive
modes helps the network operator to control problem of overvoltage and under-
voltage, respectively. The overvoltage is proportional to DG penetration, and more
reactive power support is required to limit this overvoltage. The DGs are not always
capable enough to supply this required amount of reactive power; hence, network
operator has to rely on other alternate solution to control voltage in such situation.

Acknowledgements This work is a part of “Industry-Academia Collaborative Project to Address

System Wide Impacts of Renewable Energy Sources in Engineering Program” approved by Royal
Academy of Engineering for industry-academia project under Newton Bhabha Fund with grant
reference IAPP(I) \19.

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Voltage Control of Wind
and Diesel-Based Distributed Generating
System Using PSO and CSA

Pankita Mehta, Praghnesh Bhatt and Vivek Pandya

Abstract The power sector worldwide promotes more penetration of distributed

generation (DG) at distribution network (DN) as a cost-effective solution to supply
ever increasing power demand. DG is one of the promising solutions to supply smaller
isolated system where diesel- and wind-based generating units operate in parallel
to achieve greater reliability. In this work, transient performance of such hybrid
power system has been analyzed using its state-space model in the event of reactive
power load perturbations. The performances of three types of static var compensators
(SVC) are compared to ascertain their capabilities to quickly damp out the terminal
voltage deviations. Two evolutionary optimization techniques, namely cuckoo search
algorithm (CSA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), are presented for the tuning
of SVCs controller gains. It is revealed that gains tuned with CSA and PSO present
significant improvement in the dynamic behavior of the system as compared to
conventional optimization technique.

1 Introduction

The demand for electricity is tremendously increasing due to urbanization, indus-

trialization, and rise in per capita consumption. The security of power generation
resources, environmental sustainability, and challenges for interconnected power
system operations are the key factors that force the system operators to contribute to
integrate DG in power system. Hence, several countries worldwide have been pro-
moting gradual and steady penetration of DGs [1]. DGs employ small-size generating
units ranging from few kW to 10 MW with advanced technological solutions. DG
system may have wind-, solar-, micro hydro- or diesel-based generating units. The

P. Mehta
Government Polytechnic for Girls, Navarangpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
P. Bhatt (B) · V. Pandya
Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum
University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 153

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_14
154 P. Mehta et al.

system reliability can be increased by operating the system with the combination of
these generating units which is regarded as hybrid power system. However, operation
of such hybrid power system imposes the greatest challenges as several variations
in frequency and voltage are observed in the system due to continuous and random
changes in active and reactive power loads [2]. The voltage–frequency control of iso-
lated power system with Neuro-Fuzzy control is presented in [3]. In [4], frequency
control of DG had been presented in presence of different conventional and emerging
energy generating sources. In [5] reactive power flow, equations are derived for wind-
diesel hybrid power system to obtain optimal voltage regulation by minimizing the
system gain parameters with integral square error (ISE) criterion. The voltage control
of isolated hybrid system has been addressed in [6, 7] where wind generating unit
employs permanent magnet induction generator, and STATCOM provides reactive
power compensation. In [7], permanent magnet synchronous generator is modeled
for diesel-based generating unit. The literature review reveals that the voltage control
of isolated power system relies on the gain tuning by ISE criterion to obtain opti-
mal voltage control. The application of evolutionary optimization techniques is still
unexplored; hence in this paper, an attempt is made to tune the gains of SVC con-
troller with CSA and PSO for transient performance improvement of isolated power
system. CSA based on breeding behavior of cuckoo is a powerful optimization tool
for solving complex and highly constrained optimization problem [8, 9].
The use of CSA for determining optimal location and size of DG is reported in
[10]. CSA is also successfully applied to optimize non-convex ED problem [11]
and for optimal placement of capacitor in distribution network [12]. In [10–12],
CSA is applied for the minimization of static power flow problem. The use of CSA
is reported in [13]to tune PI controller gains in time domain simulation for Load
Frequency Control.

2 Voltage Control of Isolated Power System

An isolated power system consisting of two different power generating sources such
as conventional diesel unit with synchronous generator (SG) and renewable wind
power generators with squirrel-cage induction generator (SQIG) is shown in Fig. 1.
The operation of SQIG demands reactive power from the system for its operation.
Hence, for such a small system, SG is only the source of reactive power which com-
pensates demand of reactive power for both SQIG and load. In case of heavy reactive
power demand, sole contribution of reactive power from SG may not be capable
and the system has to rely on other reactive power generating device. In this work,
static var compensator (SVC) is proposed to be connected at a common terminal of
generator and load as shown in Fig. 1. The role of SVC is to quickly compensate
the unbalance of reactive power demand in the system. The linearized model of the
system shown in Fig. 1 is developed in [5] to study voltage control problem under
different disturbance of reactive power. Figure 2 shows the transfer function repre-
sentation of such isolated system, considering connection of synchronous generator,
Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed … 155

V ∠δ

Pig
Wind Induction
Gear Box
Generator
Qig
Turbine
PL
Blades
LOAD
SVC
QL
QSVC

Psg
Synchronous
Fuel Generator
Qsg

Fig. 1 Representation of wind–diesel-based isolated hybrid power system

SQIG, SVC, and load at PCC. In [5], the gains of SVC controller have been opti-
mized with the use of classical Lyapunov optimization technique to obtain optimal
transient response of voltage deviation. In this work, an objective is to improve the
transient response of voltage deviation by optimizing the parameters of SVC with
the use of PSO and recently developed CSA.

3 State-Space Representation of Wind–Diesel-Based

Hybrid Power System

The state-space equations for the system are shown in Fig. 2 given in (1), and the
state, input and disturbance vectors are given in (2).

ẋ = Ax + Bu + C (1)

 T
x = E f d Va V f E q Bsvc Bsvc

α V ⇐ State vector for SVC Type 1
u = [Vref ] ⇐ Input vector
 = [Q L ] ⇐ Disturbance vector (2)

Figure 3 shows the different configuration of SVC where the controller structures
differ from each other. The objective of this work is to optimize the gains of SVC
controller for its different configuration with the use of CSA and PSO to significantly
156 P. Mehta et al.

SVCTypeI

Δ Vref + KR Kα 1
1+sT R 1+sT α 1+sT d K9
- ΔPIG
- +
ΔV Kv + ΔQSVC
1+sT v
- + +
ΔQIG ΔQSG
K5
K8

ΔEq +
1 + K4
K3
1+sT G

K2 K1
+ +
sK F SF
1+sT FF
ΔE fd

- - -
KA 1
1+sT A + K E + sTE
Δ V ref +
Fig. 2 Isolated power system with wind-diesel-SVC—transfer function representation

improve its contribution for voltage control problem. The states given in state vector
(2) are corresponding to Type 1 configuration of SVC as shown in Fig. 3. The state
vector gets modified as per (3) for Type 2 and Type 3 SVC configuration.
 T
x = E f d Va V f E q Bsvc Bsvc

α2 α1 V ⇐ SVC Type 2
 T
x = E f d Va V f E q Bsvc Bsvc

α  V ⇐ SVC Type 3 (3)

The parameters to be optimized in this work vary according to the choice of

controller in SVC and they are [K R TR ] for SVC Type 1, [K R T1 T2 T3 T4 ] for SVC
Type 2, and [K Psvc K I svc ] for SVC Type 3. Upon application of disturbance in reactive
power load, the terminal voltage at the PCC along with other states given in (2)–(3)
undergoes transient changes. Here, in this work, minimization of terminal voltage
deviation is proposed as objective function and given in (4).
Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed … 157

ΔV ( s )
Regulator Phase sequence dealay
Thyristor firing delay
-
ΔVref ( s ) + KR Δα ( s )
Kα ΔBSVC ( s )
'
ΔBSVC (s) 1 Type − I
1+s TR 1+s Tα 1+s Td

ΔV ( s )
Lead − Lag Thyristor firing delay Phase sequence dealay
ΔVref ( s ) -
+ (1+s T1 ) (1+s T2 ) Δα ( s )
Kα
'
ΔBSVC (s) 1 ΔBSVC ( s )
KR
(1+s T3 ) (1+s T4 ) 1+s Tα 1+s Td

Type − II
ΔV ( s )
Regulator Thyristor firing delay Phase sequence dealay
-
ΔVref ( s ) + Δα ( s )
Kα ΔBSVC ( s )
'
K ΔBSVC (s) 1 Type − III
KP + I
s 1+s Tα 1+s Td

Fig. 3 Configuration of different SVC types


N
 
minimize V (n)2 t (4)
n=0

where V = deviation in terminal voltage; N = total samples taken from transient

voltage responses, and t = time interval between two samples. The objective func-
tion (4) is minimized with CSA and PSO for three different configurations of SVC
by selecting their gains of controller as control variables.

4 Evolutionary Optimization Techniques

In this paper, CSA and PSO under categories of evolutionary optimization techniques
are used to obtain optimal transient response of the test system shown in Fig. 2 under
reactive power load perturbation.

4.1 Cuckoo Search Algorithm

Yang and Deb have proposed cuckoo search algorithm, [8, 9] which is based on
obligate brood parasitism of some cuckoo species. Cuckoos use the nest of other host
birds to lay their eggs. There are the cases where host bird recognize the cuckoo’s
eggs, then either it may throw away them or leave the nest for searching a new
space for nest building. In case of CSA, each egg in a nest represents a solution
and a cuckoo egg represents a new solution. CSA searches for new and promising
158 P. Mehta et al.

Table 1 Steps followed for cuckoo search algorithm

Step 1 Define nests/solutions; n = 40; define upper and lower bound for control variables;
initialized random generation of control variables for each nest; define probability of
discovery rate for alien eggs; Pa = 0.25
Step 2 Evaluation of fitness function for each nest with initial generation of control variable;
sort fitness values and select the best solution from them with minimum value
Step 3 Start iteration count
Step 4 Use Levy flight to generate new solutions; but keep the current best solution
Step 5 With newly generated solutions in Step (4), find fitness value of objective function;
sort the solution to find best one
Step 6 Discard the nest/solution which has inferior solution with probability Pa , and generate
new nests/solutions
Step 7 Again evaluate the fitness value and keep the best nest for the next iteration
Step 8 Switch to Step 4
Step 9 Stopping criteria: maximum iteration

solutions to replace inferior solution in the nests. Table 1 outlines the steps followed
for CSA for obtaining optimized solution.

4.2 Particle Swarm Optimization

PSO was proposed by Eberhart and Kennedy in [14], and has been widely reported in
literature for handling constrained optimization problems due to its superiority over
other evolutionary techniques. It relies on simple computational steps and requires
less memory and shorter solution time. The PSO equations modified with constriction
factor approach is followed from [15] and explained in brief. The velocity and position
update are as per (5) and (6), respectively.
   
p+1 p p p
vj = CF × v j + c1 × r1 × pbest, j − x j + c2 × r2 × gbest, j − x j (5)

p+1 p p+1
xj = xj + vj (6)

2×K
CF =    , ϕ = ϕ1 + ϕ2 , ϕ1 = ϕ2 = 2.05, K = 1 (7)
 
2 − ϕ − ϕ 2 − 4ϕ 

c1 = CF × ϕ1 and c2 = CF × ϕ2 (8)
p
where v j = velocity of jth particle at iteration p; r1 and r2 are random numbers in
p
range of 0–1; x j = position of jth particle at iteration p; c1 and c2 are acceleration
Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed … 159

Table 2 Steps for PSO

Step 1 Initialize the population of particles. Initialize the bounds for control variables
Initialize the positions and velocity of particles
Initialize minimum and maximum velocity of particles
Step 2 Evaluate the fitness function with initially randomly generated population; identify the
best particle; initially, pbest and gbest particles are same
Step 3 Set iteration count
Step 4 Update the velocity of particle using (5) and position of particle by (6)
Step 5 Evaluate the fitness function with the use of a new position of particles
Step 6 Update pbest and gbest and store the best cost of fitness function
Step 7 Go to Step 3
Step 8 Stopping criteria: maximum iteration

co-efficient; pbest, j and gbest, j are personal and global best of particle. Steps for PSO
are listed in Table 2.

5 Simulation Results and Discussions

In this work, transient performance of the system shown in Fig. 1 has been analyzed
when it is subjected to reactive power load disturbance. Transient responses of states
for the system shown in Fig. 1 can be obtained by representing it in form of transfer
function block as shown in Fig. 2 [5]. The parameters in Fig. 2 are given in Appendix.
The optimal tuning for the gains of SVC controller connected at common point of
generator and load plays a vital role to restore the terminal voltage deviations as
quickly as possible. Different case studies have been presented to identify the best
controller structure for SVC in order to have optimal transient response. The step
disturbance of 2% in reactive power load is applied at t = 0.0 s. The optimized gains
of SVC controller are obtained with CSA and PSO by minimizing the function given
in (4) and listed in Table 3.
The controller structure of SVC changes the system state matrix. For SVC Type
1 and 3, the size of system state matrix is (8,8) whereas for SVC Type 2, the size
is (9,9). The other objective of the work is to compare the capabilities of different
SVCs to damp out the terminal voltage deviation.
Figure 4 shows the dynamic responses of deviations in voltage and reactive power
generations from synchronous generator, induction generators, and SVC. In Fig. 4,
the responses are compared with the parameters optimized by CSA, PSO, and as
given in [5]. The comparative responses clearly reveal that the parameters optimized
with CSA have resulted in optimal transient response with the least undershoot,
overshoot and settling time. From Fig. 4, it is also noticed that results obtained with
PSO are better as compared to that of conventional optimization technique in [5].
The reactive power load disturbance deviates the terminal voltage. To suppress this
160 P. Mehta et al.

Table 3 Optimized gains for

Type I Type II Type III
SVCs
Optimized parameters obtained with CSA
K R = 501.85 K R = 6700 K PSVC = 370.37
TR = 0.1 T1 = T2 = 0.784 K ISVC = 25,642
T3 = T4 = 3.682
Optimized parameters obtained with PSO
K R = 628 K R = 7400 K PSVC = 592.69
TR = 0.1 T1 = T2 = 0.9 K ISVC = 15,576
T3 = T4 = 3.8
Optimized parameters [5]
K R = 575 K R = 6445 K PSVC = 550
TR = 0.05 T1 = T2 = 1.15 K ISVC = 22,500
T3 = T4 = 4

-3 -4
x 10 x 10

1 1
Detla Q IG

0 0
Detlta V

Ref [5]
-1 PSO -1
CSA
-2 -2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

0.01 0.08
Detla Q SVC

0.005 0.06
Detla Q SG

0.04
0
0.02
-0.005
0
-0.01
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Fig. 4 Comparative dynamic responses obtained with SVC type 1

deviation, synchronous generator, induction generator, and SVC will compensate for
the additional reactive power demand in transient state. In steady state, the deviations
in reactive power generation by synchronous generators and induction generators
have restored back to original point and reactive power load demand is supplied only
by SVC. Thus, the choice of SVC controller structure is important in the voltage
control problem.
Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed … 161

To ascertain the best type of SVC for optimal voltage control, the performances
of other two types of SVCs shown in Fig. 3 are assessed. Figures 5 and 6 show the
transient responses obtained with SVC Type 2 and Type 3, respectively. It is clearly
noticed from the Figs. 5 and 6 that SVC type 2 and type 3 are very quick to damp out
the deviations in voltage as compared to SVC type 1. Also, the peak overshoot in all
the parameters is greatly reduced and settings are very fast which imposes less stress
over synchronous generator and induction generator. In these cases also, the reactive
power generations from synchronous generators and induction generators settle to
zero at the faster rate compared to SVC type 1. The results obtained with CSA and
PSO have been proved to be superior for both cases as compared to conventional
optimization technique.
Figure 7 shows the comparative transient responses for three types of SVCs
in order to identify their effectiveness for voltage control. As CSA gives optimal
responses, only the results obtained with CSA are compared. Figure 7 shows that
SVC type 1 takes longer time to damp out the oscillations. SVC type 2 and SVC type
3 give nearly similar results, but close look in Fig. 7 indicates that SVC 2 is unable
to eliminate the steady state error in voltage deviations, and a small steady state
error persists always. The integral control of SVC type 3 can successfully eliminate
the steady state error, and terminal voltage has restored back to nominal value after
having been subjected to reactive power load perturbation. It can be clearly observed

-3 -4
x 10 x 10
1 1

0.5
0
Delta Q IG
Delta V

-0.5 Ref [5]

PSO
-1
-1 CSA

-1.5 -2
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)
-3
x 10
0.01 6

0.005 4
Delta Q SVC
Delta Q SG

0 2

-0.005 0

-0.01 -2
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Fig. 5 Comparative dynamic responses obtained with SVC type 2

162 P. Mehta et al.

-3 -4
x 10 x 10
1
1
0.5

Delta Q IG
0
Delta V

-0.5 Ref [5]

PSO -1
-1 CSA

-1.5 -2
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

0.01 0.03

0.005 0.02

Delta Q SVC
Delta Q SG

0 0.01

-0.005 0

-0.01 -0.01
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Fig. 6 Comparative dynamic responses obtained with SVC type 3

-3 -4
x 10 x 10
1 2

0.5
1
Delta Q IG
Delta V

0
0
-0.5
SVC 1
SVC 2 -1
-1
SVC 3

-1.5 -2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)
-3
x 10
10 0.04

0.03
Delta Q SVC
Delta Q SG

5
0.02

0.01
0
0

-5 -0.01
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Fig. 7 Comparative transient responses for all SVCs

Voltage Control of Wind and Diesel-Based Distributed … 163

from Figs. 4, 5 and 6 that evolutionary optimization techniques, CSA, and PSO, can
successfully search the more promising solutions irrespective of the types of SVCs.

6 Conclusion

The state-space model of isolated wind-diesel power system for distributed genera-
tion has been analyzed for optimal voltage control. SVCs at the terminal of the system
are the effective solution to compensate the reactive power load perturbations. The
gains of SVCs optimized with CSA and PSO yield the best transient responses. Out of
three types of SVCs, SVC type 1 shows several oscillations before reaching to steady
state value, hence it is not preferred for the voltage control problem. On the other
hand, SVC type 3 can quickly suppress the deviations in all states and eliminates the
steady state errors in voltage deviation.

Appendix

K 1 = 0.15 TF F = 0.715 Td = 0.02 12 s

K 2 = 0.7932 TE = 0.55 s K V = 0.6667
K 3 = 6.22143 K E = 1.0 TV = 0.000106
K 4 = −7.35 K A = 40.0 K F = 0.5
K 5 = 0.126 T A = 0.05 TG = 0.75
K 8 = 1.478 K α = 0.4464
K9 = 1 Tα = 0.02 4 s

Parameters for CSA

Number of nests = 40; Iterations = 200; Pa = 0.25; L = 1;
Parameters for PSO
Populations = 100; Iterations = 200; c1 = 1.2; c2 = 1.2; CF = 0.85.

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Harmonic Current Signal
Injection-Based Grid Impedance
Measurement Technique for Active
Harmonic Filter

Bhargav Nashikkar, Rajendrasinh Jadeja, Vinod Patel,

Tapankumar Trivedi and Uvesh Sipai

Abstract At present, the main issue faced in practical application of active harmonic
filter with LCL filter is the protection of AHF due to the resonance condition which is
attained unintentionally in the process of removing harmonic and improving power
quality. At resonance condition, voltage or current magnification takes place which
results in failure of components connected in active harmonic filters. In addition to
this, voltage fluctuation occurs for parallel-connected appliances, which results in
poor power quality and makes system less reliable. In this work, a noninvasive signal
injection method known as harmonic current signal injection method is implemented.
The method determines grid impedance in order to avoid resonance conditions in
the AHF application. The method uses the existing setup of AHF for measurement
of impedance of the grid, thus eliminating the need of additional hardware for de-
termination of impedance. This method is simulated in PSIM and validated under
different values of grid impedance.

1 Introduction

In recent years, due to the advancement in the application of power semiconductor

devices, many technical problems have been solved, and at the same time devices
have been proven to be efficient as well as economical. These devices are responsible
for many power quality issues including deterioration of current waveform, system
stability, and resonance leading to serious impact on the utility and users.

B. Nashikkar · R. Jadeja · T. Trivedi (B) · U. Sipai

Electrical Engineering Department, Marwadi Education Foundation
Group of Institutions, Rajkot, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Jadeja
e-mail: [email protected]
V. Patel
Amtech Electronics Ltd., Gandhinagar, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 165

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_15
166 B. Nashikkar et al.

The active harmonic filters (AHF) are employed as a solution which removes the
harmonics in the system by compensation and provides the feature of reactive power
compensation and current balancing in three phases [1]. Intrinsic electric line parame-
ters like transformer and generator output impedance are responsible for continuous
variation of grid impedance. Due to this varying grid impedance resonance along
with higher-order (LCL) filter of AHF, the issue of resonance is faced by the AHF.
In addition to this, impedance measurement is an essential requirement in order to
maintain stability of grid-connected renewable energy resources [5, 12] such as PV
and wind energy conversion systems. Hence, obtaining the continuously varying grid
impedance becomes the necessity of system to determine the frequency at which the
resonant condition is attained by AHF [4]. The conventional grid impedance mea-
surement technique requires physical apparatus for impedance measurement and
they also have limitation of accuracy and cannot measure small variations in the grid
impedance and be connected all the time into the system [6, 7].
Conventionally, active damping methods [14] are applied in grid-connected con-
verters applications to avoid resonance condition which assumes predetermined grid
impedance for elimination of resonant frequency. The grid impedance is obtained
using different methods of grid impedance measurement [11]. These methods are
categorized into active [10, 13], passive [3], quasi-passive [2] methods. Passive meth-
ods use existing voltage and current harmonics in the system to estimate impedance
[3]. A major drawback of the passive methods is that the existing power system
disturbances may not be strong enough that can be used for measurement [9, 13].
These disturbances neither have amplitude nor the repetition rate to be properly mea-
sured, and thus the method fails for accurate estimation of the grid impedance. The
active methods require a deliberate disturbance of the grid followed by acquisition
and signal processing in order to extract the information needed to estimate the grid
equivalent impedance [2]. The quasi-passive method uses hybrid identification tech-
nique, i.e., the advantages of non-intrusive advantage of passive method and accuracy
of active method. Passive and quasi-passive methods have been proven less accurate
as it measures impedance using existing disturbances in the system [2].
The present work uses active method for grid impedance measurement based on
variation of voltage and currents at PCC. The main advantages of this method are that
it can measure varying grid impedance accurately and does not require any external
hardware circuit for impedance measurement or signal injection since the existing
AHF is used to determine the frequency with minimum algorithm modifications. In
addition to this, the method can be used for online grid impedance as required during
the operation of AHF, thus making the product more reliable.
The paper is organized as follows: The harmonic current signal injected method
for determination of grid impedance is discussed in Sect. 2. Calculation of grid
impedance using the method is demonstrated in Sect. 3. Simulation results validate
the proposed method and is further elaborated in Sect. 4.
Harmonic Current Signal Injection-Based Grid Impedance Measurement … 167

2 Harmonic Current Signal Injection Method for Grid

Impedance Measurement

The method implemented in this work deliberately injects two known disturbances
into the system in order to obtain the two operating points required in algorithm to
ordain the grid impedance and subsequently the resonant frequency. For this injection,
inherent feature of active harmonic filter is used [8]. Figure 1 shows system block
diagram of AHF connected at point of common coupling (PCC). The algorithm for
grid impedance measurement is the part of control algorithm of active harmonic
filter. The variation in DC-link active power P causes active current i at the PCC
[13]. Due to active current variation, the grid voltage variations are observed at PCC
(vpcc ).
Accordingly, the equation for two measurements done at point of common cou-
pling in term of voltage can be written as:

vpcc1 = vs1 + Zg ∗ ipcc1 (1)

vpcc2 = vs2 + Zg ∗ ipcc2 (2)

Lsa
Vsa PCC Ila
Lsb
Vsb Ilb NONLINEAR
GRID Lsc
Vsc Ilc LOAD

Ifa Ifb Ifc

LCL
FILTER
L L
C

ACTIVE HARMONIC
FILTER INVERTER

Fig. 1 System block diagram of active harmonic filter

168 B. Nashikkar et al.

and by the complex division of voltage and current the grid impedance can be equation
can be written as:
vpcc ∠1
Zg = (3)
ipcc ∠2

where 1 is angle of grid voltage variation and 2 is angle of active current ripple

vpcc ∠θ = vpcc1 ∠θ1 − vpcc2 ∠θ2 (4)

ipcc ∠θ = ipcc1 ∠θ1 − ipcc2 ∠θ2 (5)

are variations in voltage and currents at point of common coupling. These equations
vpcc and ipcc are valid only if grid impedance Zg and source grid voltage Vs are
constant, and do not vary during the two samples of measurements.

2.1 Controlling of AHF for Impedance Measurement

The impedance measurement algorithm is a part of the control algorithm of AHF.

Thus, the control diagram for grid impedance measurement has been shown in Fig. 2.
The signal injection for impedance measurement is initiated by triggering signal
injection controller of AHF. The response of injected signal is recorded for voltage
and currents denoted by Vpcc1,2 and Ipcc1,2 , respectively. This signal injection is done
at two different harmonic frequencies. The main purpose of injection of current at
two different harmonic frequencies is to eliminate the common noises existing in
the measurement of voltages and currents, and thus, two impedances at different
frequencies will be useful in estimation the values of L, C, and Fr .

2.2 Grid Impedance Measurement Algorithm

In this algorithm, signal injection is done at two different harmonic frequencies X

and Y , respectively. At X harmonic frequency, two different magnitudes of currents
are injected same as the case at Y harmonic frequency. The impedance Zg is obtained
using fast Fourier transform (FFT). Here FFT is applied to obtain the impedance in
Z∠θ, i.e., impedance with its magnitude Z and angle θ. As a result, two different
impedances are obtained as follows:

ZX ∠θX at X Harmonic Frequency

ZY ∠θY at Y Harmonic Frequency

The grid impedance measurement algorithm is shown in Fig. 3.

Harmonic Current Signal Injection-Based Grid Impedance Measurement … 169

3 Calculations of Inductance, Capacitance and Resonant

Frequency

The resonant frequency of the grid is defined as

1
Fr = √ (6)
2π L ∗ C

The data to be verified after simulation is R = 5 m; L = 1000 µH; C = 500 µF; Fr =
225.0790
F1 = 250 Hz; Z1 = 0.00499 + j0.2969 (7)

F2 = 350 Hz; Z2 = 0.00502 + j1.28967 (8)

Here F1 and F2 are the X and Y harmonic frequencies at which signal injection is
done. The values of L and C depend on the imaginary part of the impedance obtained
in rectangular form, so imaginary part of both impedances Z1 and Z2 are used for the
calculation.
Calculation at frequency F1 = 250 Hz

F1 = 250 Hz; X1 = 0.2969 (9)

Assuming the net reactance of the line to be X1

X1 = XL − XC (10)

Fig. 2 Control diagram for grid impedance measurement Algorithm

170 B. Nashikkar et al.

1
∴ 0.2969 = 2πfL − (11)
2πfC

∴ 2πfC ∗ 0.2969 = (2πf )2 L ∗ C − 1 (12)

∴ 1.8901 ∗ 10−4 ∗ C + 405.284 ∗ 10−9 = L ∗ C (13)

Now calculating at frequency F2 =350 Hz

F2 = 350 Hz; X2 = 1.28967 (14)

X2 = XL − XC (15)

Fig. 3 Grid impedance

measurement algorithm
Harmonic Current Signal Injection-Based Grid Impedance Measurement … 171

Table 1 Comparison between theoretically calculated and simulated Fr

Theoretically calculated Simulated and obtained
Fr = 225.079 Fr = 225.18933
L = 1000 µH L = 999.889 µH
C = 500 µF C = 499.556 µF

1
∴ 1.2896 = 2πfL − (16)
2πfC

∴ 2πfC ∗ 1.2896 = (2πf )2 L ∗ C − 1 (17)

∴ 5.8637 ∗ 10−4 ∗ C + 206.777 ∗ 10−9 = L ∗ C (18)

by solving equations (13) and (18) the values of L and C and subsequently Fr is
obtained (Table 1).

4 Simulation Results and Discussion

In Table 2, parameters used in simulation of grid impedance measurement technique

for three-phase active harmonic filter are listed. In PSIM environment, the AHF sys-
tem is implemented as controlled current source which injects desired magnitude of
current into the grid. The grid impedance is calculated using the algorithm explained
in previous sections.
In the above results, Fig. 4 shows the filter current that is injected into the system
at two different magnitudes, i.e., 50 and 100%, respectively. It can be observed from
Fig. 4a, b that the theoretically calculated Zg = 0.03141∠89.55 and simulated Zg =
0.03178∠89.81 are approximately same. Table 3 shows the comparison between
theoretically calculated impedance and simulated impedance and the percentage error
between them. It can be observed that the impedance obtained has error percentage
of even less than 0.4% (Fig. 5).

Table 2 Parameters used for simulation

System voltage 230 V
System frequency 50 Hz
Injection frequency 250 Hz
Grid impedance (Rs , Ls ) R = 0.1 m, L = 20 µH
Calculated grid impedance Zg = 0.03141 ∠89.55
Simulated grid impedance Zg = 0.03178 ∠89.81
172 B. Nashikkar et al.

(a) (b)

Fig. 4 Simulation result of grid impedance (Zg ), a magnitude in Ohm and b angle in degree

Fig. 5 Simulation results of filter current If and impedance plotting at injected harmonic frequencies

Table 3 Theoretically calculated and simulated value of grid impedance

Injection frequency Calculated Zg () Simulated Zg () Error (%)
(Hz)
250 0.03497 0.031416 0.35
350 0.043382 0.043982 0.06
550 0.070189 0.069115 0.10
650 0.080123 0.081681 0.15
850 0.107157 0.106914 0.02
950 0.118568 0.119380 0.08

5 Conclusion

In this work, a noninvasive grid impedance measurement method based on harmonic

current signal injection is implemented for the active harmonic filter. In compari-
son with the conventional methods which require dedicated hardware, the presented
method uses the existing setup of AHF for grid impedance estimation. The mea-
sured value of grid impedance can be incorporated in the algorithm of AHF so that
resonance condition which arises due to the injection of particular harmonic can be
avoided. The proposed method is simulated for different grid conditions, and error
of measurement is found to be <0.4%. The obtained grid impedance is also useful
in detection of the islanding condition of PV inverters in the grid.
Harmonic Current Signal Injection-Based Grid Impedance Measurement … 173

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Experimental Investigation
of Dehumidifier Hybrid Air Conditioner
Integrated Zeotropic Refrigerant Blend
R-407C Air Source Water Heat Pump

Juned R. Kazi and Neeraj Agrawal

Abstract Air gets heated while passing through the desiccant wheel in a hybrid air
conditioning system and needs to be cooled before passing to cooling coil. This hot
air can be an effective heat source for the air source heat pump to heat the water.
The present work includes experimental investigation of the dehumidifier integrated
hybrid R-407C air source water heat pump under different air temperature to achieve
hot water. The results exhibit that heating capacity increases by 15% by increasing
the air-source temperature from 30 to 45 °C. End loop COP of the system is reduced
by 25%.

1 Introduction

In the present scenario, optimum use of energy is one of the core issues in the
world to enable sustainable development and to tackle the issues such as global
warming, the depletion of conventional energy sources like fossil fuels, etc. [1].
Heat pump is one of the proven technologies specifically for heating applications
which provides economic and efficient solution which results in reduction of fossil
fuel consumption [2]. Heat pump water heaters (HPWHs) are the energy effective
solution that operates on the vapor compression cycle where low-grade heat is used
for heating by increasing its energy [3].
In the view of finding suitable alternatives for CFCs and HCFCs due to two menace
ozone depletion and global warming, natural refrigerants (hydrocarbons, ammonia,
and CO2 ) are revived [4]. Blending of the refrigerant is one of the ways to find the
suitable alternatives and drop-in substitutes. Zeotropic mixtures have been widely
used in heat pump applications due to their superiority over the pure refrigerants.
Various types of zeotropic mixtures have been suggested for heat pumps applications.
R22 is the most preferred refrigerant in heat pump applications, however, will be
phased out in the near future. R134a, R404A, and R407C are some of the suitable

J. R. Kazi · N. Agrawal (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. A. Technological University, Lonere, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 175

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
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176 J. R. Kazi and N. Agrawal

substitutes for heat pump applications. R407C is one of the good substitutes of R22
due to its nearly matching thermodynamic properties with R22. R407 C is a zeotrope
of R32/R125/R134a (23%/25%/52% by weight) with a temperature glide of about
5 °C.
Cakir et al. [2] have carried out the experimental studies on the heat pump sys-
tem and compared energetic and energetic performance under different operation
conditions, air to air, air to water, water to water and water to air. It is reported that
water to air offers maximum COP (3.94) followed by water to water with COP as
3.73 and air to air with as 3.54 and air to water with COP as 3.40. Zhang et al. [5]
studied the system optimization of air source heat pump water heater (ASHPWH).
MacArthur and Grald [6] carried out theoretical studies of a vapor compression heat
pump. Steady-state simulation model of a water heater integrated small split air con-
ditioner is done by Techarungpaisan et al. [7]. Ji et al. [8] integrated heat pump and
conventional air conditioner and presented work on multi-functional domestic heat
pump (MDHP) for moderate climate areas. It is reported that integration improves
the efficiency (average of COP and EER as 3.5) with air conditioning and heating
simultaneously. Mei et al. [9] studied HPWHs and demonstrated that the HPWHs
are the feasible substitute for electric resistance heating. Experimental and system
simulation studies of the heat pump are carried out by Guo et al. [10]. It is shown that
the average COP is ranged from 2.82 to 5.51 with the water setting temperatures as
46 °C in summer and 50 °C in other seasons. The outside area ratio of condenser coil
to evaporator was taken as 0.14–0.31 with the evaporator outside area as in between
6.0 and 6.5 m2 .
Laipradit et al. [11] theoretically investigated the heat pump water heater using
CO2 as the refrigerant and observed the COP in the range of 2–3 with rated capacities
of 4 kW compressor, 10 kW condenser, and a 6 kW evaporator. Performance char-
acteristics of an air-source heat pump using refrigerants R22 and R407C are studied
by Zhiqiang et al. [12] under dynamic conditions during frosting and defrosting. It is
observed that both the systems exhibit similar performance; however, R407C system
performed poorly in comparison to R22 system under frosting. It is demonstrated
that R407C refrigerant can be used in the existing R22 systems. Zali et al. [13] stud-
ied heat pumps with R22 and R407C refrigerants using artificial neural network.
The results show that decreasing evaporator temperature brings R407C performance
closer to R22. It is concluded that R407C can be a suitable alternative for R22 in low-
temperature applications. Neksa [14] carried out experimental work on transcritical
CO2 water heat pump system to heat the tap water by 50 °C with an evaporation
temperature of 0 °C and observed the heating COP as 4.3. Xiaoyan [15] carried out
theoretical analysis of heat pump with refrigerant R417A and concluded that heat
pump with R417A performs better than R22 heat pump system.
In the present work, experimental studies are conducted on an R407C air-water
heat pump system which is integrated with dehumidifier-assisted air conditioner to
recover the regeneration heat of dehumidifier for water heating in heat pump.
Experimental Investigation of Dehumidifier Hybrid Air … 177

2 Experimental Setup

An in-house experimental setup of air source heat pump (ASHP) for water heating
applications is built up as shown in Fig. 1. Scroll compressor (Emerson ZR 22) is
used for compression the refrigerant R407C while plate heat exchanger of 14 plates
with 0.48 m2 heat transfer area is used as condenser as shown in Fig. 1. Fin type split
evaporators with two rows of tubes in each section are used to enhance heat transfer
(Fig. 1). A close-loop water system is used to heat the water through 500 L capacity
tank. The said experimental set up also facilitates the recovery of regeneration heat
of the dehumidifier as illustrated in Fig. 1.
The controller is used to control the water temperature in the tank which puts off
the system once the desired temperature is achieved. Forced draft is used to blast
the air over the evaporator surface to surrender its heat to the flowing refrigerant in
evaporator.
A centrifugal pump is used to circulate water in the close loop via plate heat
exchanger. Water flow rate is measured using rotameter. Power consumption is mea-
sured by a three-phase energy meter. Specifications of the measuring instruments
used for experimentation is given in Table 1.

2.1 Data Reduction

The heat pump cycle and corresponding P–h diagram are illustrated in Figs. 2 and
3, respectively.
In every loop water gets heated up which results in continuous increase of con-
denser pressure as shown in P–h diagram, the shifting of the cycle from 1–2–3–4 to
1 –2 –3 –4.

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of experimental setup

178 J. R. Kazi and N. Agrawal

Table 1 Specifications of measuring instruments

Components Parameters Specifications
Energy meter Make L&T
Model No. SWS 1.3
Class 1.0
Connection 3 phase 4 wire
Voltage 3 × 240 V
Current 10–60 A
Type kWh meter
Measurement kWh/power
factor/frequency/voltage/current
Temperature indicator Make Yog Electro Process Pvt. Ltd.
Type Multichannel indicator
Range −50 to +150 °C
Input T-type thermocouple wires
Supply 230 V
Accuracy ±1 °C
Pressure gauge Make Baummer
Range Evaporator side: −1 to 16 kg/cm2
Condenser Side: 0 to 70 kg/cm2
Rotameter Make Flow point India
Type Acrylic body
Range 0–150 LPM

Fig. 2 Heat pump cycle

Fig. 3 Heat pump cycle on

P–h chart
Experimental Investigation of Dehumidifier Hybrid Air … 179

The energy efficiency of a HP is defined by the COP which is expressed as;

Q cond
COPactual = (1)
Wcomp

where Qcond is heat rejected from the condenser expressed as

Q cond = m ref × (h 2 − h 3 ) (2)

W comp is the compressor work measured by energy meter.

The system overall COP is calculated as;

Q condenser
COPoverall = (4)
Wcomp + Wfan + Wpump

Heat loss assumed to be negligible. Hence

Heat received by the water = m w × Cpw × T (5)

where
m w = mass of water flowing through the condenser in Kg/s
Cpw = specific heat of water in kJ /kg-K
T = Temperature difference in K
Considering energy balance for the whole system

Heat rejected in condenser = compressor work + Refrigerating effect

Q condenser = Wcompressor + refrigerating effect (6)

3 Results and Discussion

The air source heat pump (ASHP) is tested under varying air-source temperatures
35, 40 and 45 °C, adjusted by varying regeneration temperature of dehumidifier.
Initially, experiment is carried out with ambient air at 30 °C as heat source. Water lift
temperature is taken as 20 °C, i.e., water is heated from 30 to 50 °C. The performance
of the heat pump is evaluated based on power consumption, heating capacity, cooling
capacity, compressor work, and COP of the system.
A typical P–h plot of the zeotropic refrigerant is depicted in Fig. 4 where tem-
perature does not remain constant in condenser and evaporator owing to different
boiling points of the constituents. The bubble point and dew point are shown on the
P–h plot as well.
Variation of heating capacity with air-source temperature is shown in Fig. 5. As the
180 J. R. Kazi and N. Agrawal

Fig. 4 P–h diagram of a

typical zeotropic refrigerant

Fig. 5 Heating capacity 8.80

Heating Capacity

variation with air source

temperature 8.40
(kW)

8.00
7.60
7.20
25 30 35 40 45 50
Air Source Temperature ( 0 C)

air-source temperature increases the heating capacity almost increases linearly. The
maximum heating capacity is obtained for the chosen operating conditions around
8.4 kW as shown in Fig. 5.
The variation of compressor work with air-source temperature is illustrated in
Fig. 6. Increase in air-source temperature increases the evaporation pressure which
results decrease in suction volume and pressure ratio and eventually compressor
work decreases.
A comparison is done based on the total time taken to heat the water from 30
to 50 °C at various air-source temperatures. As expected, the time taken to heat
the water at higher air-source temperature is relative less. As shown in Fig. 7, time
taken to heat the water from 30 to 50 °C is 125 min at 45 °C air-source temperature.
There is almost 17% reduction in time to heat the water by increasing the air-source
temperature from 30 to 45 °C (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6 Effect of air-source 15.00

Compressor Work

temperature on compressor
work 12.50
(kW)

10.00

7.50

5.00
25 30 35 40 45 50
Air Source Temperature ( 0 C)
Experimental Investigation of Dehumidifier Hybrid Air … 181

Fig. 7 Effect of air source 160

150
temperature on heating time

Heating Time
140 135

(min)
128 125
120

100
30 35 40 45
Air Source Temperature ( 0 C)

At every loop, the water temperature increases in condenser which is one of the
limitations of the air-water heat pump which results decrease in end loop COP of
the system. The variation on system COP with water inlet temperature of condenser
at various air-source temperatures is shown in Fig. 8. The results exhibit that there
is significant reduction in system COP at end loop due to increase in condenser
pressure due increase in inlet temperature of water. There is almost 25% reduction
in COP at the end loop which is quite significant. The trend is almost similar at all
the chosen air-source temperature. Based on this study, conclusion can be drawn that
while selecting the heat pump for water heating applications, end loop COP plays
an important role to measure the overall performance of the heat pump.
The comparison of theoretical and actual COP of heat pump at different air-source
temperature is presented in Fig. 9. The actual COP is always less in comparison to
theoretical COP as expected. Actual COP is almost 13% less than that of theoretical
COP due to unaccounted losses such as pressure losses, heat transfer, etc.

30 C 35 C 40 C 45 C
6.00
5.50
5.00
COP

4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
30 35 40 45 50 55
Water Inlet Temperature to Condenser ( 0 C)

Fig. 8 COP variation with condenser water inlet temperature

182 J. R. Kazi and N. Agrawal

Fig. 9 Variation of COP

with air-source temperature

4 Conclusions

Experimental studies are done on zeotropic R407C refrigerant air-source heat pump.
Performance of the heat pump is investigated at various air-source temperatures
through regeneration of the integrated dehumidifier. Eventually, necessary cooling
is achieved of the hot air from dehumidifier through evaporator of the heat pump
by recovering air heat to utilize for water heating at condenser side. The following
conclusions are drawn:
• Integration of heat pump with dehumidifier heat pump enhances the system per-
formance by waste recovery.
• Heat pump performance decreases in end loops due to increase in condenser pres-
sure, reduction of COP almost by 25%.
• Availability of hot air at evaporator reduces the water heating time up to set tem-
perature.

References

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different heat pump systems working at same conditions: as air to air, air to water, water to
water and water to air. Appl. Energy 58, 210–219 (2013)
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heat pump water heater. Appl. Therm. Eng. 27(5), 1029–1035 (2007)
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Experimental Investigation of the Solar
Dryer Using Phase-Change Material

C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

Abstract The solar dryer is widely used to dry the agro-products for preservation
during sunlight hours. A general drawback of conventional solar dryer system is the
need for thermal energy storage in order to balance the supply and demand of heat
during night hours. In the present work, experimental work has been carried out for an
indirect type cabinet solar dryer using phase-change material (PCM) to investigate
the possibility of utilizing thermal energy storage in the systems. The solar dryer
consists of solar air collector with thermal storage unit consists of five numbers of
aluminum tubes filled with a PCM (i.e., paraffin wax). Experiments were conducted
for 2.7 kg of tomatoes with and without paraffin wax in the dryer during the month
of April 2017. The result shows that by using PCM the drying time of the system is
extended by 1 h 48 min after sunset. The moisture content of tomatoes was reduced
by 94.4% in 12 h as compared to the open sun drying, which took 74 h, respectively.
Moreover, the quality and texture of dried tomatoes produced from solar dryer are
superior compared to that of open sun drying.

1 Introduction

Spoilage of foods, fruits, and vegetables are the critical problems confronting by
the world today. Post-harvesting is one of the major areas in which most of the
food spoilage occurs and thus requires appropriate storage and processing facilities.
Post-harvesting losses for vegetable and fruits are estimated in the range of 30–40%
and thus affects the overall economy of the country. To overcome such amount
of huge losses, fruits, vegetables, and food are preserved for a long period of time
without further deterioration in the quality of the product [1]. There are many process
technologies like canning, freezing, drying/dehydration to preserve fruits, vegetables,
and food products at a large scale. Solar drying is the method in which the moisture
content of the food product is removed by the solar energy and thus restricting

C. O. Yadav (B) · P. V. Ramana

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388306, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 185

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_17
186 C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

the food spoilage. Open solar light drying products were unhygienic due to dust
contamination and also the quality of the products is affected due to uncontrolled
climate conditions. Solar dryer is one of the most promising devices, which dry the
product in the closed chamber with the controlled conditions and thus produces the
hygienic and better quality products. The solar dryer is broadly classified in direct
and indirect solar dryers. One of the major draws of the conventional solar dryer is the
non-working hours of the system during night hours and intermittent time of the sun.
The solar dryer with thermal energy storage systems, i.e., phase-change materials
(PCM) are capable and extensively used to overcome the drawback of conventional
solar dryers phase-change material stores the heat during sunlight hours and releases
the same stored heat during night hours. Sharma et al. [2] had done detail study
on PCM materials and their thermo-fluid properties, different measuring techniques
for PCM and their suitability for different applications. Ei Sebaii et al. [3] studied
detailed description and fundamental on different solar dryers. They reported that the
indirect type forced convention solar dryer produces a fast and better quality of food
drying. With the use of PCM as sensible and latent heat storage media within the solar
dryer, the system increases the drying process during off sunlight and night period.
Furthermore, before integrating the phase-change material their thermo-chemical
properties are to be studied. Gallali et al. [4] have done a comparative study between
the properties and qualities of the natural and solar-based dried vegetables and fruits.
They concluded that the indirect drying method produces effective food/vegetable
drying as compared to natural drying method. Furthermore, they reported that open
sun drying of tomato samples was good in quality, color, and taste as compared to
solar-dried tomatoes. Shalaby et al. [5] had done an experimental investigation of the
indirect solar dryer with and without PCM. The solar dryer with PCM maintains the
desired and higher temperature in the drying chamber and thus extends the drying
period for five hours after sunset. Kareem et al. [6] investigated the performance of
the multi-pass solar air heating collector. They found that fair distribution of hot air
within the solar cabinet when porous media was used as the thermal storage medium
in the solar dryer cabinet. Liu et al. [7] focused on the solar dryer development and
its application especially on the traditional medicine drying. They reported that the
collector tube is the key element in the solar dryer and efficient vacuum tube collector
technology is the future developed a direction. Othman et al. [8] carried out a study on
the performance of four solar assisted forced drying systems for crop drying using
various collectors. The solar drying system with V-groove type solar collector is
suitable for agriculture products, while the drying system with evacuated tube solar
collector is used for drying herbs and high-quality drying products. Bashir et al. [9]
carried out a parametric study on tomatoes with four different methods viz. open sun
drying, solar drier drying, hot air drying, and osmotic dehydration and reported their
effects on quality of tomatoes. They reported that osmotically results in good end
products retaining color, texture, and nutrition. Akpinar et al. [10] have studied the
thin-layer drying characteristics in the solar dryer with forced convection and open
sun drying of mint leaves and also performed energy and exergy analysis of the solar
drying process. Experimental work has been compared with the different models and
found Wang and Singh model for both forced type solar drying and natural open sun
Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer … 187

drying to suits best for determining the thin-layer drying behavior for mint leaves.
Energy utilization ratio and improvement potential decreased with increasing drying
time and atmosphere temperature while exergetic efficiency increased. Their result
provides good insight into the performance improvement of solar drying systems.
An indirect natural cum forced convection solar air dryer is fabricated to investigate
its performance, respectively, under the different hot and dry climatic condition of
Hubli, Karnataka, and India by Sushrut et al. [11]. Abhishek et al. [12] have studied
and compared different types of thermal energy storage materials. They reported that
the rock bed storages were found to be low type thermal heat storage, while phase-
change materials were high heat thermal storages. Furthermore, few other thermal
storage materials were studied and discussed for rating from lower to higher in terms
of thermal performance peculiarly for solar air heaters. Mohanraj et al. [13] had
designed, fabricated, and performed experimentation to study the performance of an
indirect forced convection solar drier integrated with heat storage material for chili
drying. They reported that the dryer cabinet temperature remains consistent due to
the incorporation of thermal storage material as well as drying time also increases
up to 4 h/day. Finally, concluded that forced type solar drier is more suitable for
producing good quality dried chili, especially for small holders. Sreekumar et al.
[14] had designed and developed a roof-integrated solar air heating system for drying
different fruits and vegetables. They concluded that the drying of pineapple in solar
air heater only cost 20% as compared to electric-based dryer. From the literature
review, it has been found that the indirect type solar dryer produces effective food
products and thus reduce the drying time. However, conventional indirect type solar
dryer requires a large collector area, which leads to increase the overall cost of the
solar dryer. Integrating thermal storage system with the proper arrangement in the
indirect type of solar dryer resolves the issues to some extent. Thus, the objective
of the present investigation is to study the drying time of indirect type forced solar
dryer with and without PCM.

2 Design and Development of Experimental Setup

The experimental setup of forced type indirect solar dryer is shown in Fig. 1. It
consists of different components: (1) solar collector, (2) PCM chamber, (3) dry-
ing chamber, and (4) chimney. The solar collector is fabricated with the plywood
(122 cm × 93.1 cm × 8.1 cm) and aluminum sheet (0.5 mm thickness) is placed
over the base. The solar collector was oriented at an angle of 30°. The absorber plate
of the solar dryer was coated with the black color to increase the air temperature. The
top surface is covered with a glass cover (91.5 cm × 122 cm). The PCM chamber
consists of five aluminum tubes (5 cm diameter) filled with 6 kg of paraffin wax
having melting temperature 48 °C, and placed parallel in the flow direction to store
the heat energy during day or sunshine hours and release the same heat energy to
extend the operation of the dryer during the non-sunshine hours. The drying chamber
is the vertical section attached to the solar collector, which was fabricated with the
188 C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

Fig. 1 Experimental setup of solar dryer

plywood and GI sheet (95 cm × 40 cm × 22 cm) and contains trays to place the
product (tomatoes) to be dried. The chimney is constructed with plywood attached
to the drying chamber with three fans fitted on the top of the chimney. The tem-
perature, velocity, irradiance heat flux, and humidity were recorded with the help
of J-type thermocouple, digital anemometer (Generic-CEM DT-618), solar power
meter (Tenmars, model no. TM-207 BTU), and hygrometer (omega), respectively.

Equations
The total mass of moisture to be removed (M m )
 
(m i − m f )
Mm = m × (1)
(100 − m f )

where m = mass of food, m i = initial moisture content, and m f = final moisture

content
Mass of PCM required

Q
Mpcm = (2)
L pcm

where Q = Total Heat absorbed by PCM, L pcm = latent heat of PCM

Heat transfer Calculation

Q = Ac [It × (α × τ ) − Ul × (Ti − Ta )] × Fr (3)

where Ac = Collector Area, It = Intensity of solar radiation, α = absorptance of

solar collector, Ti = Inlet temperature, and Ta = outlet temperature,
Reynolds Number
Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer … 189

ρ×V ×D
Re = (4)
μ

Nusselt Number

N u = 0.023 × Re0.8 × Pr 0.4 (5)

Moisture content based on Wet basis

(Mi − Mf )
Mwb = × 100 (6)
Mi

where Mi = initial mass of product sample, Mf = final mass of the product sample.

3 Results and Discussion

The experimentation was carried out at Vasad, Gujarat (latitude, 20.59°N; longitude,
72.93°E) in India on fresh tomatoes on April 04, 2017 and April 05, 2017, and the
observations were tabulated in Tables 1 and 2. The tomatoes were sliced in between
4 and 5 mm thick and placed in the eight trays in the solar cabinet laying down a
single layer. The initial and final weights of tomatoes were 2.7 kg and 530 g on the
first day of experimentation during 10:30 am to 6:00 pm, and the same semi-dried
tomatoes (i.e., 530 g initial weight) were further dried during 10:30 am to 2:30 pm
on the second day and through visual inspection the product is found completely
dried and the final weight recorded was 150 g.
Figures 2 and 3 represents the variation the solar cabinet temperature and ambient
temperature over a time period of experimentation on April 04, 2017 and April 05,
2017. The inlet and outlet air temperature of the solar dryer was recorded during
the experimentation. The maximum temperature recorded by the absorber plate was
57.2 °C. During the experimentation, the ambient temperature varied in the range
of 33–37.5 °C. The temperature of the solar collector has been always recorded
higher than the ambient temperature and in the range of 2–10 °C. The maximum
temperature recorded of the air in the solar collector was 47 °C. The temperature of
the solar dryer collector had been found as substantially higher than that of ambient
at the non-sunlight hours during the experimental day with thermal storage.
Figure 4 depicts the air velocity variation over a period of time during the two
days of experimentation. During the first day (April 04, 2017), the atmospheric air
velocity was recorded in the range of 1.3–2.6 m/s, whereas the solar dryer chimney
air velocity was recorded in the range of 3.3–4.7 m/s. On the second day (April
05, 2017), the atmospheric air velocity was recorded in between 1.9 and 3.2 m/s,
whereas the solar dryer chimney air velocity was recorded in between 3.8 and 6.2 m/s.
Furthermore, the solar dryer air velocity is higher than the ambient air velocity due
 190

Table 1 Experimental observations for day-1 (April 4, 2017)

Time (h) Ambient Air temp. Air temp. Air temp. Air temp. Air Black body Black body Solar Mass of
temp. (°C) inlet (Solar outlet outlet outlet velocity temp. Inlet temp. irradiation tomato
collector) (Solar (chimney) (Chimney) outlet (Solar outlet (W/m2 ) slice (g)
(°C) collector) (°C) (°C) (Chimney) collector) (Solar
(°C) (m/s) (°C) collector)
(°C)
10:30 33 33 40.5 37 1.3 4.15 41 50 830 6
11:00 33.5 36 39.5 39 1.4 3.88 43 57 860
11:30 34 36 44.2 40 2.1 3.675 44.5 58 960 4
12:00 35 38 44.5 41.5 1.4 3.775 46 58.8 970
12:30 36 38 46 42 2.6 3.962 45.5 58 967 3.5
13:00 37 39 47 43 2.1 3.425 46.5 59 973
13:30 37 39 47 43.6 1.5 4.025 44.5 56.5 904 2.5
14:00 38 38 44.9 43.5 2.1 3.8125 45 55.5 865
14:30 38 40 45 43.5 2.2 3.775 44 56 815 1.5
15:00 38 39 46 42.5 1.8 4.2375 43 53 622
15:30 38 38 42.2 40 2.3 3.375 40 48.5 544 0.8
16:00 38 38 40 40 2.1 4.562 38 45.5 454
16:30 37.5 37.5 38.5 39.6 1.3 4.725 37 43 223 0.63
17:00 37 37 37 37.5 1.4 3.825 37 40.6 169
17:30 35.5 35.3 36 37 2 4.0625 37 37.5 72 0.53
18:00 34 34 34.5 35 1.4 3.85 34.5 35 45
C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana
Table 2 Experimental observations for day-2 (April 05, 2017)
Time (h) Ambient Air temp. Air temp. Air temp. Air velocity Air temp. Black body Black body Solar
temp. (°C) inlet (Solar outlet (Solar outlet outlet outlet temp. inlet temp. outlet irradiation
collector) collector) (Chimney) (Chimney) (Chimney) (Solar (Solar (W/m2 )
(°C) (°C) (°C) (m/s) (°C) collector) collector)
(°C) (°C)
10:00 32 32.5 40 36.5 2.1 6.675 37 44.5 724
10:30 33 33 38.2 37 2.4 4.025 38 46 795
Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer …

11:00 33.8 35 40 39.8 2.2 4.5 41 52.5 837

11:30 35 36 46 41 2.4 4.425 41 51 884
12:00 36 37 47 43.3 3.2 4.737 44 55 929
12:30 36 37 46 43 2.2 4.0625 42 52.5 927
13:00 37 39 46 43 3.1 3.8 44 55 874
13:30 38.5 39.4 45.1 44.5 2.3 4.512 44 57.2 854
14:00 37 39 46.7 44.9 1.9 4.25 43.5 55.5 781
14:30 38 39.5 45.5 44.6 2.2 4.8125 43.5 52 701
191
192 C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

Fig. 2 Temperature variation on first day (April 04, 2017)

Fig. 3 Temperature variation on second day (April 05, 2017)

Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer … 193

Fig. 4 Variation of air velocity over a period of time

to the fan attached at the outlet of the chimney and thus plays an important role in
reducing the drying time rate of the product.
Figure 5 shows the variation of solar irradiation over a period of time during
experimentation days. The figure depicts that solar radiation had significant value
in between 10:30 am and 4 pm, after which the solar irradiation falls gradually to
6 pm. The maximum solar irradiation recorded was 973 W/m2 around 1:00 pm, and
the minimal insolation value was 43 W/m2 at 6:00 pm. The average solar radiation
recorded was 650 W/m2 .
Figure 6 represents the drying rate of tomatoes. The tomato slice of 6 g was
taken from a dryer chamber for weight measurement at a one-hour interval time
of experimentation. The drying process was carried out until no further reduction
was observed in the weight (mass) of tomatoes. During experimentation on April
04, 2017, the tomatoes dry weight reduces from 2.7 kg to 150 g in the temperature
ranging from 34.5 to 44.9 °C in a solar dryer over a time period of 12 h. Initially,
the moisture removal rate was high in between 10:30 am to 15:30 pm, while the
moisture removal rate reduces sharply due to a reduction in the air temperature and
case hardening of the tomatoes.
Figure 7 represents the black body temperature of a solar collector with and
without PCM. The solar dryer with PCM stores the energy during day time, and
hence, the collector temperature remains lower than the dryer without thermal storage
system and release the stored energy after sunshine hours. After 4:30 pm the latent
194 C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

Fig. 5 Solar irradiation during experimentation

Fig. 6 Variation of mass of tomato slice at time intervals

Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer … 195

Fig. 7 Variations in the collector temperature with PCM and without PCM

heat of the paraffin wax releases the heat energy and thus extends the drying time for
the tomatoes up to 1 h and 48 min.

Color and Textures

Figures 8 and 9 represent the texture and color of dried tomatoes. Figure 8 represents
that the tomatoes were burned and shell becomes hard, which results in degradation
in the color and quality of tomatoes due to high temperature and is not hygienic to
consume as dust is deposited over the product. Figure 9 depicts that the solar dryer
improves the overall quality of the final product through the removal of moisture
content. When the tomatoes were dried in the solar dryer tomatoes retain its color

Fig. 8 Open dried tomatoes

196 C. O. Yadav and P. V. Ramana

Fig. 9 Solar dryer dried

tomatoes

and texture due to the proper distribution of temperature over the slice of tomatoes.
Eventually, the solar dryer produces healthy and hygienic final product as compared
to the open sun drying.

4 Results and Discussion

The solar drying is one of the best and effective alternative methods for drying agro-
products as compared to direct sunlight drying method. In the present work, forced
indirect type solar dryer with a phase-change material is used for drying tomatoes
and thus extends the drying time in the evening hours. Experimentation has been
carried out to study the drying time, moisture removing rate, quality of the food,
and the effect of thermal energy storage, i.e., PCM on the drying time for tomatoes
samples. The results show that the solar dryer takes approximately 12 h for drying the
tomatoes, while open sunlight drying takes place around 74 h which was 84% less
as compared with open sunlight drying method. The average temperature measured
in the drying chamber was 5.83 °C than the atmosphere temperature and highest
temperature achieved in the drying chamber was 10 °C. The solar dryer integrated
with the PCM extends the drying time for a particular day after sunshine hours up
to 1 h and 48 min. The solar dryer improves the quality as well as the texture of the
dried tomatoes as compared to the open sunlight drying.
Experimental Investigation of the Solar Dryer … 197

References

1. Hegazy, R.: Post-harvest situation and losses in India. Technical report, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (2013)
2. Sharma, S.D., Kitano, H., Sagara, K.: Phase change materials for low temperature solar thermal
applications. Res. Rep. Fac. Eng. Mie Univ. 29, 31–64 (2014)
3. El-Sebaii, A.A.: Solar drying of agricultural products: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
16, 37–43 (2012)
4. Gallali, Y.M.: Preservation of fruits and vegetables using solar drier: a comparative study of
natural and solar drying, III; chemical analysis and sensory evaluation data of the dried samples
(grapes, figs, tomatoes and onions). Renew. Energy 1(19), 203–212 (2000)
5. Shalaby, S.M.: Experimental investigation of a novel indirect solar dryer implementing PCM
as energy storage medium. Energy Convers. Manag. 83, 1–8 (2014)
6. Kareem, M.W., Habib, K., Sopian, K., Irshad, K.: Performance evaluation of a novel multi-pass
solar air heating collector. In: Bustam, M.A., Man, Z. (eds.) International Conference of Process
Engineering and Advanced Materials, 2016, Procedia Engineering, vol. 148, pp. 638–645.
Elsevier (2016)
7. Liu, M.: Study of the solar energy drying device and its application in traditional chinese
medicine in drying. Int. J. Clin. Med. 4(6), 271–280 (2015)
8. Othman, M.Y.H.: Options for solar drying systems: perspective in Malaysia. JITE 1(12), 55–66
(2011)
9. Bashir, N.: Effect Of different drying methods on the quality of tomatoes. Adv. Food Sci. 2(36),
65–69 (2014)
10. Akpinar, E.K.: Drying of mint leaves in a solar dryer and under open sun: modeling, perfor-
mance analyses. Energy Convers. Manag. 51, 2407–2418 (2010)
11. Halewadimath, S.S.: Experimental analysis of solar air dryer for agricultural products. Int. Res.
J. Eng. Technol. 3(2), 1517–1523 (2015)
12. Saxena, A.: A review article on solar air heaters with thermal heat storages. Chin. J. Eng. (2013)
13. Mohanraj, M.P.: Performance of a forced convection solar drier integrated with gravel as heat
storage material for chili drying. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 4(3), 305–314 (2009)
14. Sreekumar, A.: Techno-economic analysis of a roof-integrated solar air heating system for
drying fruit and vegetables. Energy Convers. Manag. 51(11), 2230–2238 (2010)
Design and Optimization of Hybrid
Electric Vehicle

Tarang Varmora, Manish Kumar and Shah Krupa Rajendra

Abstract The key issues associated with the hybrid racing car are low starting
torque, lower acceleration and more weight. In this research work, hybrid racing
vehicle is optimally designed such that the overall weight is reduced and the starting
torque is increased. This is achieved by designing sustainable and safe chassis with
minimum members. Further, materials that have maximum strength with minimum
weight is identified. The simulation study is performed in NX-CAD software. It can
be observed from the results that the weight is reduced by around 11.4 %. Moreover,
suitable motor, battery, steering, suspension and braking system are identified for
a hybrid racing car. This shows feasibility of implementing the proposed design in
practice for manufacturing the hybrid racing cars.

1 Introduction

The internal combustion engine (ICE) powered vehicle makes use of non-renewable
energy source. The fuel used in ICE is limited and its usage also leads to global
warming. To this end, the use of electric and hybrid electric vehicles is promoted
worldwide [1]. Due to less driving range and lack of charging infrastructure ev-
erywhere, use of a fully electric vehicle is still a challenge. Instead of developing
charging infrastructure everywhere, using hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is preferred
many times [2]. To this end, the hybrid vehicle has been hailed as an exciting green
advancement for the vehicle and transport industry. Further, it reduces the emission
of CO2 by 25–30 % as compared to that of regular ICE powered vehicle making
it more environmental friendly [3]. The electrical machine is used in place of ICE

T. Varmora · M. Kumar (B) · S. K. Rajendra

Institute of Infrastructure, Technology, Research and Management (IITRAM),
Ahmedabad 380026, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Varmora
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 199

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_18
200 T. Varmora et al.

particularly in the lower speed range [1]. This is to reduce the deficiencies of the ICE
with regard to fuel consumption and efficiency [4].
In this work, racing HEV (i.e. a one-seater racing car) is considered. So far, there
is no standard model of racing HEV available. However, in general, it deploys ICE,
battery and electric motor in series and/or parallel configuration. Due to an extra
battery and electric motor, the overall weight of the HEV is higher than normal
vehicle [5]. To increase the overall efficiency of the vehicle, the weight of HEV
should be minimized [6]. With this as an objective, the paper is organized as follows.
Section 2 presents literature survey, whereas Sect. 3 presents virtual design and
analysis. The conclusion of research efforts is shown in Sect. 4.

2 Literature Survey

This section presents the detailed literature survey on selecting various components
of the HEV.

2.1 Selection of Type of HEV

There exist three configurations, namely series, parallel and series–parallel. In the
series configuration, the motor and engine are connected in series. As the motor is
connected to the drive train, ICE runs at constant speed to achieve maximum effi-
ciency with reduced emissions. This configuration has reduced energy performance
as compared to the parallel arrangement of HEV [7]. Series–parallel configuration
is complicated than the other two configurations. The complex control circuit is nec-
essary, and it requires more power to control the dual system. Cost is higher as the
number of components is more [8]. In parallel configuration, the electric motor and
ICE can be utilized optimally to have higher efficiency and lower emissions [9].
Thus, the parallel type of system has better performance and its efficiency is higher
than the series and series-parallel HEV. The emission rates are also lower than the
other two types of HEV. Further, it has three modes of operations. Hence, the parallel
type is selected in our proposed design.

2.2 Selection of Motor

Various special electrical machines are available. Among all, brushless direct cur-
rent (BLDC) drives have received significant attention in commercial, residential and
industrial applications owing to its high efficiency, reduced electromagnetic inter-
ference and high mechanical reliability [10–12]. Further, the control could be easily
obtained with BLDC motor [13, 14]. Thus, BLDC motor is selected in this work.
Design and Optimization of Hybrid Electric Vehicle 201

2.3 Selection of Battery

Lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) and lithium–ion (Li-ION) are being

widely used in HEV. Ni-MH and Li-ION batteries provide optimum performance
as compared to that of lead–acid batteries. Among these, Li-ION can be opted for
small battery pack requirements, whereas Ni-MH batteries can be opted for large
battery pack requirements. Further, Ni-MH batteries offer the highest fuel economy
[15, 16]. To this end, Ni-MH battery is considered in the present work.

2.4 Selection of Braking System

Braking operation can be accomplished either mechanically or electrically by reduc-

ing the kinetic energy of the system via thermal dissipation. Generally, two types
of brakes, namely drum and disc are utilized. Further, mechanical, hydraulic or air
actuation can be used [17]. In this work, the disc brake is considered due to weight
reduction and efficient heat dissipation capability. Further, the brake force is higher
than that of the drum brakes. The disc brake requires minimum maintenance, easy
service and replacement of parts [18, 19]. As far as actuation is concerned, the
hydraulic system can be considered as it is quite simple and gives noiseless oper-
ation. A hydraulic actuator can hold force and keep constant torque without any
pumping effect. Further, it is significantly easier to modulate the hydraulic brakes
and it requires low maintenance. To have reduced heating in the braking system, the
ventilated rotor can be selected.
Brake fluid can also be considered as the most important component in the braking
system. Among all, the dot 3 brake fluid can be selected as it is inexpensive and is
easily available. Any loss of fluid due to any component failure can fail the entire
braking system. To reduce such risk, the vehicle must have at least two separate
hydraulic systems. Thus, the tandem master cylinder can be chosen along with the
basic master cylinder in the braking system. For transmitting the pressure generated
by the master cylinder, brake lines/hoses can be used. Further, the brake circuit is
generally installed in the vehicles in two ways; one is the diagonal split system and
the second one being the front-rear split system.

2.5 Steering and Suspension System

The objectives of the steering and suspension systems in a vehicle are, obtaining
desired turning radius, avoiding slip between tires to get a proper turn, achieving
maximum traction while turning and assuring straight-line stability. Various steering
systems in consideration are rack and pinion steering, recirculating steering box
and mechanical linkage system [20]. To select the most appropriate steering system
202 T. Varmora et al.

for HEV, the applications, advantages and disadvantages of various steering systems
were studied. Based on that, the rack and pinion steering system is selected in our case.
The advantages include economical and uncomplicated manufacturing, adjustable
steering angle; tie rods can be directly joined to the steering rack, adjustable steering
ratio, no requirement of idler arm (including bearing) and the intermediate rod [20].
The suspension system must satisfy certain design requirements such as straight-
line stability, horsepower losses, enough wheel travel. Suspension selection process
also involves consideration like load bearing capacity, cost-effectiveness, flexibility,
availability of parts and components, and technical aspects like camber, caster, toe.
So, the double wishbone suspension is selected for both front and rear that have
advantages such as availability of negative camber while rolling. With this, the tires
tend to keep themselves perpendicular which provides more grip on the road while
turning. It can handle large deflections during bumps. It is versatile in terms of
placement of shock absorber and spring [21]. Apart from the above components and
systems, internal combustion engine (ICE), gearbox and differential are being used
in the HEV.

3 Roll Cage Design and Analysis

After selecting all the components, the next task would be designing roll cage. Roll
cage plays a very crucial role in the safety of the driver; hence, the material selected
should have high strength. Two types of material are generally used for roll cage
design; Carbon manganese steel (T45) and cold drawn seamless carbon steel (CDS).
Although both materials have good bending and welding quantities, the strength of
T45 is more than that of CDS. Hence, T45 is used in the proposed design.
Improved roll cage design provides safety, durability, endurance and reliability
to the vehicle. Hence, it is essential to perform a roll cage analysis. The result utters
about the safety of the driver (and passenger in case of more than one-seater vehicle)
and the capability of the car in sustaining the impact at higher speed, etc. To observe
the effect of impact (applied on various sides) on the vehicle, the analysis is implicated
in the NX-CAD software. The isometric view is shown in Fig. 1.
Front Impact The force is applied from the front side of the vehicle while the speed
of the vehicle is 70 kmph. The corresponding figures are shown in Fig. 2.
The maximum deflection, maximum stress and factor of safety of the vehicle and
driver are obtained from the simulation data and are found as 2.022 mm, 219.95
MPa and 1.91, respectively. The force applied can be found as 66,165.12 N using
below-mentioned formula.

F = 21 mv 2
F = 21 ∗ 350 ∗ (70)2 (1)
F = 66165.12 N
Design and Optimization of Hybrid Electric Vehicle 203

Fig. 1 Isometric view of the designed roll cage

Fig. 2 Front impact analysis of roll cage

Side Impact The force is applied from the side to find out the side impact. The max-
imum deflection, maximum stress and factor of safety are obtained as 0.979 mm,
118.64 MPa and 3.54, respectively. The applied force is 33,082.5 N. The corre-
sponding figures are shown in Fig. 3.
Rear Impact In this, the force is applied from the rear side of the vehicle and is
equal to 66,156.12 N. The corresponding figures of rear impact are shown in Fig. 4.
The different parameters obtained from simulation data are provided in Table 1.
204 T. Varmora et al.

Fig. 3 Side impact analysis of roll cage

Fig. 4 Rear impact analysis of roll cage

Table 1 Comparative study

Parameter Non-optimized design Optimized design
M.D = 2.022 mm M.D = 2.742 mm
Front impact M.S = 219.95 MPa M.S = 171.15 MPa
FS = 1.91 FS = 2.57
M.D = 15.63 mm M.D = 19.89 mm
Rear impact M.S = 289.43 MPa M.S = 292.11 MPa
FS = 1.45 FS = 1.51
M.D = 0.979 mm M.D = 1.491 mm
Side impact M.S = 118.64 MPa M.S = 96 MPa
FS = 3.54 FS = 4.58
M.D = 0.0168 mm M.D = 3.153 mm
Rollover M.S = 2.253 MPa M.S =2.900 MPa
FS = 1.86418 F.S= 1.52
Braking system W F = 2122.141 N W F = 1879.61 N
W R = 1307.859 N W R = 1158.38 N
Top speed by motor (kmph) 70.65 86.95
Top speed by engine (kmph) 104.34 84.48
Design and Optimization of Hybrid Electric Vehicle 205

Fig. 5 Rollover analysis of roll cage

Roll Over At higher speed, the probability of rollover is high as compared to the
lower speed. Due to this reason, the analysis of rollover impact is performed and the
corresponding figures are shown in Fig. 5. Further, the results are shown in Table 1.
This design sustained all the impacts. However, the vehicle’s weight was found
around 350 kg. This results into lower acceleration torque and lower efficiency. Such
issue can be overcome by reducing the weight of the vehicle with the help of op-
timization process. In this paper, optimized design of the roll cage is proposed to
reduce the overall weight, to have more efficiency and to increase the acceleration
torque.

3.1 Optimization of Design and Analysis

The weight of the car depends on the roll cage and material. Hence, by changing
the material, weight can be reduced. To this end, mild steel (Ms) sheets can be
replaced by aluminium (Al) sheets as its density is lesser than the Ms Sheet. Body
mounting (i.e. all other parts like engine, motor are connected to chassis body) can
be preferred instead of sheet mounting (where parts are connected with the sheets).
With this, it would be possible to decrease the weight. Moreover, by making roll
hoop curve smoother (Fig. 6), the aerodynamic shape and overall performance are
improved due to the reduction in air resistance. Further, it should be noted that by
design optimization, the weight of the vehicle is reduced to 310 kg from 350 kg that
is around 11.4% reduction in weight.
The analysis of optimized design is now carried out in NX-CAD software. Once
again, the effect of front, side, rear and rollover impact at the speed of 70 kmph is
analysed. Different parameters like deflection, stress and factor of safety are obtained
afterwards. The figures of different impacts are shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10, and
results are shown in Table 1 along with the previous results. Apart from this, a few
more parameters are also added in the table to find out the best design.
From the Table 1, it can be found that the optimized design is better. For most
of the impacts, its maximum deviation, maximum stress and factor of safety are
206 T. Varmora et al.

Fig. 6 Isometric view of the optimized roll cage design

Fig. 7 Front impact analysis of optimized roll cage design

Fig. 8 Side impact analysis of optimized roll cage design

greater than that of non-optimized design. In this, the load on the front and rear axle
is also less than that of non-optimized design. Apart from that, the top speed of the
electric motor is also greater in the optimized design. All these parameters utter that
the optimized design is more efficient and suitable for HEV. Hence, the optimized
design is considered for building the HEV as shown in Fig. 11.
Design and Optimization of Hybrid Electric Vehicle 207

Fig. 9 Rear impact analysis of optimized roll cage design

Fig. 10 Rollover analysis of optimized roll cage design

Fig. 11 Isometric view of

final optimized design of
HEV

4 Conclusion

In this work, an attempt is made to build a hybrid racing car as the base model of
racing HEV is not available so far. Further, different components of HEV such as
motor, battery, braking system, suspension system, steering system are identified to
build more fuel-efficient and economical model. The solution to various limitations
of traditional HEVs such as lower acceleration torque and lower efficiency (fuel
economy) is provided by design optimization. With the proposed optimized design,
the weight of the car is reduced by 11.4% and the efficiency is increased by 6%.
208 T. Varmora et al.

From the simulation performed in NX-CAD software, the safety of the vehicle is
also assured and it is seen that the optimized design is safer than normal design.
With increasing environmental pollution and depleting conventional fuels, this pro-
posed model seems to be a promising solution and can be implemented for mass
manufacturing.

References

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Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2010)
5. Sibi Krishnan K., Sunitha R., Pathiyil, P.: Driver classification for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
based on fuel consumption index. In: 2016 International Conference on Computation of Power,
Energy Information and Commuincation (ICCPEIC), Chennai, India, 20–21 Apr. 2016
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9. Gupta, A.K., Kartik, V., Ramanarayanan, C.P.: Design, development and performance evalu-
ation of a light diesel hybrid electric pickup vehicle using a new parallel hybrid transmission
system. In: 2015 IEEE International Transportation Electrification Conference (ITEC), Chen-
nai, India, 27–29 Aug. 2015
10. Lee, B.K., Ehsani, M.: Advanced BLDC motor drive for low cost and high performance propul-
sion system in electric and hybrid vehicles. In: IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives
Conference (IEMDC), Cambridge, MA, USA, 17–20 June 2001
11. Zulkifli, S.A., Mohd, S., Saad, N., Rashid A.R.A.: Influence of motor size and efficiency on
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Climate Control of Greenhouse System
Using Neural Predictive Controller

Shriji V. Gandhi and Manish T. Thakker

Abstract This paper presents the concept of neural predictive techniques for the
modeling and controlling of the greenhouse system (GHS). Greenhouse system
provides the favorable environment to the plants. The GHS is a class of nonlin-
ear and complex systems. Initially, the dynamics of the GHS are precisely modeled
in the presence of the uncertainties and disturbances using the system identification
approaches based on the neural network (NN). To train the NN, Levenberg–Mar-
quardt backpropagation algorithm is being utilized. This research uses the neural
predictive control (NPC) approach to achieve stabilizing control and tracking con-
trol. The efficacy of the proposed scheme is validated for the various operating con-
ditions under different initial conditions and enormous external disturbances. The
superiority of the proposed research is also compared with the conventional PID
control.

1 Introduction

The greenhouse is a house with protection boundaries which allows only sunlight and
no other outside climate factor to enter [1]. To achieve environmental conditions, sev-
eral control algorithms, mathematical models (nonlinear/linear), and stability anal-
ysis were proposed to control the GHS climate parameters as per requirement under
load variations and uncertain parameters. The crop experiences internal environ-
ment condition such as inside humidity, inside temperature, and CO2 concentration.
The external environment disturbances such as outside air temperature, outside air

The original version of this chapter was revised: Author provided belated corrections have been
incorporated. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-
0_28

S. V. Gandhi (B)
Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. T. Thakker
L.D.College of Engineer, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020, corrected publication 2022 211
D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_19
212 S. V. Gandhi and M. T. Thakker

humidity, wind velocity, and solar radiation [2]. The main parameters that can be
monitored and controlled are inside temperature (T in ), inside humidity (H in ), and
inside CO2 concentration level. That can be achieved by several control actuators
such as heating system and ventilation system to achieve the inside temperature, fog
system to achieve inside humidity, artificial light, and shading for changing internal
radiation level and CO2 injection system to influence photosynthesis. This paper
describes the useful concept of greenhouse mathematical modeling using energy
balance and mass balance principle [3]. During the literature survey, it was observed
that popularly two models have been developed for GHS such as heating model
achieved by heater input and cooling model achieved by fog system input and ven-
tilation. Climate control can be achieved by different control strategies such as an
ON–OFF controller, PID controller, and feedback and feedforward controller [4].
For the analysis of GHS, several Web-based interactive tools have been developed
[5]. Effect of sensor noise and process noise can be estimated by using the Kalman
filter algorithm [6]. The GHS is dynamic and nonlinear system and can be divided
into three key concepts: the internal climate, the crop, and the soil. The response of
the whole system depends on these relations, but also on the outside environment and
control algorithm. The main objective is to maintain inside greenhouse environment
within appropriate ranges. The difficulties are in the day/night cycle, the actuator
saturation problem, the local climate, and the behavior of the soil. Therefore, the
GHS is classified as a MIMO, nonlinear, dynamic, and complex system [7–15].
The objective of this paper is to make a heating system to achieve the inside tem-
perature in the greenhouse during winter climate. Greenhouse system is a dynamic
and nonlinear system that is difficult to control, so the neural network predictive con-
trol (NPC) can be used to achieve this objective. NPC can be used to predict the plant
behavior and control the inside temperature of the greenhouse system for a servo
operation. The paper systematized as follows: Sect. 2 describes the mathematical
model of GHS; Sect. 3 explores NPC for the modeling and control of GHS; Sect. 4
investigates the comparative analysis between the conventional control approach and
the proposed approach followed by the conclusion.

2 Mathematical Model of GHS

The greenhouse climate control system model can be defined based on the energy
and mass balance phenomena by considering the inside and outside environment
condition by [5]

dTin 1 VR
= (Q H + Q S − λQ FOG ) − (Tin − Tout )
dt ρC p VT VT
UA K CAN
− (Tin − Tout ) + (TC − Tin ) (1)
ρC p VT ρC p VT
Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural … 213

dHin Q FOG VR [(E(Q s , Hin ))]

= + (Hin − Hout ) + (2)
dt VH VH VH
Table 1 shows GHS parameters with their values. T in and T out are the inside and
outside temperature, T C canopy temperature, H in and H out are the inside and outside
humidity, V R is the ventilation rate, QS is the solar radiated energy, V T and VH are the
temperature and humidity level mixing to the air volumes, QH is the heater input, E is
the evaporation rate, and QFOG is the fog system. K CAN is the heat transfer coefficient
of canopy. The difference between canopy temperature and inside temperature is set
to 4 °C.
Figure 1 shows schematic diagram of greenhouse system. The greenhouse system
control inputs are heating system, ventilation system, fog system, and CO2 injection
system to achieve the output such as inside temperature and inside humidity [6]. The
disturbances of this system are solar radiation, outside humidity, outside temperature,
and wind speed [7–9].

Table 1 GHS parameters

Symbol Parameter Value
ρ Air density 1.2 kg/m3
λ Latent heat of vaporization 2257 kJ/Kg
Cp Specific heat of the air 1006 J/Kg K
UA Heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/m2 K
enclosure

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of GHS

214 S. V. Gandhi and M. T. Thakker

3 Neural Predictive Control for GHS

Neural network model helps to identify the system behavior. System identification
process predicts deviation between NN output and plant output which is used as the
learning signal. The first step for system identification is to collect data and develop
the network of the GHS [16]. Next step is to define the network and initialize the
weights and biases, and the final stage is training and validates the network with
predefined parameters, and this concept [16–18] is shown in Fig. 2. For the system
identification, MATLAB neural network predictive control is used.
Figure 3 shows the MATLAB toolbox of NPC and in this first step shows the plant
identification. For the plant identification, twenty hidden layers have been used, and
5000 training samples (input–output data) extracted from the mathematical model
of GHS are used to train the neural network to make the GHS NN model. The plant
input QH from 0 to 50 KW and plant output T in from 20 to 25 °C are the range
of data to be used for training. Figure 4 shows 5000 samples of plant input–output
which were used for NN training. Levenberg–Marquardt backpropagation algorithm
is used for the training of NN. The sampling interval is chosen 1 s for the training.
Figure 5 displays the performance of system identification process in which the
MSE can be reduced up to 0.00336 for a heating model of the GHS using neural
network model. Twenty hidden layers can be used as the optimum value for the NN
model.
The neural network predictive controller can be used for prediction of the future
plant response of the system [16]. NPC uses the NN model to forecast the future
response of the greenhouse system. This controller generates the optimized controlled
output to make the system efficient [16–21].

Fig. 2 Neural network model for GHS

Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural … 215

Fig. 3 Screenshot of
MATLAB system
identification NPC toolbox

Fig. 4 Plant input–output

samples for NN training
216 S. V. Gandhi and M. T. Thakker

Fig. 5 MSE plot during NN training

Figure 6 shows the NPC schematic diagram for the greenhouse system. The first
step to NPC is the system identification. In the system identification process, the
input–output data can be used as the training signal. For the system identification
plant, input–output data can be generated offline. The prediction can be done by
numeric optimization to produce the control signal that reduces the mentioned per-
formance criteria shown by (3) [16–21].

Fig. 6 NN predictive controller for GHS

Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural … 217


N2
J= (yr (k + j) − ym (k + j))2
j=N 1


Nu
 2
+ρ u  (k + j − 1) − u  (k + j − 2) (3)
j=1

where J is the mean square error-based performance criterion, and N 2 is the cost
horizon. Nu is the control horizon which indicates an amount of time steps over
which the control increments are decreased. ρ is the control weighting factor which
determines the contribution that the addition of the squares of the control increments
has on the performance index. For this system, neural predictive controller parameters
value can be defined as N 2 is 5, Nu is 3, and ρ is 0.09. The u variable is the control
signal, ym consider as the network model response, and yr is the desired response.

4 Simulation Results

This section shows the simulation results of GHS for the control of inside temperature
(T in ) under different initial conditions, servo operations, and regulatory operations
for the conventional control like PID and proposed NPC approach.

4.1 Stabilizing Control

Figures 7 and 8 show the regulatory response of GHS. Outside temperature has been
considered as the disturbance variable and given as sinusoidal function of 5 °C to the
system to obtain these results. NPC provides the smooth response compare to PID.
In this Fig. 9, it has been shown that better stabilizing control achieved with different
initial conditions even with the same disturbance.

Fig. 7 Regulatory response with 25 °C setpoint

218 S. V. Gandhi and M. T. Thakker

Fig. 8 Regulatory response with 22 °C setpoint

Fig. 9 Regulatory response with 20 °C setpoint and different initial conditions

4.2 Tracking Control

It has been observed from Fig. 10 that initial temperature of GHS is 15 °C which
settles to the first setpoint of 25 °C with an initial spike of 1 °C which may be
acceptable for the servo operation. Setpoint tracking from 22 to 25 °C is achieved with
better transient and steady-state response. However, NPC has taken some amount of
time to settle the response compared with PID control.
It has been perceived from Figs. 11 and 12 that initial temperature of GHS is
10 and 18 °C which quickly settles to the setpoint. Figure 11 shows the response of
setpoint tracking from 23 to 25 °C, and Fig. 12 shows the response of setpoint tracking
from 18 to 24 °C. Servo response is achieved with better transient and steady-state
response.
Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using Neural … 219

Fig. 10 Setpoint tracking of inside temperature with an initial condition of 15 °C

Fig. 11 Setpoint tracking of inside temperature with an initial condition of 10 °C

5 Conclusion

The neural network approach has been proved to an advantageous tool for the model-
ing and control of greenhouse system. Identification of the GHS parameters has been
carried out using neural network model. As a result, mean squared error (MSE) has
been reduced up to 0.0036. However, the offline training to the neural network may
cause a finite duration. The simulation results show the effective stabilizing control of
inside temperature using the neural network predictive control for the GHS. Also for
the setpoint tracking operations, the proposed approach provides satisfactory results.
220 S. V. Gandhi and M. T. Thakker

Fig. 12 Setpoint tracking of inside temperature with an initial condition of 18 °C

Similar results have been obtained under the presence of various disturbances using
the proposed approach. The proposed approach has been validated superior compared
with conventional PID controller.

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Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse
Aggregate with Cupola Slag
for Environmental Protection

Vishwash K. Mistry and Dipak J. Varia

Abstract Recently world leads to higher infrastructural growth including develop-

ing countries like India leads to higher consumption of construction material such as
cement and concrete. For production/manufacturing of cement and concrete requires
huge amount of natural resources that leads to rapid depletion of natural resources and
emission of GHG’s and other harmful pollutants in environment which are responsi-
ble for quick climate changes and also create a perilous threat to human lives, ecology
and environment. So to preserve the environment, one should preserve the natural
resources. In this regards, authors attempted use of cupola slag aggregate (CSA) as
replacement of naturally available coarse aggregates. A comparative study shows
results for control mix and cupola slag aggregate concrete. From the study, one can
conclude that, cupola slag can be used as coarse aggregate effectively in structural as
well as in plain concrete and suggest such various other alternative materials prove
very effective to slowing down of climate changes and preserving natural resources
and environment.

1 Introduction

Concrete which is made from wastes and becomes eco-friendly is called as Green
concrete [1]. P. Demeter, D. Baricova et al. use cupola slag in concrete [2]. Fur-
ther, S. Anne Ligoria en all utilized cupola slag as aggregate and shows required
strength properties can obtain for both fine and coarse aggregate replacement [3].
D. Baricova en shows the cupola slag is similar material to blast furnace slag by
examining the microscopic views of both the materials [4]. Mr. T. Yuvaraj en all
checked environmental feasibility of CSA concrete along with compressive strength
[5].

V. K. Mistry (B)
Road & Building Deparetment, Division Patan, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
D. J. Varia
Government Engineering College, Patan, Gujarat, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 223

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_20
224 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Table 1 Production of cast iron (Thousands of Metric Tonnes)

Country China US Japan Germany
Production 1777 2227 2656 8818
Country Russia Italy Korea France
Production 3500 1863 2782 4097

This study was aimed to use cupola slag as replacement of coarse aggregate. Since
cupola slag is rich in silica and calcium content and analogues to coarse aggregate
in chemical analysis, therefore, to initiate, use of cupola slag as coarse aggregate
properties of CSA concrete should be studied. Physical and chemical properties of
cupola slag aggregate were checked in accordance with IS 383-1970 [6]. In this
study, properties of concrete are ascertained in terms of compressive, tensile and
flexural strength, its capacity to pass the water and chloride irons and resistance to
acid and sea water attack. Based on results, influence of CSA with different curing
ages is discussed. Cost comparison is made between conventional and cupola slag
aggregate concrete.

1.1 World Scenario

Factory which produces metal casting is called foundries. As per 49th census of
World Casting Production, there are about 47,145 plants as per 2014 census which
includes 21,532 cast iron plants those produces 47,795,820 metric tonnes of cast iron
[7].
Global casting production is raised by 2.3% (2.4 Million metric tonnes) in 2014
compared to the previous year [7]. Statistical data can be seen in Table 1.

1.2 Indian Scenario

In India, several foundries are located in places like Agra, Rajkot, Belgaum, Chennai,
Pune, Ludhiana, Howra, Coimbatore and Kolhapur (Fig. 1). In India, casting produc-
tion is increased from 6.055 tonnes to 10.01 tonnes from 2005–06 to 2014–15 [8].
These industries employ about 5,00,000 people directly & 1,50,000 people indirectly.
The map shows major locations in India generating cupola slag.
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 225

Fig. 1 Map showing major

CI production units in India

Table 2 Production of cupola slag in Gujarat

Slag produced Per day average Total furnace in Working days Total cupola slag
per tonne production Gujarat we get
40 kg 25 tonnes 2500 300 12,50,000 tonnes

1.3 Scenario in Gujarat

In Gujarat, major portion of cupola furnaces covered by Rajkot having 1000–1200

registered foundries followed by Kathwada and other small furnaces which produces
about 12,50,000 tonnes of cupola slag in a year. These figures can be justified by
Table 2 [9].

1.4 Cupola Furnace

Cupola furnace (Fig. 2) is a melting device used in foundries that melts cast iron and
some bronzes. The size of a cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from
0.5 to 4.0 m. The overall shape of cupola furnace is cylindrical, and the equipment
is arranged vertically, usually supported by four legs. Cupola furnaces are operated
using coke, limestone and dolomite.
226 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Fig. 2 Cupola furnace

1.5 Need of Study

Crushed stones obtained from natural resources are being used as coarse aggregate in
concrete for centuries, which are mainly responsible for emission of hazardous gases
in environment. So there is a need to develop alternative material due to increase in
demand and depletion of native deposits and also due to government restrictions on
quarrying the aggregates from natural deposits and for environmental protection and
climate change. Civil engineers, architects, builders, and contractors agreed that the
natural aggregate, which is available today, is deficient in many respects. It does not
content the proper gradation of particles as required. Nowadays, government have put
ban on dredging aggregates from natural deposits. The need for alternative aggregate,
i.e. cupola slag aggregates are increasing these days as the cost of natural aggregate
is becoming high day by day as there is a scarcity and also there is a need to safeguard
the natural resources for future generation. Dredging of the aggregates from native
deposits reduces the waterhead, so less percolation of rainwater in ground, which
results in lower ground water level affects climate change. Dredging of aggregates
required some explosions in quarries which creates noise pollution to surrounding
environment. It also removes upper layer of vegetation which leads to loss of wildlife
and environment. Dredging is a required removal of earth rocks which may affect
the plate tectonics. It also creates a barrier in automatic recharging of wells which
leads to considerable lowering of ground water table and creates a problem of water
to the persons living nearby site. It also proves costlier as lengthy process includes
quarrying, crushing and sieving. Cupola slag, which is recently going to land filling
is major problem to environment and waste land on which it is stacked.
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 227

Table 3 Alternative materials used as replacement of CA [16–22]

Material Grade Optimum % of Strength Minimum Change in
replacement achieved required strength (%)
(%) (Mpa) strength
Marble waste M20 50 27.57 26.6 +3.64
Demolished M20 20 27.20 26.6 +2.25
waste
Calcite tile M20 50 22.25 26.6 −16.35
aggregate
E-Plastic M20 16 26.98 26.6 +1.42
waste
Coconut shell M20 15 24.6 26.6 −7.51
Ceramic waste M20 30 27.2 26.6 +2.25
Blast furnace M20 40 27.00 26.6 +1.50
slag
Cupola slag M20 80 27.02 26.6 +1.57

1.6 Alternative Materials

Recently IS has published a press note on alternatives of natural resources [10].

Researchers have identified many materials which can be used as replacement of
coarse aggregates as shown in Table 3, but many of them has alternative uses such as
marble and ceramic waste, some materials possess organic properties which results
in unfavourable durability properties and can deteriorate the concrete with respect
to time such as coconut shell, etc. Some materials such as recycled aggregate gives
good results but fails to give higher percentage of replacement.
So, in the present study efforts are made to achieve the concrete which can give
the favourable mechanical, durability and workability properties, and can give higher
percentage of replacement and also proves to be cost effective.

1.7 Aggregate Preparation

Cupola slag collected from industries in lumps of sizes varying 30–300 mm is crushed
in jaw crusher and sieved to get appropriate size of aggregates [11].In the present
study aggregates passing from 20 mm and retaining on 16 mm sieve were used as
aggregates of 20 mm size and same from 12.5 to 10 mm is used as 10 mm aggregates.
Aggregate preparation can be understand by Fig. 3.
228 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Fig. 3 Making of cupola

slag aggregate

2 Expriemental Material

2.1 Cement

The cement taken was ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade having specific gravity
of 3.05, standard consistency of 28% and initial and final setting time of 46 and
240 min, respectively.

2.2 Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregates confirming to IS 383 were used in this work of zone-II, fineness
modulus of 2.58 and having specific gravity 2.31 and water absorption of 0.86%

2.3 Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregates confirming to requirements of IS 383 were used in this work.

Coarse aggregates of 20 and 10 mm were used in the ratio of 60:40 for this work.
The natural coarse aggregate was fully or partially replaced by same size of cupola
slag aggregate.

2.4 Water

Clean tap water from lab was used for both mixing and curing activities.
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 229

Fig. 4 Cupola slag going to

land filling

Table 4 Comparison of
Properties Natural aggregate Cupola slag
physical properties of
aggregates
aggregates
Specific gravity 2.67 2.50
Bulk density 1618 1640
Fineness modulus 3.82 4.6
Crushing value 17% 27%
Impact value 19% 26%
Water absorption 1.17% 0.4%
Moisture content 0.012 0.004

2.5 CSA (Cupola Slag Aggregate)

Aggregates prepared from cupola slag (Fig. 4) are termed as cupola slag aggregates
(CSA) here. Physical properties were checked by relative standards of IS: 383 and
compared with natural aggregates as shown in Table 4.
Chemical properties of cupola slag were checked by WDXRF method. Contents
found are given in Table 5.

3 Experimental Programme

3.1 Concrete Mix and Sample Preparation

Mix design prepared for M20 grade in accordance with IS: 10262-2009 is given
in Table 6. To find optimum percentage of replacement cupola slag aggregate was
replaced with coarse aggregate in increasing value of 10% from control mix to full
replacement. (CM–C100)
230 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Table 5 Chemical properties of cupola slag

Sl. No. Element Percentage
1 Al2 O3 9.5
2 MnO 2.9
3 SiO2 45.0
4 MgO 2.35
5 TiO2 1.00
6 CaO 14.250
7 Fe2 O3 23.500
8 Cr2 O3 0.300
9 Na2 O 0.500
10 K2 O 0.000

Table 6 M20 Mix design [23]

Slump (mm) w/c ratio Cement (Kg) FA (Kg) CA (Kg)
100 0.55 358.47 708.97 1117.28

Table 7 Replacement of cupola slag aggregate (CSA) with natural aggregates (NA) [24]
Mix NA (%) CSA (%) Mix NA (%) CSA (%)
CMO 100 0 60C 40 60
10C 90 10 70C 30 70
20C 80 20 80C 20 80
30C 70 30 90C 10 90
40C 60 40 100C 0 100
50C 50 50

Quality of concrete for all the mix was checked for different curing age. In Table 7,
10C indicates concrete with 10% replacement of cupola slag as coarse aggregate,
while Fig. 5 indicates compressive strength.

3.2 Tests Performed

Tests for mechanical and durability properties were performed on concrete with
optimum level of replacement as Table 8.
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 231

Compressive Strength (Mpa)

CMO 10C 20C 30C 40C 50C 60C 70C 80C 90C 100C
Type of Concrete

Fig. 5 Compressive strength of concrete

Table 8 Casting schedule

Tests Size (mm) Days
3 7 28
Compression 150 × 150 × 150 3 3 3
Tension 150 × 300 3 3 3
Flexure 700 × 150 × 150 3 3 3
RCPT 50 × 100 – – 3
Sorptivity 50 × 100 – – 3
Acid attack 150 × 150 × 150 – – 3
NACL attack 150 × 150 × 150 – – 3
Le-Chat 150 × 150 × 150 – – 3

Table 9 Workability test

Test performed CMO 80C
results
Slump test 90 110
Compaction factor test 0.92 0.95

3.3 Tests on Fresh Concrete

Freshly prepared concrete mixes were tested for workability by slump test com-
paction factor test in accordance with relevant code. Results for slump and com-
paction factor tests are shown in Table 9

3.4 Tests on Hardened Concrete

Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties of concrete are of utmost importance affected by various
parameters such as w/c ratio, material properties, admixtures and mix proportions.
232 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Compressive, split tensile and flexural strength tests [12, 13] were obtained by testing
cube, cylinder and beams, respectively, at 3, 7 and 28 days age of curing. Results
obtained were compared with control mix as shown in Figs. 6, 7 and 8.

Fig. 6 Comparison of 35

Compressive Strength (Mpa)

compressive strength test
results
30
25
20
15 CMO
10 80C
5
0
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days
Age of Concrete

Fig. 7 Comparison of 3.5

tensile strength test results
3
Tensile Strength (Mpa)

2.5
2
1.5 CMO
1 80C
0.5
0
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days
Age of Concrete
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 233

Fig. 8 Comparison of 5

Flexural Strength (Mpa)

flexural strength test results

2 CMO

1 80C

0
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days
Age of Concrete

Durability properties
Sorptivity test
Absorption of water by concretes creates adverse effects on durability of concrete,
so this test was carried out to know about concretes capillary action to absorb water
[14]. Weight before putting in apparatus is noted as W. Apparatus is made wet by
inserting water. Now, increase in weight after each 30 min is noted down as W1,
W2, and W3, respectively. (Table 10) Sorptivity measured is calculated in mm from
following relation.

I
S=
t1/2
Due to characteristics of cupola slag of lower water absorption compared to natural
aggregate difference in results can be noticed as below.
Acid & NaCl attack
Test is carried out to know about concretes’ reaction in aggressive environment if
it is subjected to acid and NaCl such as industrial buildings, ware houses, etc. and
coastal area structures, respectively. Cubes are immersed in solution (5% H2 SO4 &
5% NaCl) for 28 days after weighing. Strength and weight loss measured, compared
to conventional concrete, can be tabulated as Tables 11 and 12.
RCPT test
In this test one lead is immersed into 0.3 M NaOH and other in 3% NaCl solution
[15]. Columbs passing in 6 h at 60 V constant DC supply from the disc is measured.
Based on this charge (Columbs passing), quality of concrete can be ascertained as
follows (Table 13).

Q = 900(I0 + 2I30 + 2I60 + . . . + I360 )

234 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Table 10 Sorptivity results

Control mix 80C
Fully dry Disc 1 Disc 2 Disc 3 Fully dry Disc 1 Disc 2 Disc 3
weight 1.119 1.057 1.040 weight 1.110 1.112 1.037
Time Time
10:00 1.119 1.057 1.040 09:30 1.110 1.112 1.037
10:30 1.119 1.057 1.040 10:00 1.110 1.113 1.037
11:00 1.120 1.057 1.041 10:30 1.111 1.113 1.038
11:30 1.120 1.058 1.041 11:00 1.111 1.114 1.038
12:00 1.120 1.058 1.041 11:30 1.113 1.114 1.039
12:30 1.122 1.059 1.043 12:00 1.113 1.114 1.039
01:00 1.122 1.059 1.043 12:30 1.113 1.115 1.039
01:30 1.122 1.060 1.043 01:00 1.113 1.115 1.039
02:00 1.123 1.060 1.043 01:30 1.113 1.115 1.039
02:30 1.123 1.060 1.044 02:00 1.113 1.115 1.039
03:00 1.123 1.060 1.044 02:30 1.113 1.115 1.039
03:30 1.123 1.060 1.044 03:00 1.113 1.115 1.039
Sorptivity 1.07 × 8.06 × 1.07 × Sorptivity 1.07 × 1.07 × 5.37 ×
10−10 10−11 10−10 10−10 10−10 10−11
Average Average 8.92 × 10−11 mm × s−1/2

Table 11 NaCl and acid attack tests on natural aggregate concrete

Sl. No. 5% NaCl 5% H2 SO4
Initial Final NaCl Natural Acid Initial Final
weight weight curing curing curing weight weight
1 8.379 8.257 28.05 30.03 25.90 8.692 8.390
2 8.448 8.239 28.95 29.49 28.96 8.681 8.436
3 8.639 8.549 28.10 29.91 27.05 8.623 8.412
Avg. 8.488 8.348 28.36 29.81 27.30 8.665 8.412
Loss (%) 1.64 5.15 8.72 2.80

Table 12 NaCl and acid attack tests on cupola slag aggregate concrete
Sl. No. 5% NaCl 5% H2 SO4
Initial Final CS-28 Natural Acid Initial Final
weight weight curing curing weight weight
1 8.85 8.76 27.46 29.81 26.84 8.79 8.65
2 8.87 8.78 27.90 27.83 26.10 8.85 8.75
3 8.75 8.65 26.80 26.92 27.52 8.61 8.50
Avg. 8.82 8.73 27.38 28.18 26.82 8.75 8.63
Loss (%) 1.02 2.83 4.83 1.37
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 235

Table 13 Results of RCPT

Mix type Columbs passing
CMO 996
80C 1062

Fig. 9 Le-chat analysis

Table 14 Results of Le-chat

Parameters After curing CMO 80C
analysis
Total alkalinity (PPM) 17 700 235
Total hardness (PPM) 287 300 70
Chloride (mg/l) 34.56 28.49 30.59
Iron (PPM) 0.2 0.2 0.3

Environmental feasibility
Cubes of control mix and cupola slag aggregate concrete were cured in different
water tubs for 28 days. Le-chat analysis (Fig. 9) was done to check that curing water
after runoff is not harmful to environment as cupola slag is used as coarse aggregate.
Tests done for different parameters are given in Table 14.

4 Cost Comparision

Cost was compared for M20 grade concrete by considering market rates for each
material as given in Table 15. As cupola slag is freely available as waste from cast
iron manufacturing units at present, it costs only for crushing and transportation.
236 V. K. Mistry and D.J. Varia

Table 15 Cost comparison per cubic metre

Material Rate (INR) CMO 80C
Q (Kg) Amount Q (Kg) Amount
Cement (Bag) 265 358.4 1899.8 358.4 1899.8
FA (Tonnes) 320 708.9 226.5 708.9 226.5
CA (Tonnes) 800 1117.2 893.6 243.4 178.4
CSA (Tonnes) 370 – – 893.8 330.4
Water (Lit) 0.10 197.1 19.7 197.1 19.7
Total 3039.76 2654.9
Saving 384.7 Rs/m3
Saving (%) 12.65%

5 Conclusion

The technical and economic advantage is derived to consider the foundry waste, as
essential ingredient to use in concrete to obtain, efficient results by using cupola
slag as coarse aggregate in concrete, requires a strategy of optimum percentage
of replacement. The major conclusions from the studies presented in paper can be
outlined as below.
• Compressive strength remains almost same when using cupola slag aggregate as
replacement of natural aggregate. Split tensile and flexural strength are decreased
by 2.13 and 3.37%, respectively, in cupola slag aggregate concrete due to higher
crushing value of the slag. But this
√ achieves required values in both cases as 10%
of compressive strength and 0.7 f ck for tensile and flexural strength, respectively.
• Due to lower water absorption of cupola slag, higher workability can be obtained
for same w/c ratio compared to conventional concrete.
• By conducting the durability tests, the favourable properties of CSA concrete were
found better resistance when subjected to aggressive environment, absorption of
less water, and passing the chlorides in permissible limits of ASTM-C:1202 for
good concrete.
• By conducting various tests on water used in curing of CSA concrete, it can be
said that, runoff water after curing does not affect the environment.

References

1. Kumar, R., Naik, T.R.: Greener concrete using industrial by-products. Indian Concr. J. 88
(2015)
2. Demeter, P., Baricova, D., et al.: Experiences with cupola slag using by concrete production.
In: 9th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geo Conference, vol. 2. pp. 683–687 (2009)
3. Balaraman, R., Anne Ligoria, S.: Utilization of cupola slag in concrete as fine and coarse
aggregate. Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol. 6, 06–14 (2015)
Green Concrete by Replacing Coarse Aggregate with Cupola … 237

4. Baricova, D., Pribulova, A., Demeter, P.: Comparison of possibilities the blast furnace and
cupola slag utilization by concrete production. Arch. Foundry Eng. 10, 15–18 (2010)
5. Yuvaraj, T., Palanivel, M.: Environmental feasibility in utilization of foundry solid waste for
M20 Concrete Mix. IOSR J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. Food Technol. 9, 16–23 (2015)
6. IS: 383-1970: Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
7. th Census of world casting production, Modest Growth in Worldwide Casting Market, A modern
casting staff report
8. Foundry Informatics Center. http://www.foundryinfoindia.org/profile_of_indian.aspx
9. Conversation with industrialists of different parts of Gujarat
10. Indian Standards for alternative materials to natural sand and other natural resources (http://
www.bis.org.in/other/PR_NSNR.pdf)
11. IS: 2430 1986: Methods for Sampling of Aggregates for Concrete Bureau of Indian Standards.
New Delhi
12. IS: 516-1959: Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi
13. IS: 5816-1999: Method of Test Splitting Tensile Strength of Concrete”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi
14. ASTM C1585-13 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by
Hydraulic-Cement Concretes
15. ASTM C1202-12 Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist
Chloride Ion Penetration
16. Dhanasri, K., Kumar, K.: Performance of concrete by replacing coarse and fine aggregate with
blast furnace slag and crusher dust. Int. J. Innovative Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 9, 7608–7612
(2013)
17. Daniyal, Md., Ahmad, S.: Application of waste ceramic tile aggregates in concrete. Int. J.
Innovative Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 4, 12808–12815 (2015)
18. Manatkar, P.A., et al.: Use of Non- Metallic e-waste as a coarse aggregate in a concrete. Int. J.
Res. Eng. Technol. 4, 242–246 (2015)
19. Monish, M., Srivastava, V., Agarwal, V.C., Mehta, P.K., Kumar, R.: Demolished waste as coarse
aggregate in concrete. Youth Educ. Res. Trust 1, 540–542 (2013)
20. Sugathan, A.: Investigation on compressive strength of concrete utilizing broken marble tiles
as coarse aggregate. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. 3(5), 2171–2176 (2016)
21. Rajeevan, B., Shamjith, K.M.: A study on the utilization of coconut shell as coarse aggregate
in concrete. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 4, 77–80 (2015)
22. Lavangare, V.H., Kulkarni, G.S.: Comparative analyzing of replacement of natural fine and
coarse aggregate by foundry waste and treated waste water. Int. J. Sci. Res. 4(8), 1094–1100
(2015)
23. IS: 10262-2009: Guidelines for concrete mix design proportioning, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi
24. Mistry, V.K., Patel, B.R., et al.: Suitability of concrete using cupola slag as replacement of
coarse aggregate. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 7, 1182–1186 (2016)
Potential Study of Atmospheric Water
Generator (AWG) for Humid Climatic
Conditions of Eastern States in India

Krunal Patel, Jatin Patel and Harshil Raval

Abstract Water scarcity is one of the major issues which India is currently facing.
About 600 million Indian population is facing high to extreme stress over water.
Despite water resources, India’s eastern states are actually water poor as house-
holds and individuals remain inadequate of water supply. These eastern states are
blessed with humid climates where average yearly relative humidity and dry-bulb
temperature range from 75 to 85% and from 20 to 30 °C, respectively, which clearly
indicates that these regions have high water extraction potential from the atmosphere.
Atmospheric water generator is a reliable technology to harvest water from the atmo-
sphere. In this paper, an analytical investigation is presented to analyse the potential
of atmospheric water generator (AWG) for eastern Indian states. Amount of water
yield was calculated for different major cities and towns of eastern states around the
year. Monthly condensate extraction remained in the range from 1800 to 2100 kg.
Per kg cost of condensate for different evaporator temperatures was investigated. For
evaporator temperature at 5 °C, the cost varied from 0.95 INR to 1.30 INR. It was
noticeable that condensate extraction was clearly a function of air humidity ratio and
temperature. The condensate yield follows a similar trend of relative humidity.

Nomenclature

h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg K)

ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Q̇ Rate of heat transfer (kW)
T Temperature (°C)
Ẇ Rate of work (kW)
RH Relative humidity

K. Patel (B) · J. Patel · H. Raval

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 239

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_21
240 K. Patel et al.

DBT Dry-bulb temperature

DPT Dew point temperature

Greek Symbols

ε Effectiveness
ω Humidity ratio

Subscripts

e Exit
i Inlet
ev Evaporator
r Refrigerant
a Air
com Compressor
c Condenser

1 Introduction

Water scarcity is one of the severe and threatening issues which India is currently
dealing with. Water demand has increased and even further going to be increased due
to increasing population, industrialization and urbanization. By 2025, the per capita
availability of water will drop down to 1341 m3 and will further drop to 1140 m3
in 2050 [1]. NITI Aayog report on Composite Water Management Index (CWMI)
states that about 600 million Indian population faces high to extreme water stress
and nearly 200,000 people die every year due to the inadequacy of safe drinking
water. The north-east region of India consists of the seven sister states, namely
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura and
the Himalayan state of Sikkim. As per the 2015 statistics, the total population of this
region was 45,587,982, which is nearly 4% of the total population of India [2]. This
region occupies 8% of India’s total landmass.
Despite the abundance of natural resources in these regions, especially water, still
there are water scarcity problems. There is plenty of rainfall during monsoon season in
these regions. Due to lack of infrastructural facilities, water storage becomes difficult
and rainwater runs off quickly due to hilly terrains. Many of the water bodies dry off
in non-rainy season. Table 1 shows the average rainfall in the major cities of eastern
states.
Potential Study of Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) for Humid … 241

Table 1 Average annual rainfall for the major cities of eastern states
Cities Winter (mm) Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post- Total (mm)
(coordinates) (mm) (mm) monsoon
(mm)
Guwahati 25.8 475 841 75.8 1417.6
(26.1445° N,
91.7362° E)
Itanagar 72.5 905.4 2368 194.5 3540.3
(27.0869° N,
93.6086° E)
Imphal 32.3 573.8 710.8 183.5 1500.3
(24.8170° N,
93.9368° E)
Cherrapunji 22.4 1771.7 4363.3 368.8 6526.2
(25.2717° N,
91.7308° E)
Aizawl 16.7 751.6 1472.2 269.2 2509.6
(23.7271° N,
92.7176° E)
Kohima 29.3 193.2 871.5 173.4 1267.5
(25.6586° N,
94.1053° E)
Pelling 15.7 389 1665 110.5 2180.2
(27.3198° N,
88.2400° E)
Agartala 27.2 671.3 829.20 286.8 1814.4
(23.8315° N,
91.2868° E)

There is a significant decrease in the amount of rainfall during non-monsoon

seasons. These states have also seen high rise in population growth since last decade
increasing per capita demand for water. Several other reasons which are responsible
for water scarcity in these regions are as follows [3]:

Faulted steep slope Impervious rocky Inaccessible ground Population

Great altitude of
surface water growth and
the region
urbanization

Water source distribution in north-eastern states is shown in Fig. 1. Arunachal

Pradesh and Sikkim mainly rely on untreated tap water for their drinking needs.
Nearly 21% of the households have access to tap water. Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizo-
ram and Nagaland mainly depend on additional water sources such as ponds, rivers
and springs which are away from their premises. These natural water resources dry
242 K. Patel et al.

100%
90%
80%
Others
70%
60% Tube well/Borehole
50% Hand pump
40%
30% Uncovered Well
20% Covered Well
10%
Untreated Tap Water
0%
Arunachal Pradesh

Assam

Manipur

Meghalaya

Mizorum

Nagaland

Sikkim

Tripura
Treated Tap Water

Fig. 1 Distribution of water source across eastern states of India

off during non-rainy season, creating water scare situation. Figure 2 shows the water
availability distribution across north-eastern states. Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram
and Nagaland have less than 30% of water resources within their premises. In spite
of good annual rainfall, these states are actually water poor due to less infrastruc-
tural facility, geographical location, population growth and unavailability of water
resources.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to introduce a technology for water generation
which is reliable, clean and cost-effective. Atmospheric water generator (AWG) is
one such technology where freshwater is obtained from the atmosphere by conden-

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% Away
20%
10% Near Premises
0%
Within Premises
Arunachal Pradesh

Assam

Manipur

Meghalaya

Mizorum

Nagaland

Sikkim

Tripura

Fig. 2 Availability of water source across eastern states of India

Potential Study of Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) for Humid … 243

sation [4]. Eastern states of India have tremendous amount of water available from
atmosphere due to its humid climate around the year. Condensation of water vapour
from atmospheric air occurs in different ways [5]. Cooling air below its dew point
temperature by passing it over evaporator coil in VCR system is one of the common
methods used [6]. Condensate extraction from the AWG by condensation is safe and
consumable for humans after required microbial treatments [4].
From the comprehensive study, it was noticeable that no research was done to
analyse the potential of AWG for eastern states of India over different climatic con-
ditions around the year. This paper presents an analytical study of rate of condensate
extraction from 1 ton VCR system for important cities and towns of eastern states.
Metrological data of last three years were obtained to analyse the potential of AWG.
Average condensate outputs for every month over last three years were obtained from
major cities located in the eastern states of India. Reliability of AWG for these states
was studied.

2 Description of System

There are mainly four components in vapour compression refrigeration system: a

compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve and an evaporator as shown in Fig. 3.
The refrigerant passing through the evaporator absorbs the heat from the air pass-
ing over evaporator coil and exits as saturated vapour (state 1). Air is cooled below
its dew point temperature, when it comes in contact with evaporator coil and con-
densation occurs. From evaporator, refrigerant will pass through compressor where
vapour achieves high pressure and temperature (state 2). This high pressure and high
temperature vapour refrigerant gets condensed into liquid state in the condenser by
rejecting the heat to the flowing air stream (state 3). Further, the expansion process
occurs in capillary tube where pressure and the temperature of refrigerant decreases
(state 4).

Fig. 3 Schematic of AWG

system
244 K. Patel et al.

2.1 Analytical Prediction of Condensate Extraction

Condensate extraction for AWG can be evaluated with the help of evaporator cooling
capacity and mass flow rate of air passing over the evaporator coil. With the help
of the inlet air properties, air mass flow rate and cooling capacity, the enthalpy at
evaporator exit can be determined by:

Q̇ ev = ṁ a,ev (h a,ev,i − h a,ev,e ) (1)

Coil effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum pos-
sible heat transfer. Coil effectiveness is evaluated from the inlet air enthalpy, exit air
enthalpy and minimum air enthalpy. Outlet air humidity ratio ωev,e is evaluated using
coil effectiveness, inlet air humidity ratio and minimum humidity ratio. Minimum
enthalpy, h ev,r , and minimum humidity ratio, ωev,r , of the air were calculated from
the evaporating temperature of the refrigerant.

(h a,ev,i − h a,ev,e ) (ωev,i − ωev,e )

εev = = (2)
(h a,ev,i − h ev,r ) (ωev,i − ωev,r )

Condensate extraction can be determined by applying mass conservation across

the evaporator coil by:

ṁ c = ṁ a,ev (ωev,i − ωev,e ) (3)

Equation (3) clearly depicts that mass flow rate of condensate extracted is clearly
function of humidity ratio of air passing over evaporator coil at particular temperature.
Heat transfer across evaporator from refrigerant can be determined by:

Q̇ ev = ṁ r (h 1 − h 4 ) (4)

Heat transfer across condenser side can be determined by:

Q̇ c = ṁ r (h 2 − h 3 ) (5)

Compressor input power can be determined by:

Ẇcom = ṁ r (h 2 − h 1 ) (6)
Potential Study of Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) for Humid … 245

3 Methodology

Figures 4 and 5 show relative humidity and temperature variations of major cities
and towns of eastern India over a year. These data are average of last three years
meteorological data. Average relative humidity of these regions remained above
75% over a year. It is noticeable that these regions have tremendous potential for
water generation from atmosphere around the year. This climatic data were used to
investigate the condensate extraction.

100
Itanagar
90
Relative Humidiy (%)

80 Guwahati
70 Imphal
60
Cherrpunji
50
40 Aizawl
30 Kohima
20
Pelling
10
0 Agartala
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December
Month

Fig. 4 Variation of RH in different months [7, 8]

35
Itanagar
30 Guwahati
25 Imphal
DBT ( ͦ C)

20 Cherrpunji
15 Aizawl
10 Kohima
5 Pelling
0 Agartala
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Month

Fig. 5 Variation of DBT in different months [7, 8]

246 K. Patel et al.

4 Results and Discussion

Table 2 shows the condensate extraction and the cost per kg of condensate for different
arbitrary data of relative humidity and temperature from eastern states. Figures 6 and
7 show the amount of condensate extraction from different regions around the year. It
is noticeable from the figure that condensate extraction increases during the month of
July, August and September. Agartala, Guwahati, Aizwal and Itanagar have average
monthly condensation of more than 2000 kg. There is abrupt change in condensate
extraction during months of December and January.

Table 2 Hourly condensate yield and cost per kg of condensate

RH (%) DBT (°C) DPT (°C) Condensate yield (kg)/h Cost (INR)/kg
86 16 13.66 2.46 1.27
72 21 15.76 2.35 1.34
64 30 22.44 2.66 1.18
91 29 27.37 3.21 0.98
66 32 24.84 2.89 1.11
84 21 18.19 2.70 1.16
90 28 26.20 3.15 0.99
83 21 18.00 2.68 1.17
75 22 17.37 2.51 1.25
87 25 22.68 2.97 1.06
Condensate cost is calculated, considering unit charge of 5.8 INR [9]

2400
Itanagar
(Arunachal
2200
Pradesh)
Condensate (kg/month)

2000 Guwahati
(Assam)
1800
Imphal
1600 (Manipur)

1400 Cherrpunji
(Meghalaya)
1200

1000
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Month

Fig. 6 Condensate extraction around the year for different regions

Potential Study of Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) for Humid … 247

2200
Aizawl
(Mizoram)
2000
Condensate (kg/month)

Kohima
1800 (Nagaland)

1600 Pelling
(Sikkim)
1400
Agartala
(Tripura)
1200

1000
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

December
November
Month

Fig. 7 Condensate extraction around the year for different regions

To know the variation in the cost of condensate with evaporator temperature,

condensate yield of ‘Itanagar’ was analysed as shown in Fig. 8. It was noticeable that
for higher evaporator, temperature condensate cost decreased significantly. This was
due to the reduction of compressor work at higher operating evaporator temperature.
Condensate cost was even less than 1 INR per kg of condensate during months
of April, May, June, July, August, September when evaporator temperature was at
10 °C. As DBT of these regions remains comparatively lower, heat rejection in

1.6
1.5
1.4
cost /kg of condensate

1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

month

Cost/kg (Tev=0 ͦ C) Cost/kg (Tev=5 ͦ C) Cost/kg (Tev=10 ͦ C)

Fig. 8 Cost (INR)/kg of condensate at different evaporator temperatures for Itanagar

248 K. Patel et al.

the condenser can be done at lower temperature and pressure thereby reducing the
compressor work.

5 Conclusion

Eastern states in India are actually water poor in spite of good amount of rainfall dur-
ing monsoon. This paper presented the potential of 1 TR AWG for the humid climates
of eastern states of India. AWG can extract large amount of water from atmosphere
which has potential to fulfil daily needs. Agartala, Aizwal, Itanagar and Guwahati
have high water extraction potential. Highest amount of condensate extraction is
in the months of July, August and September. Cost of condensate per kg gradually
decreases with increase in evaporator temperature. Condensate cost decreases dur-
ing June, July, August and September. Condensate cost decreases between 0.81 and
0.80 INR during months of August and September when evaporator is at 10 °C. Con-
densate extraction is clearly function of air inlet relative humidity and temperature.
Due to the humid climatic conditions, ample amount of condensate can be extracted
around the year. An average of 1 TR AWG can fulfil drinking needs of 23 persons per
day with the cost of 0.9–1.6 INR per kg of condensate. Hence, AWG is economically
reliable technology which has a high potential to meet the increasing water demand.

References

1. Mehta P.: Impending water crisis in India and comparing clean water standards among devel-
oping and developed nations. 4(1), 497–507 (2012)
2. Eastern, N., Secretariat, C.: Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region 2015 (2015)
3. Kumar, R., Singh, R.D., Sharma, K.D.: Water resources of India. Curr. Sci. 10, 794–811 (2005)
4. Al-Farayedhi, A.A., Ibrahim, N.I., Gandhidasan, P.: Condensate as a water source from vapor
compression systems in hot and humid regions. Desalination 15(349), 60–67 (2014)
5. El-ghonemy, A.M.K.: Fresh water production from/by atmospheric air for arid regions, using
solar energy : Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16(8), 6384–6422 (2012). Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.06.029
6. Habeebullah, B.A.: Potential use of evaporator coils for water extraction in hot and humid
areas. Desalination. 237(1–3), 330–345 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.01.025
7. http://www.indiawaterportal.org/met_data/. Accessed on 10 Sept 2018
8. National Institute of Hydrology. Retrieved from http://www.nih.ernet.in/on 19/10/2018
9. https://data.gov.in/catalog/state-wise-average-rate-electricity-domestic-and-industrial-
consumers. Accessed on 30 Jan 2019
10. Tortajada, C., Saklani, U., Biswas, A.K.: 13 Water Scarcity and Regional Security in India.
July (2017)
Exergy Analysis—A Useful Concept
of Sustainability for Air Source Heat
Pump System

Nidhi Trapasia, Krunal Patel and Rajesh Patel

Abstract Due to increasing energy demand, exergy analysis becomes necessary to

use energy-efficient systems by minimizing losses. India is one of the largest markets
of air source heat pump system. Taking this criterion into consideration, this study
aims to investigate the performance of air source heat pump system. To identify the
losses, exergy destruction in each component was determined. It was noticeable that
exergy destruction of compressor was highest (40.76%) because of its non-isentropic
compression and friction losses, followed by the expansion valve (36.03%), evapora-
tor (15.72%) and condenser (7.5%). Effect of condenser temperature on second law
efficiency varied linearly with decreasing nature. Effect of evaporator temperature on
overall efficiency was studied. Coefficient of performance of the actual system (4.28)
deviated from the theoretical COP (5.23) because of pressure loss in condenser and
evaporator.

Nomenclature

h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Q̇ Rate of heat transfer (kW)
T Temperature (K)
s Specific entropy (kJ/kg k)
Ẇ Rate of work (kW)
Ẋ Exergy destruction rate (kW)

N. Trapasia (B) · K. Patel · R. Patel

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 249

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_22
250 N. Trapasia et al.

Greek Symbols

η Exergy efficiency

Subscripts

c Compressor
o Ambient temperature
con Condenser
evap Evaporator
Exp Expansion device

1 Introduction

Need of water heating or cooling is increasing drastically in residential and com-

mercial sectors. Conventional water heaters are consuming more energy because of
its use of fossil fuels. Air source heat pump water heaters are energy-efficient and
environment-friendly. It works on electrically driven vapour compressor refrigeration
system. Heat pump uses heat of outdoor renewable air to heat the water. Compared
to electric heater, ASHPWH conserves electricity and reduces the money spent on
electricity by 40% [1]. As there are no CO2 emissions thereby making the system
eco-friendly and green.
Gang et al. [2] studied the comparison between the instantaneous heating and
cyclic heating. They observed that instantaneous heating mode provides the best
performance in terms of higher condensation and shorter heating time. Mi et al.
[3] carried out exergy analysis of heat pump water heater. They concluded that
compressor had the largest exergy loss coefficient in the system, and exergy efficiency
can be improved by variable frequency compressor. Zhang et al. [4] performed system
optimization of air source heat pump water heater for refrigerant filling quantity,
condenser coil pipe length and thermal expansion valve opening degree. Ding et al. [5]
developed to improve heat pump that runs on scroll compressor with supplementary
injection system. They had addressed the performance of system in all circumstances
by energizing and de-energizing solenoid valve. Fei et al. [6] carried out energy
and exergy analysis of ground source heat pump water heater. They noticed that
condenser had the lowest exergy efficiency followed by evaporator. They investigated
the performance of system in heating and cooling mode with COP 2.68(cooling) and
3.1(heating).
Many researchers’ work on quantitative analysis of heat pump, but for more
precise result exergy analysis is must. A very few researcher worked on exergy
Exergy Analysis—A Useful Concept of Sustainability for Air … 251

analysis. To enhance the performance of system, it is necessary to identify energy-

inefficient component. So, design and optimization of any product of manufacturing
industries can be improved by exergy analysis.

2 Description of System

Air source heat pump water heater operates on vapour compression cycle. Work-
ing fluid is R22 refrigerant. R22 is used to absorb heat from air and evaporates in
evaporator. From evaporator, refrigerant will pass through compressor where vapour
achieves high pressure and temperature. Then refrigerant goes into condenser where
it gets condense into liquid by rejecting the heat into tank. Heat rejected by refrig-
erant is absorbed by water to heat water. After heat rejection, refrigerant expands in
capillary tube, where liquid refrigerant drops its pressure and temperature. To run the
system in all climates, reversing valve is fitted in between compressor and evaporator.
Air source heat pump has PLC control, which is used to control the temperature as
per requirement. Detail description for each component of heat pump water heater
is as follows (Table 1; Fig. 1).
Figure 2 represents the actual and ideal pressure-enthalpy curve for ASHPWH.
There is pressure loss occurs in condenser and evaporator side. Thus, an experimental
reading was taken for actual working condition as follows (Table 2).

3 Mathematical Modelling

Exergy can be transferred to or from a system in three ways, i.e.by mass, heat and
work. It can be expressed
 as X mass = m (where  = (h − h 0 ) − T0 (s − s0 ) +
v2 /2 + gz), X heat = 1 − TTo Q and X work = Wreversible , respectively.
Exergy balance for steady flow system can be given as per below [7]

Table 1 Specification of experimental set-up

S. No. Component Specification
1 Evaporator Tube and fin type (aluminium fin)
2 Condenser Wrap around condenser coil
3 Compressor Rotary (KCJ515lAE)
4 Expansion device Capillary tube
5 Tank 100 litre (stainless steel-SS304)
6 Refrigerant piping Copper pipe (3/8 diameter)
252 N. Trapasia et al.

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of ASHPWH in heating mode

 To
  
1− Q̇ k − Ẇ + ṁ − ṁ − Ẋ destroy = 0
Tk in out

Exergy destruction can also be obtained indirectly by entropy balance, i.e. X dest
= T 0 (sgen ) where T o is ambient temperature 27 °C.
Exergy destruction for compressor can be determined by
Exergy Analysis—A Useful Concept of Sustainability for Air … 253

Fig. 2 P-h curve

Table 2 Observed reading

S. No. Parameters Value
1 Condenser inlet pressure 16.55 bar
2 Condenser outlet pressure 15.14 bar
3 Condenser inlet temperature 65 °C
4 Condenser outlet temperature 30 °C
5 Evaporator inlet pressure 5.05 bar
6 Evaporator outlet pressure 5.17 bar
7 Evaporator inlet temperature 5 °C
8 Evaporator outlet temperature 10 °C
9 Capacity of system 1 tonne of refrigeration

Ẋ c = T0 ṁ(s2 − s1 ) (1)

The refrigerant rejects heat to water tank. So, exergy destruction for condenser
model can be obtained by

Q̇ cond
Ẋ cond = T0 [ṁ(s3 − s2 ) + ] (2)
Tcond

Expansion device exergy balance can be determined by

Ẋ Exp = ṁT0 (s4 − s3 ) (3)

Exergy destruction for evaporator can be expressed as

Q̇ evap
Ẋ evap = T0 [ṁ(s1 − s4 ) − ] (4)
Tevap
254 N. Trapasia et al.

Hence, total exergy destruction of system is calculated by adding exergy destruc-

tion of each component.

Ẋ total = Ẋ c + Ẋ cond + Ẋ evap + Ẋ Exp (5)

Realist performance of system can be measured by second law efficiency. It is

expressed as ratio of exergy recovered to exergy expended.

Ẋ total
ηII = 1 − (6)
Wact,in

Theoretical coefficient of performance of ASHPWH can be obtained as

Qr
COP = = ((h 2 − h 3 )/(h 2 − h 1 )) (7)
Wc

Actual COP of system can be formulated as

COP = ((h 2 − h 3 )/(h 2 − h 1 )) (8)

4 Results and Discussion

Thermodynamic properties of ASHPWH were determined from REFPROP (MAT-

LAB software) based on actual reading that had been taken at Ami cooling industry.
Performance of ASHPWH is predicted by using exergy destruction and second law
efficiency.
Figure 3 shows that exergy destruction rate is highest in compressor 40.76%,
followed by expansion device 36.03%, evaporator 15.72% and condenser 7.5%.
Compressor has higher irreversibility in nature due to its non-isentropic compression
and frictional losses. Since we are assuming non-isenthalpic process in capillary tube,
second highest exergy destruction occurs in that component.
Figure 4 depicts that there is linear relationship between condenser temperature
and second law efficiency with decreasing nature. As the condenser temperature
rises, enthalpy and entropy of refrigerant are increasing. So, total exergy destruction
in all components is increasing. Hence, second law efficiency of system gets reduced.
Figure 5 shows that, as we increase the evaporator temperature, overall exergy
efficiency is decreased. Observation says that exergy efficiency is reduced by 20%
because of higher exergy losses may occur at higher temperature of evaporator.
Exergy Analysis—A Useful Concept of Sustainability for Air … 255

exergy destruc on in (%)

40.76
36.03

15.71
7.50
compressor condenser expansion evaporator
device

Fig. 3 Exergy destruction rate of component

second law efficiency of

73.00%
70.00%
67.00%
cycle

64.00%
61.00%
58.00%
55.00%
336 338 340 342 344 346 348 350
inlet temperature of condenser(K)

Fig. 4 Condenser inlet temperature versus exergy efficiency

62.00%
second law effciency of cycle

61.50%
61.00%
60.50%
60.00%
59.50%
59.00%
58.50%
58.00%
57.50%
275 280 285 290
inlet temperature of evaporator(K)

Fig. 5 Evaporator inlet temperature versus exergy efficiency

256 N. Trapasia et al.

5 Conclusion

This paper presented the exergy analysis of air source heat pump water heater in heat-
ing mode. The highest exergy destruction rate is observed in compression (40.76%)
due to its non-isentropic compression. Second law efficiency of system is 61.53%,
which shows that system is not performing effectively. Coefficient of performance
of actual system (4.28) is deviated from the theoretical COP (5.23) because of losses
in condenser and evaporator pressure. There is a negative impact on the performance
of system since the second law enthalpy of system is decrease as we increase the
temperature of condenser inlet and evaporator inlet temperature. In order to opti-
mize the performance of system, pressure loss in condenser and evaporator should
be minimized and compression with intercooling gives the best result.

References

1. https://www.bijlibachao.com/water-heaters/heat-pump-water-heaters-benefits-instant-water-
heater-tankless-heater.html
2. Gang, P., Guiqiang, L., Jie, J.: Comparative study of air-source heat pump water heater systems
using the instantaneous heating and cyclic heating modes. Appl. Therm. Eng. 31(2–3), 342–347
(2011)
3. Mi, B., Luo, Q., Chen, G.: Exergy analysis of air source heat pump water heater. In: 4th Inter-
national Conference on Sensors, Measurement and Intelligent Material (2015)
4. Zhang, J., Wang, R.Z., Wu, J.Y.: System optimization and experimental research on air source
heat pump water heater. Appl. Therm. Eng. 27(5–6), 1029–1035 (2007)
5. Ding, Y., Chai, Q., Ma, G., Jiang, Y.: Experimental study of an improved air source heat pump.
Energy Convers. Manag. 45(15–16), 2393–2403 (2004)
6. Fei, L., Pingfang, H.: Energy and exergy analysis of a ground water heat pump system. Physics
Procedia 24, 169–175 (2012)
7. Cengal, Y., Boles, M.: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, 8th edn
Role of Algae in CO2 Sequestration
Addressing Climate Change: A Review

Vishal Paul, P. S. Chandra Shekharaiah, Shivbachan Kushwaha, Ajit Sapre,

Santanu Dasgupta and Debanjan Sanyal

Abstract Climate change is the change in average conditions of weather during a

long time period, due to increased addition of greenhouse gases (GHG) to earth’s
atmosphere. Industrialization and deforestation have been identified as primary
causes of increased GHG in which carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the major factor, account-
ing for over half of the warming potential. Increase in CO2 level in atmosphere needs
to be addressed by effective and sustainable carbon sequestration technologies. Out
of numerous CO2 sequestration technologies, biological methods using algae could
be one of the most efficient and economical ways. Algae can be extensively used
for utilizing CO2 and the resulting biomass may be used for producing biofuel and
multiple value-added products. Many countries have started implementing carbon
credits with a fiscal value as price of polluting the air. This has spread awareness
worldwide and attracted investments in carbon sequestration via microalgae culti-
vation. This review summarizes the global research status of utilizing microalgae in
CO2 sequestration.

1 Introduction

The global climate change has attributed to the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG),
of which CO2 accounts for 68% of total emissions [1, 2]. The effect of CO2 on climate
change accounts nearly half of the total warming potential of all greenhouse gases
as shown in Fig. 1 [3]. The global CO2 generation is partly due to the generation of
electricity by burning fossil fuels [2], cement manufacturing, and by other anthro-
pogenic activities [4]. The increase in atmospheric CO2 is causing climate changes by
increasing the atmospheric temperature [5]. Approximately, 2 °C increase in global
temperature was predicted with a doubling of CO2 from the current level [6]. Effects

V. Paul · P. S. Chandra Shekharaiah · S. Kushwaha · D. Sanyal (B)

Research and Development, Reliance Industries Ltd., Jamnagar, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Sapre · S. Dasgupta
Research and Development, Reliance Corporate Park, Ghansoli, Mumbai, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 257

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_23
258 V. Paul et al.

Fig. 1 Contribution of
various anthropogenic
greenhouse gases and their
contribution in global
warming [3]

of global warming consist of rise in sea levels, altering rainfall, and increase of
deserts in the subtropics [7]. Global warming is anticipated to be more over the land
than oceans resulting extreme weather events such as heavy rains, heavy snowfall
[8], heat waves [9], ocean acidification, droughts, and massive species extinctions
due to abrupt changes in the environmental conditions [9]. These extreme weather
conditions negatively affect agriculture resulting threat to food security [10].
In a way to mitigate and reduce CO2 concentration in atmospheric air, CO2 cap-
ture and storage technologies are gaining importance. The current CO2 sequestering
technologies can be divided into physical and biological [11]. Photosynthesis, the
biological sequestration of CO2 ‚ is most environment-friendly and sustainable [2].
Photosynthesis is carried out by algae and plants. Biological CO2 capture is achieved
through the improvement of natural sinks like forestation, ocean fertilization, and
microalgae cultivation [12]. CO2 mitigation strategy by algae is one of the emerg-
ing techniques for reduction of GHG and could present a promising alternative to
existing technologies [13].

2 Algae as a Potential CO2 Capturing Agent

Algae are either unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic organisms [1, 14, 15]
belong to the bottom of food chain that fix CO2 and produces O2 . Algae grow in
autotrophic, heterotrophic, or in mixotrophic conditions [14]. Theoretically, 1.83 kg
of CO2 is required for 1 kg of dry algae biomass production [16]. Microalgae produce
almost half of the atmospheric O2 and consume CO2 , which account for almost 50%
of the photosynthesis on Earth [17]. The algal biomass produced using anthropogenic
CO2 is a carbon neutral, sustainable, and environmental friendly fuel source [18].
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the deforesta-
tion has reduced CO2 sequestration by almost 20% of the atmospheric GHG [19].
Plants and microalgae have been discovered for CO2 sequestration as biological
means [20].
Role of Algae in CO2 Sequestration Addressing Climate Change … 259

CO2 fixation by algae has various benefits over terrestrial plants. CO2 can be
captured as bicarbonates by sparging in water, which is then profusely utilized by
aquatic microalgae to produce biomass. Algae have much better CO2 -concentrating
mechanism [21], higher CO2 fixation efficiency [21], and higher growth rate [22].
Some species of algae have higher carbon content and produce a wide range of com-
mercially valuable chemicals and compounds [23]. Aquatic microalgae are popular
and ideal organisms for the production of liquid fuel due to their high yields [23],
and mass cultivation is possible on industrial scale [24]. Another reason for consid-
ering microalgae for CO2 sequestration is that they can be grown on wide variety of
brackish, fresh, or saline water [25]. Algae can also be grown in wastewater gener-
ated by many industries. Cultivation of algae on these industrial effluents containing
inorganic nutrients simultaneously helps in wastewater treatment and value addition
[26]. Therefore, the CO2 reduction by using microalgae projects can be eligible to
bring in extra income by selling Certified Emission Reductions (CER).
Many important products can be produced by different algae along with carbon
sequestration. Primarily, biomass produced by some algae can be ideal for energy
fuels, for example, Botryococcus sp. [27], Scenedesmus [28], and Neochloris [29].
Many nutritional supplements can also be produced from algae, such as β-Carotene
(Dunaliella sp.) [30], astaxanthin (Haematococcus sp.) [31], whole-cell nutraceu-
ticals (Spirulina sp. and Chlorella sp.) [32], polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
(Crypthecodinium sp. and Shizochytrium sp.) [34], etc. Species like Tetraselmis and
Isochrysis are suitable for aquaculture feed [33, 34]. Some red algae can also be
useful to produce biotechnologically useful molecules such as phycoerythrin [35].
Recently, algae are also getting highlighted for therapeutic applications, such as
anticancer properties of Symploca sp. [35]

3 Algal Strain Selection for CO2 Sequestration

The optimal CO2 level for microalgae cultivation is recommended in the range
of 0.038–10%. The growth performance of algae was negatively affected at >5%
(v/v) CO2 concentration [36] and has shown maximum biomass production at 2.5%
CO2 concentration [37]. Scenedesmus obliquus was found most productive at 6%
CO2 [38]. However, some microalgae species can grow at higher CO2 concentration
(10–15%), but the growth rate, carbon fixation, and productivity would be compro-
mised as compared with lower CO2 concentration. A few specific strains have been
evolved to tolerate very high CO2 concentration of 70% by Chlorella sp. ZY-1 and
Chlorella sp. KR-1. There are also species which can tolerate 100% of CO2 for,
e.g., Chlorella sp. T-1 [39, 40]. Chlorococcum littorale is found to be tolerant to
60% CO2 and could grow if stepwise adaptation technique is applied [41]. Thus,
reducing atmospheric CO2 using microalgae photosynthesis directly considered as
advantageous and safe for the ecosystem [42]. Tolerance level of various microalgae
species to higher CO2 concentration is given in Fig. 2.
260 V. Paul et al.

Fig. 2 Tolerance level of different microalgae species to carbon dioxide concentration [41, 43–47]

Use of flue gas for algae cultivation is a best CO2 mitigation strategy, after pretreat-
ment, due to its high content of CO2 and nitrogen. Temperature of flue gas directly
taken from coal power stations is typically 60–100 °C, which makes it important
to consider the selection of thermophilic species [48]. Thermophilic microalgae can
grow at 42–100 °C, reducing the cooling costs. For example, Cyanidium caldarium,
a thermophilic microalgae, is tolerant to 100% CO2 [49]. Synechococcus elongatus
is a cyanobacterial species tolerant to 60% CO2 and 60 °C [49]. These can be suitable
species for the straight use of flue gas for microalgae cultivation making the process
economical as it avoids extra investment on storage and transportation.
Classical power plants use coal and emit flue gas of which up to 13% is CO2 .
Estimates show that of all GHG produced globally, power plants account over 30%
[50]. Theoretically, algae cultivation by using flue gas from power plant can produce
about 40% of our total oil consumption by converting to biofuel [51].

3.1 Algae Cultivation System

After selecting a suitable algal strain, the next step is the large-scale cultivation. Mass
cultivation of algae at optimum growth conditions is required to get the full benefits
[1]. Two cultivation systems have been extensively proposed (a) open race way pond
and (b) closed photobioreactor (PBR) [1, 52]. Raceway ponds are most commonly
used and cost-effective; however, significant CO2 losses occur and there is a chance
of cross-contamination and productivity loss [1, 53].
Role of Algae in CO2 Sequestration Addressing Climate Change … 261

PBR technology allows unialgal cultivation of microalgae for long durations with
less contamination [53]. Due to higher CO2 and light utilization efficiencies, higher
productivities can be achieved in PBR [1, 53]. However, the manufacturing and
operational costs are significantly higher than race way ponds. More efforts are
needed to improve PBR technologies for reducing the cultivation costs.

4 Global Carbon Cycle, Carbon Credit, and Current Focus

on Algae Globally

As the need for controlling CO2 emissions has increased, the concept of carbon
credits has come into existence to mitigate the climate change globally [54]. The
Kyoto Protocol was formed by an agreement of around 169 countries and created
legal binding on emission targets for developing nations. Under this agreement,
member countries have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below the country-
specific target limits in a specified time periods [55]. Increase in CO2 emissions alters
future climates and affects the economy, and therefore, development of appropriate
CO2 sequestration technologies are imperative [56]. To meet the targets of The Kyoto
Protocol, which was enforced from February 2005, nations must either limit CO2
emissions or implement additional mechanisms for CO2 scrubbing and sequestration
through tree plantation and algae cultivation. There are two general types of applying
carbon credits: (1) CO2 sequestration by afforestation and reforestation activities and
(2) CO2 saving projects such as the use of renewable energy sources.

4.1 Companies Involved in Algae-Based CO2 Capture

Until a few years back, there was hardly any company working on algae-based carbon
capture and storage (CCS). As the awareness of algae for carbon sequestration has
increased in recent years, many companies have started making investments for
algae-based carbon sequestration and startups have boosted in the field [51]. Few
of the companies involved in this field as per Oilgae 2011 report are as follows:
(1) A2BE Carbon capture, LLC; (2) Clentueeet Whisky distillery; (3) RWE Energy;
(4) Eni Technologies; (5) Seambiotic; (6) Trident Exploration; (7) NRG Energy; (8)
General Electric; (9) Solix Biofuels, Inc.; (10) Pond Biofuels, Inc.; (11) Cequesta
Ltd; (12) Stellarwind Bio Energy, LLC; (13) Kent SeaTech Corporation; (14) SarTech
Corporation; (15) Carbon Capture Corporation; (16) Solix Biofuels, Inc.; (17) Linc
Energy; (18) MBD energy; (19) ENN Group Co. Ltd.; (20) Arizona Public Service
Co.; and (21) BioCentric Energy Algae, LLC.
262 V. Paul et al.

4.2 Global Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is very important in basic as well as applied ecology and categorized
into natural and fossil fuel cycles [57]. Understanding these cycles provides options
for developing proper CO2 sequestration systems. Natural CO2 transfer is nearly 20
times higher than that of human activity, but it is in almost balance position. The
CO2 from anthropogenic activities has increased greenhouse gases altering the global
carbon cycle. In 2009, Folger highlighted that around 7.2 GtC of CO2 is emitted in the
atmosphere every year through fossil fuels combustion, whereas overall vegetation
consumes about 2.8 GtC/year [58], and thereby the CO2 level in the atmosphere gets
increased.
Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC) have set a maximum of 2 °C increase as the high-
est global warming limit above the range of pre-industrial temperature levels.
Exceedance probability limit is given below 20% with budget for maximum 250 Gt
emission between 2000 and 2049, but more than thirty percent of that was already
used by the year 2005. The data of current CO2 emissions suggest that the budget
will finish by 2024 [59, 60].

5 Conclusion

The biological method of CO2 sequestration using algae is a unique green technology
and gaining growing attention for CO2 mitigation to combat the GHG-related impacts
on climate change. Algae fix CO2 by photosynthesis and transform CO2 to organic
compounds without any secondary pollution. The algal CO2 sequestration produces
biomass which could be useful for biofuels, feeds, and many more value-added
products, adding more value to process sustainability. Compared to plants, algae
can be grown in any kind of water and lands and can be mass produced in a short
time. The CO2 fixation efficiency of algae is higher than the terrestrial plants and
has higher growth rate. Many algae strains are found to grow even in higher CO2
concentration. The cultivation systems and algal biomass productivity are important
elements which decide the viability of the process. The biomass productivity in PBR
is very encouraging as compared to raceways although the later has higher operational
costs.
The technological development in the area of cultivation and downstream pro-
cessing will make CO2 sequestration as a profitable and viable technology for CO2
mitigation. This can offer a promising alternative to existing CO2 removal technolo-
gies for the reduction of GHG to earn carbon credits and to save the environment.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dr. Sridharan Govindachary for his motivation and
continuous support during the process of writing and publication of this review.
Role of Algae in CO2 Sequestration Addressing Climate Change … 263

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Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR)
System for H2 Production—A Review

Mit Pujara, Mit Sheth, Nikunj Rachchh, Rameshkumar Bhoraniya

and Atal Bihari Harichandan

Abstract Nowadays, world’s rising energy demand is satisfied by coal and

petroleum based non-renewable fuels. But these fuels have some major drawbacks
that these processes generate harmful oxidise like CO2 , NOx . Out of these CO2 affects
climate change of the whole world by producing global warming effect. Hydrogen
can be use alternative to these energy sources due to its high energy generation
per unit mass and low environmental impact compare to other fossil fuels. But the
H2 is very less in nature. The steam reforming of methane is wildly used to harvest
hydrogen from different fuels. It also produces CO2 and NOx . And the process cost of
separating these gases from flue gases is consuming very high energy. The alternative
to this technology is chemical looping reforming, that doesn’t produce NOx and CO2
can be easily separate. In this work authors try to compare different types of oxygen
carriers used in many literatures by investigating their reactivity, crushing strength,
and stability at different temperature. Also authors try to find most capable oxygen
carrier (OC) for this system by considering OCs stability at higher temperatures and
reactivity.

1 Introduction

1.1 Overview

As we all know that from all the greenhouse gases, CO2 is the most harmful gas that
mainly contributes to global warming [1]. This lead to dangerous climate changes in

M. Pujara (B) · M. Sheth · N. Rachchh · R. Bhoraniya

Marwadi Education Foundation Group of Institutions, Rajkot, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Sheth
e-mail: [email protected]
A. B. Harichandan
KIIT, Bhuvneshwar, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 267

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_24
268 M. Pujara et al.

different countries. Therefore, many countries adapted many different techniques to

overcome this problem [2]. Out of all the new techniques, chemical looping methods
are the most innovative and promising method for CO2 capture and H2 production.
Also, it has a low environmental impact.
As we know that hydrogen is the most clean energy fuel available in nature, hydro-
gen has many advantages, for example, it can be used in fuel cells and combustion
engines. Also, it has a high energy yield, wide flammability range, and high diffu-
sivity. It is the most abundant element in nature. Also, it has a low environmental
effect because water vapour is the only major product after combustion [3, 4]. So
by using chemical looping reforming method, we can capture up to 100% CO2 from
combustion of fuel and also we can produce more versatile fuel (hydrogen) with high
purity with low production cost compared to other conventional methods [5].
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the CLR system. This system has three
reactors, namely (1) air reactor, (2) fuel reactor, (3) steam reactor. In CLR system,
the metal oxide is used as oxygen carriers. In air reactor, air is supplied from the
bottom of the reactor, and it oxidizes reduced metal oxide into metal oxide. This
metal oxide then supplied to fuel reactor where the metal oxide got reduced and
generate reduced metal oxide by reacting with hydrocarbon fuel and the outcome
is only CO2 and water vapour. After this, reduced metal oxide goes to the steam
reactor and reacts with steam and produces H2 . Then, this reduced metal oxide is
supplied to the air reactor. By using CLR system, H2 is produced without any NOx
generation and 100% CO2 capture [6].
Compared with the SMR process, CLR(s) has some advantages [7]: (1) Almost
100% CO2 can be captured during the process only by a separation of H2 O from the
flue gas of FR without expending any extra energy needed for separation because the

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of three reactors chemical looping reforming

Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR) System for H2 Production … 269

off-gas from the PSA unit is used as a fuel in the FR; (2) It should be relatively easy
to obtain and maintain desired reformer temperature, and also higher heat transfer
coefficient can be obtained for the outside of a tube in a fluidized bed than in a furnace
due to the hot fluidized particles, (3) No amount of NOx will be formed due to the
relatively low-temperature level in the AR [8].

2 Different Types of Oxygen Carriers

2.1 Cu-Based Oxygen Carrier

Guo et al. [9] indicates that copper ore can also enhance the secondary decomposition
of the tar and act as a catalyst in syngas cleaning for tar cracking to reduce tar content
in the residue. The Cu-based OC performed very good redox ability, resistance to
agglomeration/sintering, and high reactivity from XRD and SEM-EDX analysis.
The CLR of sawdust or other biomass using copper ore as OC could be a promising
way of overall energy utilization. Keller et al. [10] suggested that dry impregnation
of porous supports may be a more suitable production method compared to spray
drying for these CLR bed materials, likely because of the better dispersion of the
active Cu phase. And also, it was observed that the bed material is very active initially
for the water gas shift reaction and ethylene conversion, but this activity decreases
as the experience to gasification gas progresses. Alirezaei et al. [11] obtained that
the Zr content in the support structure could directly affect the coke deposition on
Cu-based oxygen carrier surface. Also, the results revealed that the oxygen carrier
with 20% zirconium shows the highest catalytic activity, and the maximum CH4 and
CO2 conversion was obtained when CH4 /CO2 ratio is equal to 1.

2.2 Ni-Based Oxygen Carrier

Rydén et al. [12] investigated first time chemical looping combustion and chemical
looping reforming in a circulating fluidized bed reactor using Ni-based oxygen car-
riers. From this study, the conversion of CH4 into reagents was more than 96, and
this conversion highly depends upon temperature, oxygen carriers, and experimental
conditions. Also that 100% conversion occurs when the reactor operates at more than
930 °C. de Diego et al. [13] found that the support (different types of alumina) used
to prepare the oxygen carriers had an important effect on the reactivity of the oxygen
carriers, on the gas product distribution, and on the carbon deposition at the bottom
of the reactor. Also for all oxygen carriers, an increase in the reaction temperature
and/or in the H2 O/CH4 molar ratio produced a decrease in the carbon deposition.
Also, it was observed that the oxygen carriers prepared by a deposition–precipitation
method had a higher tendency to increase the C deposition than the oxygen carriers
270 M. Pujara et al.

prepared by dry impregnation. de Diego et al. [14] found that in all operating con-
ditions, CH4 conversion was very high (>98%) for NiO as OC, and the most vital
variable affecting to the gas product distribution was the solid circulation rate, that
is, NiO/CH4 molar ratio. The OC of NiO on α-Al2 O3 needed lower NiO/CH4 molar
ratio to reach the same gas product composition than the OC of NiO on γ-Al2 O3 .
They found that in the working at optimal operating conditions, 2.5 mol of H2 per
mole of CH4 could be obtained in this process.
Ortiz et al. [15] found that to reach optimal auto-thermal conditions, the oxygen-
to-methane molar ratio should be >1.20, which means that the maximum H2 yield
is about 2.75 mol H2 /mol CH4 . And to control the oxygen-to-methane molar ratio,
the best option is to control the air flow fed to the AR because a lower air excess is
needed to reach auto-thermal conditions. Dueso et al. [16] observed the differences in
reactivity during NiAl2 O4 reduction were majorly depending on the type of support,
α-Al2 O3 or γ-Al2 O3 . Despite the fact that the reaction rate was very fast for both
materials NiO18-α Al and NiO21-γ Al, the presence of a higher amount of NiAl2 O4
in NiO21-γ Al particles made the reaction rate slower. And the oxidation rate was
unrelated to the fuel (CH4 , H2 or CO) used during the reduction period. García-
Labiano et al. [17] used ethanol as a fuel and NiO as OC and found that no ethanol
has been detected at the outlet of the reactor. Also, OC to fuel ratio is the most affecting
parameter for H2 production. Also, authors found that in the reforming process, the
air is supplied from AR to FR controlled by air supply to AR are the most easiest and
accurate method. Yahom et al. [18] found that for the conventional CLR system, the
optimum reactor operating conditions are at a temperature of 800 °C, a H2 O/CH4
ratio of 3, and a NiO/CH4 ratio of 1 resulting in an approximate hydrogen production
yield of 2.5 mol of H2 per mole of CH4 and an approximate hydrogen purity of 75%
can be achieved. Jiang et al. [19] found that the Ni-based oxygen carrier can convert
glycerol and steam to H2 very efficiently by redox reactions. The H2 concentration
of 90% of the total value can be achieved at 600 °C, and the glycerol transformation
was close to 100% in the steady stage of hydrogen production.
Wang et al. [20] found that the 2CuO-2NiO/Al2 O3 OCs exhibited a high reactivity,
which can completely oxidize toluene to CO2 at 600–700 °C. Also, the CaFe2 O4
oxygen carrier demonstrated a good performance of chemical looping reforming.
These two oxygen carriers exhibited high conversion rates of toluene at the beginning
stage and then the conversion of toluene increased to about 100% in the subsequent
stage. Mattisson et al. [21] found that almost complete conversion of CH4 into CO2
and H2 O could be achieved even with using a very small amount of NiO in other
oxygen carrier composition. Also, authors found that the syngas yield largely depends
on the oxidation degree of the oxygen carrier’s compositions. One of the major
problems related to CLR is this processes with hydrocarbons using the nickel-based
materials are partially disabled caused by carbon deposition on the surface of the
oxygen carrier material. One possible way to serve this problem is to add a small
amount of alkali metals, which could effectively reduce carbon deposition on the
oxygen carrier material surface in the high-temperature reforming process [22, 23]
Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR) System for H2 Production … 271

2.3 Fe-Based Oxygen Carrier

Hossain and de Lasa [24] compared all metal oxide that can be used in CLC and CLR
process and concluded that the reaction rate of Fe2 O3 with different fuels decreases
with the following order of fuels H2 > CO > CH4 > solid fuels. Khana and Shamima
[6] found that increases in steam, fuel, and air mass flow rates increase the H2
production till the stoichiometric values and then become insensitive. The increase
of the oxide mass flow rate increases the H2 production, till it reaches extreme value
and afterwards has a decreasing effect. So from this, H2 production is the ultimate
value at the stoichiometric values. Forutan et al. [25] found from experiments that the
iron has the highest resistance against sintering among the four carriers (Cu, Ni, Fe,
Mn). Also, the alumina-supported iron carrier has the highest capacity for oxygen
adsorption process. Capacity of oxygen consumption and hydrogen production is
increased as the temperature increases. Bayham et al. [26] found that the direct
reduction of iron oxides by solid fuels is very slow. And so the residence time of
iron ores in the coal-fuelled rotary kiln process to produce sponge iron usually needs
10–15 h to process. Siriwardane et al. [27] used combination of CuO and Fe2 O3
as OC, and it was that this OC was very effective for the reduction of methane and
oxidation with air. Synthesis gas at a desired hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio can be
acquired by changing the methane to steam ratio. The catalyst can be fully oxidized
when the steam reforming reaction is performed over time.
Hafizi et al. [28] found that 15 wt% Fe/γ-Al2 O3 oxygen carrier synthesized by an
impregnation method has the best activity in chemical looping reforming process.
Also, authors concluded that for the highest catalytic activity and 100% methane
conversion with 83% hydrogen production yield can be achieved by 15 wt% Fe-
5 wt% Ca/g-Al2 O3 oxygen carrier synthesized by co-impregnation method at lower
temperature about 700 °C. Nam et al. [29] have been observed a high benzene
conversion rate (>90%) at a higher experimental temperature (above 730 °C) for
Ni- and Fe-based OCs. At the elevated temperature, conversion of benzene using
NiFe/SiC catalyst resulted in higher H2 production; whereas, higher levels of CO
were produced with Fe/SiC catalyst.
Guerrero-Caballero et al. [7] suggested that the iron-based materials as OC can be
used to avoid nickel for environmental and toxicity reasons, clearly the reactivity and
interest for this reaction are more limited. Also performing the reaction at even higher
temperature is a suitable condition for iron-based OCs. Keller et al. [30] suggested
that the addition of O2 to the gasification gas resulted in the increase of benzene and
ethylene conversion by using Fe-based OCs. Also, it was found that by decreasing
the Fe loading to Fe/La = 0.25, the benzene conversion could be improved by about
50% in comparison with the reference material with Fe/La = 1.25 at T = 800 °C. Wei
et al. [31] used mixed metal oxide of Fe/Ni with the ratio of 3:1. By using this ration,
they found that Ni had a positive effect on lattice oxygen escape ratio of the oxygen
carrier, while Fe contributed to improve the instantaneous lattice oxygen releasing
rate. Though the particle size of oxygen carrier tended to decline after whole reaction
process, the porous structure was still reserved for reaction, and also H2 with 96.56%
272 M. Pujara et al.

purity can be achieved in CLH process with the conversion of Fe/Ni alloy to Fe3 O4 .
Solunke and Veser [32] found from the thermodynamic screening that the Fe-based
carriers are the best candidates based on thermodynamic limits during oxidation
and reduction cycles, melting point, toxicity, and cost. Also at temperatures 800 °C,
complete conversion of CO and high yields of H2 should be attainable via appropriate
timing of the half cycles in CLRs. Many researchers have evaluated the hydrogen
production property of many metal oxides (Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Ni, etc.). It was found that
Fe2 O3 provided the best conversion of syngas to combustion products CO2 and H2 O
along with high conversion of steam to hydrogen. [33–35] The iron-based oxygen
carriers often restricted for the lower reactivity rate, low oxygen transport capacity,
and low selective to syngas, but it can be overcome by using mixed metal oxide
with Cu. Fe2 O3 –CuO [36] proved to be the best composition among other available
options for syngas generation.

2.4 Ce-Based Oxygen Carriers

Otsuka et al. suggested Ce as a good alternative oxygen carrier for hydrogen gener-
ation in which CeO2 acts as not a catalyst but an oxidant for the oxidation of fuel to
syngas production. [37, 38] Wei et al. [39] concluded that the increase of reaction
temperature is favourable for the partial oxidation of methane. Also at 10% ratio of
CeO2 /γ-Al2 O3 has the best CH4 conversion rate for higher then 865 °C tempera-
tures. When 10% CeO2 /γ-Al2 O3 catalyst is used, the H2 /CO ratio in the production
gas reaches 2 for the temperature of 870 °C, and the CH4 conversion, H2 and CO
selectivity reach 61, 89, and 91%, respectively. Zhu et al. [38] investigated CH4
temperature-programed and isothermal reactions, water splitting reaction, and suc-
cessive redox cycle to the reactivity and stability of CeO2 oxygen carrier. And the
author also suggested that a temperature above 750 °C is necessary for syngas pro-
duction through the gas–solid reaction between CH4 and CeO2 as oxygen carrier.
The mixed metal oxides by combining another material to CeO2 could possibly be
a way to improve the reactivity, stability, and selectivity. Many kinds of Ce-based
oxides, such as Ce–Zr, Ce–Fe, Ce–Al2 O3 , Ce–MgO, Ce–Cu, Ce–Mn, and so on were
investigated experimentally [39–54], and the results show that Ce–Fe mixed oxides
exhibited good activity and stability among all the oxides. But their selectivity for
syngas generation was strongly affected by the surface area of carriers. Moreover,
the doping ratio of Fe to Ce should be carefully settled because the high content of
Fe failed to improve the CH4 conversion and inclined to decrease the CO selectivity
[51].
Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR) System for H2 Production … 273

2.5 Mixed Metal Oxides Oxygen Carrier

Wang et al. [55] found that carrying out the chemical looping process with NiMn2 O4
and ethanol as a method of reducing fuel is chemically feasible NiMn2 O4 and showed
high reactivity during the early stages of the reduction step. Also, the presence of
Ni increased the reducibility of the material and its reactivity in ethanol reforming.
Hu et al. [56] have studied some literature review and concluded that stabilization
of active components with promoter materials is widely used but some physical
promoters (e.g. Al2 O3 ) can react with the active component to form spinel phases
(such as NiAl2 O4 and FeAl2 O4 ), which can result in the partial loss of reactivity,
so they concluded that adding an appropriate amount of MgO into NiO/Al2 O3 or
Fe2 O3 /Al2 O3 systems can mitigate the formation of Ni- or Fe–Al2 O4 spinel through
the competition of MgAl2 O4 formation. Huang et al. [57] have done work in the
Ni–Cu–Al–O mixed oxide system. They suggested that in the spinel phase, NiAl2 O4
is more stable than CuAl2 O4 . Therefore, in the case when Al2 O3 is stoichiometrically
limited, it would react preferentially with NiO. Authors suggested that at 800 °C,
NiAl2 O4 is the only oxide that is highly selective towards methane reforming. Wang
et al. [58] concluded that the addition of Fe–Mn mixed metal oxides increases gaso-
line and diesel yield. Moreover, the carbonaceous residue yield decreases with the
increased content of Mn in oxide content. The mixed oxide Fe1Mn3 shows stable
reaction performance with the increase of reaction cycle.

3 Conclusion

In this paper, many metal oxide as an oxygen carrier has been analysed by the litera-
ture reviews. Main aim of this study is to find an oxygen carrier with high reactivity
and stability at elevated temperatures. Cu-based oxygen carriers are suitable for low-
temperature reactors below than 1000 °C. Ni-based oxygen carriers are widely used
in CLRs, but nickel-based materials are partially disabled by carbon deposition on
the surface of the oxygen carrier material. Iron-based oxygen carriers are most suit-
able for CLR process with elevated temperature reactor are used, but this oxygen
carrier has low reactivity but that can be solved by using mixed metal oxides, like
Fe2 O3 –CuO (a mixed oxide of iron and cooper).

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Commitment for a Cleaner India:
Utilization of CO2 and Sewage
Wastewater by Green Algae Scenedesmus
sp. Under Laboratory Conditions

Debanjan Sanyal, Santosh Kodgire, Dishant Desai, Nishant Saxena,

Sunita Singh and Santanu Dasgupta

Abstract Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission is globally increasing every year accel-
erating the issue of climate change. Conversion of CO2 into biomass by photosyn-
thesis helps to overcome the challenges of global warming while producing fuel,
feed, and value-added products. Green microalgae Scenedesmus sp. was studied for
the biomass generation potential utilizing CO2 without adding any other carbon (C)
source. Optical density (OD), cell count, elemental C, and total organic carbon (TOC)
were determined for the produced biomass. The results demonstrated that the OD
and TOC increased from 0.4 to 2.6 and from 51 to 380 ppm, respectively. The ele-
mental C was found to be 47% of the produced biomass. It was also of interest to
determine the possibility of using sewage wastewater for growing Scenedesmus sp.
without additional nutrient. The growth of Scenedesmus sp. was evaluated in BBM
media and in sewage wastewater. The results indicate that the OD of Scenedesmus
cultures was similar in control and primary sewage wastewater. TOC of the pellet
in primary wastewater was around 91% of the culture grown in control. This study
confirmed that Scenedesmus sp. can effectively utilize atmospheric CO2 and can
grow in sewage wastewater as well.

1 Introduction

The fossil fuel requirement is increasing globally for energy generation, leading to
enhanced release of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere [1]. The atmospheric
CO2 is the principal greenhouse gas, which is considered as the main cause of global
warming [2]. Recent report of global carbon project finds that the CO2 emitted
from fossil fuels has increased by about 2.7 percent in 2018 [3]. To overcome the
challenges of global warming, biological fixation of CO2 is an attractive option [4].

D. Sanyal · S. Kodgire (B) · D. Desai · N. Saxena · S. Singh

Research and Development, Reliance Industries Ltd, Jamnagar, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Dasgupta
Research and Development, Reliance Corporate Park, Ghansoli, Mumbai, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 277

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_25
278 D. Sanyal et al.

Photosynthesis is the process of atmospheric CO2 fixation into carbohydrate in the

presence of sunlight and water [5]. Growing green microalgae could be a great option
for fixing CO2 by photosynthesis as it can be grown in non-arable lands [4, 5].
Scenedesmus is a unicellular freshwater alga [6]. During reproduction, the mult-
inucleate mother cell divides into uninucleate daughter cells called autospores [7].
Several algae species are able to grow in wastewater, as it is an available source of
water with necessary nutrients for algae cultivation [8, 9]. Microalgae like Chlorella
[10, 11], Spirulina [12], Nannochloris [13], Botryococcus [14], and Phormidium [15]
has been evaluated earlier for cultivation in wastewater. Scenedesmus has potential
to grow in wastewater with increasing concentration of CO2 [16, 17].
Use of fertilizers for agriculture or algae cultivation is essential, however, during
their production large amount of energy gets consumed and greenhouse gases emitted
into the environment [18, 19]. Hence, the feasibility of utilizing sewage wastewater
without additional nutrient for growing photosynthetic algae species will help in
reducing carbon footprint [20]. However, the use of sewage wastewater aimed at
algal cultivation for biomass production has received little attention.
From clean India point of view, the aim of this study was to optimize the carbon
fixation potential and biomass generation of Scenedesmus sp. under laboratory condi-
tions. The growth evaluation of Scenedesmus sp. in sewage wastewater was compared
with freshwater containing BBM (Bold’s Basal Media) was also conducted in this
study.

2 Materials and Method

2.1 Biomass Production of Scenedesmus Sp. Under 2% CO2

The growth of Scenedesmus sp. was evaluated in laboratory conditions in freshwater

containing BBM media with the supply of 2% CO2 as a carbon source. The recipe of
BBM media does not have any carbon-containing compound [21]. Three 5-L conical
flasks having 3.5-L of freshwater with BBM media was inoculated with actively
growing Scenedesmus sp. All the flasks were incubated and maintained under con-
trolled conditions. The temperature was maintained at 25 ± 2 °C with 70% humid-
ity. The air was sparged by aquarium air pump with 2% CO2 . The light intensity
of 200 µmol m−2 s−1 (Luxeron LX-1108) was maintained by following 12:12 h
light/dark cycle. In this experiment, Scenedesmus sp. was grown under closed con-
dition, OD, TOC, and elemental composition were determined in 4 days interval.
Cell count was done using FlowCAM and microscopy was conducted for evaluating
the health of Scenedesmus sp. The correlation between OD and cell count was also
determined.
Commitment for a Cleaner India: Utilization of CO2 and Sewage … 279

2.1.1 Optical Density Analysis Using Spectrophotometer

The efficiency of algal growth was measured by OD, which is defined as the absorp-
tion of visible radiation. Before taking OD, blank media was used for adjusting to
auto zero. The algae culture samples were withdrawn from each experiment at regu-
lar intervals. Samples OD measurement was performed at 750 nm using UV visible
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model UV-1800).

2.1.2 Cell Numbers Measurement Using FlowCAM®

Cell counting and culture health monitoring was performed using FlowCAM® VS
series by Fluid Imaging Technologies, Inc. A FlowCAM® is a flow cytometer that
counts and capture the images of each cell at a constant flow rate. FlowCAM® is
equipped with four objectives that allow for magnification of 2x, 4x, 10x, and 20x.
The FlowCAM® VS series is accompanied with the Visual Spreadsheet® software
for both imaging and data processing of samples. Visual Spreadsheet® software
segregates and classifies images captured by FlowCAM® and grouped based on ESD
(Equivalent spherical diameter) parameter. The number of cells under any given size
range can be determined precisely.

2.1.3 Elemental Analysis

C, H, N, S and O containing compounds were converted into simple gases using com-
bustion method and analyzed by an elemental analyzer. These gases were measured
using thermal conductivity detector (TCD). Determination of microalgae elemental
composition was performed using vario MACRO cube CHNS/O analyzer (Elemen-
tar) (ASTM No. D5291-16). In brief, 2 L of the sample was centrifuged at 8000 rpm
for 15 min. Supernatant was decanted and dried pellet in a petri dish at 105 °C for
5–6 h. Dry microalgae biomass was weighed about 10 mg on aluminum boat, placed
into elemental furnace, and burnt in a pure oxygen environment at 1150 °C. Weight
percent of each element was analyzed and calculated. The analysis of CHNS and O
was done in a set of triplicates.

2.1.4 Total Organic Carbon Analysis

The TOC-L analyzer converted all C compounds into CO2 using combustion method
and measured using non-dispersive infrared detector (NDIR). TOC of cell pellet was
determined by using Shimadzu make TOC-L analyzer (ASTM No. D7573-09). Algal
Sample was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 5 min. Supernatant was decanted and pellet
was washed using equal volume of Milli-Q water. Pellet was re-suspended in Milli-Q
water and analyzed for total organic carbon in triplicates.
280 D. Sanyal et al.

2.1.5 Microscopy Analysis

The cell morphology and health were also observed using a Nikon ECLIPSE Ci-E
microscope with DS-Ri2 camera and images were captured under 40x magnification.

2.2 Growth and Total Organic Carbon Captured

by Scenedesmus Sp. in Sewage Wastewater

Sewage wastewater was collected from the sewage treatment plant (STP) and tested
for algal growth. The sewage water was filtered using simple nylon filters to remove
large particles, named as primary sewage wastewater (PSWW). The PSWW was
further treated to separate solids and suspended organic matter, named as secondary
sewage wastewater (SSWW). Scenedesmus sp. was grown in three 5-L conical flasks
with 3.5-L of volume inoculated with actively growing inoculum to maintain initial
OD between 0.4 and 0.5. One flask having freshwater with BBM media was consid-
ered as a positive control (PC) and other two flasks with primary sewage wastewater
and secondary sewage wastewater were experimental treatments. Both of the flasks
were incubated under controlled conditions. The temperature was maintained at 25
± 2 °C with 70% humidity. The air was sparged by aquarium air pump with CO2 .
The pH was maintained at 6.5–7.0 by controlling CO2 sparging. The light intensity
of 200 µmol m−2 s−1 (Luxeron LX-1108) was maintained by following 12:12 h
light/dark cycle. In this study, Scenedesmus sp. was grown under closed condition
using PSWW as well as SSWW for 14 days, and the growth was compared with the
PC having BBM media in freshwater. Parameters like OD, TOC, and microscopy
were performed for evaluating the health and growth of Scenedesmus sp. Analytical
methods followed were the same as explained in Sect. 2.1. The remaining organic
load present in sewage wastewater was removed by centrifugation, decanting the
supernatant, and washing the pellet with an equal volume of Milli-Q water.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Biomass Production of Scenedesmus Sp. Under 2% CO2

Scenedesmus sp. grew steadily as demonstrated by the increase in optical density from
0.4 to 2.6 (Fig. 1). The organic carbon content of cell pellet has also increased from
51 ppm to 380 ppm (Fig. 1). It indicates that the Scenedesmus cells have captured
329 ppm organic carbon from atmospheric CO2 during this period. As, the BBM
media used for growing Scenedesmus sp. was not having any carbon compound;
therefore, the organic carbon was captured from CO2 as the sole carbon source for
the growth of Scenedesmus sp. This confirms the earlier report of Masojidek et al.
Commitment for a Cleaner India: Utilization of CO2 and Sewage … 281

450 3
400
2.5
350
TOC-P (mg/L)

OpƟcal Density
300 2
250
1.5
200
150 1
100
0.5
50
0 0
1 5 9 13 17
Days
TOC-P OD

Fig. 1 Growth trend of Scenedesmus sp

(2013) described that during photosynthesis microalgae fixes CO2 and converts into
carbohydrate [5].
Cell numbers determination and correlation with OD. In this study, a linear
correlation was obtained between OD and cell count number (Fig. 2). The cells of
Scenedesmus sp. are shown in the micrograph of FlowCAM analysis (Fig. 3).
Elemental composition of algae. The elemental composition of microalgae
Scenedesmus sp. grown under laboratory conditions is shown in Fig. 4. The C con-
tent was found to be around 47 ± 2.5%. This supports the earlier findings of Thi-
ansathit et al. (2015) as their results also suggested around 50% carbon content in
Scenedesmus sp. [22]. In the current study as CO2 was the only source of C, this
indicates the ability of this strain to capture atmospheric CO2 into biomass. This
finding is aligned with the data reported by Vinod et al. [4].

1.2

1
R² = 0.9842
OD at 750 nm

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000 10000000
Number of cells/ml

Fig. 2 Correlation of OD versus cell count

282 D. Sanyal et al.

Fig. 3 Scenedesmus cell images captured by FlowCAM micrograph

Commitment for a Cleaner India: Utilization of CO2 and Sewage … 283

N%, 4% ±0.66

N%

O%, 41% C%
±2.68

C%, 47% H%
±2.49
S%

O%
S%, 1% ±0.06

H%, 7% ±0.29

Fig. 4 Elemental analysis data of Scenedesmus sp

3.2 Growth and Total Organic Carbon Captured

by Scenedesmus Sp. in Sewage Wastewater

The OD of Scenedesmus culture was increased up to 2.54 in PC, 2.50 in PSWW

and 1.50 in SSWW, on 14th day of growth (Fig. 5a). The probable reason for OD
difference between PSWW and SSWW possibly due to the fact that the SSWW
was treated for separation of solids and suspended organic matter, reducing nutrient
concentration compared to PSWW for the growth of Scenedesmus sp. On the 14th
day of growth, the organic content of PC, PSWW, and SSWW was increased up to
535, 488, and 398 ppm, respectively (Fig. 5b). Capturing highest amount of organic
carbon in BBM media is logical as it has optimum proportion of macronutrients and
micronutrients for algae growth. However, in the PSWW, the organic carbon capture
was more than 90% of that in BBM media, without adding any nutrient. This supports
the earlier report of Pittman et al. (2011) showing that green algae Scenedesmus has
the potential to grow on wastewater [9]. Although pellet TOC was 10% lower in
PSWW as compared to BBM media, however, the OD of both media was the same.
This is mostly due to the presence of other organic loads, such as bacteria and lysed
organic materials, in PSWW that additionally contributes toward the OD increase.
The organic carbon content of PSWW was 82.33 ppm before adding algae inoculum,
as measured by the TOC analyzer. Whereas BBM media was completely devoid of
any organic carbon compound. The key finding was that the growth trend was positive
by both TOC and OD measurements in all three culture growth media (Fig. 5).
Therefore, it indicates that the Scenedesmus sp. has the ability to utilize CO2 and
grow in sewage wastewater without adding any nutrient. Microscopic observation
revealed that the cells of Scenedesmus sp. grown in both BBM media and in PSWW
were healthy and green in color with some of the cells are in dividing stage (Fig. 6).
284 D. Sanyal et al.

(a) OD-PC
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

OD-SSWW OD-PSWW

1st Day 14th Day

(b)
600
500
TOC-P (mg/L)

400
300
200
100
0
14th Day
TOC-PC TOC-PSWW TOC-SSWW

Fig. 5 Growth and organic carbon content of Scenedesmus sp. grown in freshwater with BBM
media versus primary and secondary sewage wastewater. (PC: Positive Control; PSWW: Primary
sewage wastewater; SSWW: Secondary sewage wastewater)

4 Conclusion

The present study shows significant growth of Scenedesmus sp. in 2% CO2 with
increasing OD from 0.4 to 2.6 in 16 days under laboratory conditions. A linear
correlation was derived between OD and cell count which confirms that the increase
in optical density is due to the increase in the cell numbers.
This indicates that Scenedesmus sp. has the ability to fix atmospheric CO2 effec-
tively which is very crucial for reducing the CO2 in atmosphere to address the issue
of climate change. Scenedesmus sp., when grown in sewage wastewater without the
addition of any nutrient, the biomass obtained in sewage wastewater was around
90% of the biomass obtained in BBM media. This confirms the potential of this
Commitment for a Cleaner India: Utilization of CO2 and Sewage … 285

(a) (b)

Fig. 6 Microscopic images of Scenedesmus sp. a Grown in BBM media. b Grown in PSWW,
captured under 40x magnification (arrow indicates dividing cells)

green algae to grow in sewage wastewater by utilizing atmospheric CO2 . These find-
ings will provide a platform for further evaluation of other microalgae species in
capturing and converting atmospheric CO2 into biomass, and utilizing the sewage
wastewater, with additional value of using algal biomass for feed, fuel, and other
value-added products.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Vinay Dwivedi, Rakesh Thorat, Shyam Prasad,
Yogesh Chudasama, and Hardik Chawada for their technical support. Thanks to Dr. Ajit Sapre
for his motivation and continuous guidance.

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of Scenedesmus obliquus microalgae growth utilizing carbon dioxide gas from biogas. Biomass
Bioenerg. 76, 79–85 (2015)
A Design Framework for Portable
Artificial Photosynthesizer: A Future
Reality

Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli and V. Vishnu Namboodiri

Abstract Global warming due to the addition of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions
is creating a threat to the environment and techniques to reduce the impact of CO2
gains importance and attention of researchers to equip a new technology paradigm
to reduce the emissions. Even though naturally available, petroleum products are
advised to consume less, unlike any other commodities that are available in the mar-
ket. This is due to the negative effects of the petroleum products as they emit carbon
dioxide due to partial combustion. Source correction is the best solution to any prob-
lem. Reducing the utilization of the petroleum products in the transportation sector
may not be possible immediately. So, there is an immediate need to solve the problem
which can add value to the environment by consuming the petroleum products. Pho-
tosynthesis places an important role in the balancing of oxygen and carbon dioxide
ratios. The process of artificial photosynthesis through catalytic reactions still stands
a complex nature. This work aims to develop a design model for portable artificial
photosynthesizer through catalytic reactions which can be easily fixed to an exhaust
unit for automobiles. Converting CO2 to O2 through artificial photosynthesis through
this portable device is the prime aim of this design which helps to add oxygen to
the environment instead of contributing to CO2 emissions. A supported catalyst and
a catalytic process have been developed for the conversion of CO2 + H2 O (in the
form of steam) to some efficient carbon product. The catalyst simultaneously splits
water into hydrogen and oxygen, and conversion of carbon dioxide into hydrocarbon
under very mild reaction conditions and at atmospheric pressure. Artificial photo-
synthesis portable device once tested experimentally for the desired efficiency can be
a breakthrough in the environmental technology with the demand to consume more
petroleum products giving thrust to both economy and environment.

R. S. Mamillapalli (B) · V. V. Namboodiri

NICMAR, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 287

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_26
288 R. S. Mamillapalli and V. V. Namboodiri

1 Introduction

Transportation sector is one of the major areas where development is related to

economic growth and the same is having a great impact on environment by consuming
fossil fuel which emits harmful CO2 gases. This contributes to 14% of global CO2
emissions [1] and 95% if from petroleum fuels. Figure 1 shows the global trend in
increasing amount of CO2.
The environmental consequences of increased levels of atmospheric carbon diox-
ide lead to the conclusion that increases during the twentieth and early twenty-first
centuries have produced no deleterious effects upon Earth’s weather and climate.
Increased carbon dioxide has, however, markedly increased plant growth. Predic-
tions of harmful climatic effects due to future increases in hydrocarbon use and
minor greenhouse gases like CO2 do not conform to current experimental knowl-
edge. The main aim is to reduce the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere by
using artificial photosynthesis. There is a continuous growth of industries, vehicles,
and also in population size which lead to harm environment either directly or indi-
rectly. This leads to motivate toward designing of such kind of system which can
make a balance between environment and economic development. Even the national
and international policies and protocols could not help reduce the CO2 emissions. So
instead of requesting or ordering industries and individual to reduce CO2 emissions,
it is better to develop a technology in such a way that we can demand for more CO2
which would be an asset for environment rather than a liability. Only technology can
solve this problem effectively by converting CO2 to oxygen artificially.
The natural photosynthesis process takes place in two steps (a) splitting of water
molecule into O2 and 4H+ and (b) formation of CH2 O from the utilization of CO2 .

Fig. 1 CO2 emissions from fuel combustion: global trend. Source Values up to 2016 are based on
IEA (2018)—CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. The value for 2017 is based on IEA (March
2018)—Global Energy and CO2 Status Report
A Design Framework for Portable Artificial Photosynthesizer … 289

In the artificial photosynthesis, the splitting of water molecules can be done with the
help of titanium dioxide/ruthenium/Cd (1−x) Znx S solid solutions [2]. The conver-
sion of CO2 to hydrocarbon can be done with catalytic reactions of copper/nickel.
Copper-based catalysts are the most studied catalytic systems for the development
of artificial photosynthesis. Liu et al. have developed a series of bimetallic Cu–Ni/G-
Al2 O3 catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation. The ratio of Cu/Ni has a significant effect
on conversion and selectivity. Cu favors CO formation, while Ni is active for CH4
production. Cu/ZnO and Cu–Zn/Al2 O3 catalysts used for methanol synthesis in the
commercial scale. The most active catalyst for the reaction is Cu-rich (Cu/Zn > 3)
with alumina as a support. Cu/SiO2 with a potassium promoter offers better catalytic
activity (12.8% of CO2 conversion at 600 °C) than that without promoter (5.3% of
CO2 conversion at 600 °C). The main problem attached with copper-based catalyst
is that it is not suitable at high temperature because of its poor thermal stability (e.g.,
sintering of copper nanoparticles) unless modified by adding a thermal stabilizer. For
example, upon the addition of a small amount of iron, catalytic activity and stability
of Cu/SiO2 at high temperature can be effectively improved. The amorphous silica
extracted from rice husk ash has high specific surface area (125–132 m2 g−1 ), melting
point, and porosity. [3] reported that nickel catalysts supported on amorphous silica
are active for methanation of CO2 . Hydrogenation activity of nickel nanoparticles
supported on amorphous silica is better than those on silica gel. Amorphous silica
is also used as a raw material for preparing a series of silica-alumina composites as
supports for nickel-based catalysts (Ni/RHA–Al2 O3 ) synthesized via ion exchange
method. Methanization of carbon dioxide is reviewed [3]. Few studies on the recent
advancements in the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide are presented in detail from
various studies [4]. Hybrid photosynthesis is also studied and the result was positive
[5] Ag/Tio2 is used as catalysts and studied for artificial photosynthesis [6]. Many
studies were done for generating carbon, fuel, and other products from CO2 [7, 8].

2 Model for Artificial Photosynthesis

The simulations of artificial photosynthesis can be evaluated by Triad complex and

Cd1−x Znx S systems. Triad complex formed from carotenoid, porphyrin and fullerene
which are coupled with multichromophoric hexad antenna. This system has two
chambers, i.e., top and bottom one. Bottom chamber is further divided into two sub-
chambers. Upper chamber has facility for hydrolysis of H2 O where O2 and H2 are
formed due to photo-activation of Tetrad. Below this chamber, there is membrane
permeable for proton. This proton is passed into sub-partition of bottom chamber
having two different catalysts for the formation of different products. One subpart
of bottom chamber gives methane using catalyst called copper-gold catalyst, and
other one gives methanol using catalyst called Cu.Zn.Al2 O3 . The Cd1−x Znx S (i.e.,
Cd0.5 Zn1 S) systems also contain the same infrastructure as explained in Triad com-
plex. The same is depicted in Fig. 2.
290 R. S. Mamillapalli and V. V. Namboodiri

Fig. 2 Cd1−x Znx S catalyst-based photosynthesizer

Cd1−x Znx S bounded to the membrane reacts with H2 O coming from valve present
in upper chamber. Light is reflected on transparent glass and sensitized this catalyst
by transferring its energy (as light have packet of energy, i.e., photon). This energy
is used to hydrolyze H2 O.
There is a production of O2 as bubble which is exit from valve and collected
into another cylinder. H+ ion is transferred from hydrogen permeable-membrane
separating upper and lower chamber. The actual reactions will be take place at main
chambers lower region on the influence of photons. Combined reaction with different
catalyst, presence of CO2 and photons will generate the hydrocarbon products. The
reaction is shown below with different catalysts:
A. In the presence of copper-gold complex, CO2 reacts with hydrogen gives
methane.
B. In the presence of Cu.Zn.Al2 O3, CO2 reacts with photon gives methanol (Fig. 3).

3 Conclusions

From the earlier studies, it is evident that the catalyst plays a vital role in the arti-
ficial photosynthesis. The study for designing an artificial photosynthesizer used
Cu.Zn.Al2 O3 catalyst. From the analytical study, the result is very impressive where
the catalyst speeds the reaction in which the device can work all the time without
depending on the sunlight. This makes the proposed model for designing a device is
feasible. Even though this study is giving a positive result, many complexities are to
be faced during the experimentation of the designed model for artificial photosyn-
thesizer for converting carbon dioxide to oxygen.
Further work is to develop a prototype and test it for the desired result in converting
carbon dioxide to oxygen to the known quantities under controlled conditions.
A Design Framework for Portable Artificial Photosynthesizer … 291

Fig. 3 Cu.Zn.Al2 O3 catalyst-based photosynthesizer for the proposed model

References

1. IEA: World Energy Balances. OECD/IEA, Paris (2018)

2. Gust, D., Moore, T.A., Moore, A.L.: Solar fuels via artificial photosynthesis. Acc. Chem. Res.
42(12), 1890–1898 (2009)
3. Wei, W., Jinlong, G.: Methanation of carbon dioxide: an overview. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng. 5(1),
2–10 (2011)
4. Wang, W., Wang, S., Ma, X., Gong, J.: Recent advances in catalytic hydrogenation of carbon
dioxide. Chem. Soc. Rev. 40(7), 3703–3727 (2011)
5. Bard, A.J., Fox, M.A.: Artificial photosynthesis: solar splitting of water to hydrogen and oxygen.
Acc. Chem. Res. 28(3), 141–145 (1995)
6. Collado, L., Reynal, A., Fresno, F., Barawi, M., Escudero, C., Perez-Dieste, V., Coronado,
J.M., Serrano, D.P., Durrant, J.R., Víctor, A.: Unravelling the effect of charge dynamics at the
plasmonic metal/semiconductor interface for CO2 photoreduction. Nat. Commun. 9(1), 4986
(2018)
7. Hussain, S.T.: Nano catalyst for CO2 conversion to hydrocarbons (2009)
8. Lingampalli, S.R., Ayyub, M.M., Rao, C.N.R.: Recent progress in the photocatalytic reduction
of carbon dioxide. ACS Omega 2(6), 2740–2748 (2017)
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical
CO2 Booster Systems with Flooded
Evaporator for Supermarket Application

Manju Lata, Ashish Kumar Yadav and Dileep Kumar Gupta

Abstract The paper presents the thermodynamic modeling and analysis of a CO2
booster system operating in a transcritical cycle with flooded evaporator for the
supermarket application. In present scenario, the HVAC sector is facing challenge
due to the implementation of various protocols, i.e., Montreal and Kyoto protocols,
which leads to explore the long-term and eco-friendly solutions. CO2 is considered
as one of the rediscover and ecologically safe refrigerant, however, the performance
of the overall systems is low as compared to the existing and conventional systems,
especially in warm climatic conditions like India. Therefore, these systems need to
be modified and improved. There are many modifications proposed, in which CO2
booster system is one of them. In this paper, an attempt has been made to further
improve the standard CO2 booster system by including flooded evaporator at low
temperature (LT), medium temperature (MT), and simultaneously both LT and MT.
The results show that addition of flooded evaporator improve the COP, however,
improvement is higher in case of MT and LT-MT flooded evaporator as compare
to only LT flooded. Further, the degree of improvement is more as the climatic
temperature increases.

Nomenclature

C Compressor
CO2 Carbon dioxide
COP Coefficient of performance
E Expansion valve
HT High temperature
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
h Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Manju Lata · A. K. Yadav · D. K. Gupta (B)

Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management (IITRAM),
Gujarat, Ahmedabad, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 293

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_27
294 Manju Lata et al.

IHX Internal heat exchanger

LTF Low temperature flooded
MT Medium temperature flooded
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
P Pump
Q̇ Refrigeration load (kW)
R Receiver
Ẇ Compressor work (kW)

Subscript

cond Condenser
F1 Flashed at receiver 1
F2 Flashed at receiver 2
gc Gas cooler
HS High stage
LS Low stage

1 Introduction

There are several modifications for enhancing the CO2 system performance proposed
by various researchers. The CO2 system for supermarket application with different
possible technologies, i.e., booster system, parallel compression, combination of
both for LT, MT evaporator has also been investigated. Some of the developments
of these systems are summarized.
Sawalha [1] studied two different CO2 systems for supermarket and reported
5–22% of improvement with multi-staging compression at the ambient of 10–40 °C.
Subsequently, comparative study was also discussed with R404A system, by Sawalha
[2]. Ge et al. [3] reported a theoretical study of the booster system and concluded that
the optimum high-side pressure is independent of the intermediate stage pressure,
and the superheat of LT, MT, LT and MT evaporators. However, it mainly depends on
effectiveness of IHX, ambient condition and HT compressor’s isentropic efficiency.
Minetto et al. [4] proposed another system with flooded evaporators in parallel sys-
tems. The results indicated that optimum heat transfer area can be optimized, which
endorsing the overfeeding of evaporator. Thirteen percentage of the energy saving is
reported at 16 °C ambient and 0 °C of MT conditions.
The control strategy of booster system was presented by Karampour and Sawalha
[5, 6] where it was reported that around 24 MWh of electricity saving can be achieved
by the same . Subsequently, the integrated system has been investigated. It was
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems … 295

concluded that there will be maximum 14% improvement in summer. The system
performance improves more in cold climate than the moderate climate.
Gullo et al. [7–9] compare different configurations of booster system for super-
market. Totally, eight designs have been considered and compared the results with
the conventional booster systems. Obtained results show 15.6–27.3% of energy sav-
ing with multi-ejector system over the R404A system. Fricke et al. [10] analyzed the
booster systems for 15.6–32.2 °C ambient in the laboratory setup of booster CO2
system. They concluded that the system can be a suitable alternative to the conven-
tional systems for commercial applications. Hafner et al. [11] reported energy saving
up to 30% for multi-ejector system as compared to the parallel compression system
based on field data from in Spiazzo. Later, Tsamos et al. [12] stated in their study that
the parallel compressor consumes 5% less electricity than the basic system based on
the study in Athens city.
The booster system with the addition of an intermediate vessel at MT and LT, along
with expander and parallel compression, has been reported for ambient temperature
range of 35–50 °C elsewhere by Purohit et al. [14]. Subsequently, a study on five
different booster systems has been made elsewhere [13]. It has more energy-saving
capacity, and maximum annual energy saving was reported up to 22.16% with higher
temperature climate. Most recently, Huang et al. [15] proposed that using ejector into
the conventional booster system gives up to 11% improvement for 35 °C ambient. The
study presented by Purohit et al. [14] indicated that the booster system with flooded
evaporator has improved the system performance at LT evaporator. However, using
flooded evaporator at MT, and both LT and MT have not been discussed, which may
further improve the performance. In the present work, an attempt has been made to
compare and analyze, the performance of the standard booster system and booster
system with flooded evaporator at LT, MT and, both LT and MT.

2 Booster Configurations

Standard CO2 booster system including LT and MT loads is shown in Fig. 1. This
system consists of three pressure section, high, intermediate and low. The refrigerant
from MT compressor reject heat in gas cooler to the ambient, subsequently, expansion
of the refrigerant takes place in expansion device and goes to the receiver at the
intermediate pressure and the flow gets divided in two-stream i.e. liquid and gas. The
intermediate vessel provides further cooling of refrigerant before the entrance of
the evaporator and the vapour is get throttled to the MT evaporator pressure. Liquid
refrigerant gets expanded in the expansion valve before entering to the MT and LT
expander and through the bypass valve gaseous form of refrigerant is bypassed to
the suction line of the high-pressure compressors. Subsequently, the bypass gas from
the MT evaporator mixes with compressed gas in LT compressor and the cycle gets
completed. In order to enhance the performance of standard CO2 booster system three
modified booster systems have been proposed which included LT flooded evaporator,
MT flooded evaporator and, LT and MT flooded evaporator. In booster system with LT
296 Manju Lata et al.

Fig. 1 Standard booster

cycle (no flooded evaporator)

flooded evaporator have an additional refrigerant receiver and a pump was introduced
as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Booster cycle (LT

flooded evaporator)
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems … 297

Fig. 3 Booster cycle (MT

flooded evaporator)

The flooded evaporator enhances heat transfer rate and it also operates at high
temperature compared to conventional evaporators. In the booster system, with MT
flooded evaporator; only one additional pump is introduced as shown in Fig. 3.
Booster system with LT and MT flooded evaporator shown in Fig. 4 is a combination
of both LT and MT flooded evaporators. In the present work performance of all
three modified booster system is evaluated and compared with the standard booster
system.

3 Thermodynamic Modeling

To analyze the performance of the system, thermodynamic models have been devel-
oped with following assumptions, i.e., steady state operating conditions, isenthalpic
expansion process, no pressure loss and heat transfer in components and in piping.
Energy and mass balance equations of components of the cycle are used to simulate
the performance of the system, and the details of these equations are summarized in
Table 1. Further, the simulation has been carried out using MATLAB and the REF-
PROP 9.0 is used for thermophysical properties of refrigerant. Correlations adopted
for the compressor isentropic efficiencies for high-side compressor and low-side
compressor are taken from the literature (Purohit et al. 2017).
298 Manju Lata et al.

Fig. 4 Booster cycle (LT

and MT flooded evaporators)

4 Operating Conditions and Parameters

The system performance has been analyzed at various ambient temperatures varying
from 278–317 K with gas cooler pressure from 8–10.5 MPa. The operating conditions
have been taken based on the supermarket cabinet as per the literatures as shown
in Table 2. The approach temperature and superheating for the standard booster
systems are assumed as 5 °C each. The approach temperature and superheating for
the standard booster systems are assumed as 5°C each. Whereas, for all flooded
evaporator systems approach temperature considered as 2 °C. However, the pump
work is taken as 10% of compressor work for all the systems. As conventional
system evaporator temperature were taken as −34.5 and −8 °C, whereas with flooded
evaporator temperature increases by 4−5 °C, due to heat transfer rate in flooded
evaporator is comparatively higher.

5 Result and Discussion

The performance of all three proposed modified systems has been investigated with
the above mathematical model and different operating conditions. Further, the com-
petitive study has been carried out to explore the enhancement of the system perfor-
mance with reference to the standard booster system. Figure 5 depicts the variation
of COP with different ambient conditions for each system at various operating pres-
Table 1 Thermodynamic equations for the components of the investigated systems
Standard booster system Booster cycle with LT flooded evaporator
ẆLS = ṁ LT × (h 2 − h 1 ) ẆLS = ṁ F2 × (h 3 − h 2 )
ẆHS = (ṁ LT + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 7 − h 6 ) ẆHS = (ṁ F2 + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 7 − h 6 )
Q̇ gc/cond. = (ṁ LT + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 7 − h 8 )(ṁ LT + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) Q̇ gc/cond. = (ṁ F2 + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 7 − h 8 )
× h 9 = (ṁ F1 × h 10 ) + ((ṁ LT + ṁ MT ) × h 11 ) (ṁ F2 + ṁ MT + ṁ F1 ) × h 9 = (ṁ F1 × h 10 ) + ((ṁ F2 + ṁ MT ) × h 11 )
Q̇ MT = ṁ MT × (h 3 − h 12 ) (ṁ F2 × h 13 ) + (ṁ LT × h 1 ) = (ṁ F2 × h 2 ) + (ṁ LT × h 14 )
Q̇ LT = ṁ LT × (h 1 − h 13 ) Q̇ MT = ṁ MT x (h 4 − h 12 )
Q̇ LT = ṁ LT x (h 1 − h 15 )
Booster cycle with MT flooded evaporator Booster cycle with LT and MT flooded evaporator
ẆLS = ṁ LT × (h 2 − h 1 ) ẆLS = ṁ LT × (h 3 − h 2 )
ẆHS = (ṁ LT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 5 − h 4 ) ẆHS = (ṁ LT + ṁ F1 + ṁ F2 ) × (h 7 − h 6 )
Q̇ gc/cond. = (ṁ LT + ṁ F1 ) × (h 6 − h 5 ) Q̇ gc/cond. = (ṁ LT + ṁ F1 + ṁ F2 ) × (h 8 − h 7 )
(ṁ LT + ṁ F1 ) × h 7 + (ṁ MT × h 10 ) = (ṁ F1 × h 3 ) + (ṁ LT × h 11 ) + (ṁ MT × h 8 )(ṁ F1 + ṁ MT + ṁ F2 ) × h 9 = ṁ F1 × h 5 + (ṁ MT + ṁ F2 ) × h 10
(ṁ MT + ṁ F2 ) × h 10 = ṁ MT × h 11 + h 14 × ṁ F2
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems …

Q̇ MT = ṁ MT × (h 10 − h 9 )
Q̇ LT = ṁ LT × (h 1 − h 12 ) ṁ F2 × h 15 + h 1 × ṁ LT = h 2 × ṁ F2 + h 16 × ṁ LT
Compressor work = 10% of pump work h 3 × ṁ F2 + h 13 × ṁ MT = h 4 × (ṁ MT + ṁ F2 )
(ṁ MT + ṁ F2 ) × h 4 + h 5 × ṁ F1 = h 6 × (ṁ MT + ṁ F2 + ṁ F1 )
Q̇ MT = ṁ MT × (h 13 − h 12 )
Q̇ LT = ṁ LT × (h 1 − h 17 )
Compressor work = 10% of pump work
299
300 Manju Lata et al.

Table 2 Operating
MT load 120 kW
parameters of the investigated
solutions [1, 2, 16, 17] LT load 65 kW
Approach temperature for gas cooler 5 °C
MT evaporating temperature −8 °C
LT evaporating temperature −30 °C
Superheating 5 °C
Circulation ratio (CR) for LT flooded evaporator 2.5
Intermediate vessel (R1) pressure 3.5 MPa
Maximum gas cooler pressure 10.6 MPa

sures ranging from 8 to 10.5 MPa. It has been observed from the simulation results
for each case that the COP is higher at lower pressure with low ambient temperature,
whereas COP drastically decreases with low pressure at higher ambient conditions.
However, the COP increases with increase in pressure at higher ambient condi-
tions; it is due to the thermodynamic behavior of CO2 while operating in transcritical
cycle. It is also observed that the COP increases with the inclusion of flooded evap-
orator in all three proposed system compared to standard booster system. It is due to
the superheating before compression can be avoided by using the receiver. In addition
to that, the evaporator temperature increases due to higher heat transfer rate. How-
ever, the maximum improvement is noted with simultaneous LT and MT flooded
evaporator, followed by MT flooded and LT flooded. The higher COP is achieved at
pressure 10.5 MPa in high ambient conditions.
Figure 6 shows the percentage improvement in COP of modified systems with ref-
erence to the standard booster system at various ambient temperatures and 10.5 MPa.
Maximum improvement in COP is observed for combined LT and MT flooded evap-
orator, followed by individual MT and LT flooded evaporator system. However, the
improvements of combine LT and MT flooded system are less significant as com-
pared to MT flooded system. Therefore, the addition of another flooded evaporator as
LT along MT flooded leads to higher cost, which may not be justified economically.
Hence, the MT flooded evaporator could be a better option for supermarket appli-
cations, especially at higher ambient temperature as the degree of improvement is
more at higher ambient temperature. At the standard operating temperature of 309 K,
the improvement observed up to 8.51, 21.3, and 22.7% for LT, MT, LT and MT flooded
system, respectively.
Figure 7 indicates variation in maximum COP of the booster system with MT
flooded evaporator corresponding to the optimum gas cooler pressure for different
ambient temperatures. With higher ambient temperature, optimum pressure of the
system remains constant up to 303 K and afterward, it shows a linear rise in optimum
pressure with increase in gas cooler temperature up to 311 K, then again it remains
constant. It is observed that performance of the system is better at 283 K which is
lowest ambient temperature. This is due to improvement in cooling capacity of the
system when operated at lower ambient temperature compared to the higher ambient
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems … 301

Standard Booster System MT Flooded Evaporator

LT Flooded Evaporator LT and MT both Flooded Evaporator

3.5 3.5
3 3
2.5 2.5
2 2
COP

COP
1.5 1.5
1 1
Pgc = 8 MPa
0.5 0.5 Pgc = 8.5 MPa
0 0
280 290 300 310 320 278 288 298 308 318
Ambient Temperature (K) Ambient Temperature (K)
3.5 3
3 2.5
2.5
2
2
COP

COP

1.5
1.5
1
1 Pgc = 9 MPa
Pgc = 9.5 MPa
0.5 0.5

0 0
277 287 297 307 317 277 297 317
Ambient Temperature (K) Ambient Temperature (K)

3 3

2.5 2.5

2 2
COP

1.5
COP

1.5
1 1
0.5 Pgc = 10 MPa 0.5 Pgc = 10.5 MPa
0 0
277 287 297 307 317 277 287 297 307 317
Ambient Temperature (K) Ambient Temperature (K)

Fig. 5 COP of the investigated systems at various ambient temperatures for different gas cooler
pressures from 8 to 10.5 MPa
302 Manju Lata et al.

Fig. 6 COP improvement in the percentage of the investigated systems at various ambient temper-
atures

Fig. 7 Maximum COP Pressure(Mpa) COP Max

variation corresponding to 11 3.5
optimum pressure of the MT 10.5
OpƟmum Pressure

3
flooded evaporator at various 10
ambient temperatures 2.5
9.5

COP
9 2
8.5 1.5
8
1
7.5
7 0.5
280 290 300 310 320
Ambient Temperature (K)

temperature. Maximum COP obtained corresponding to the optimum pressure 8 MPa

is 3.11 at 283 K and at 317 K gas cooler temperature, maximum COP obtained
corresponding to optimum gas cooler pressure 10.5 MPa is 1.22, respectively.
Variation in COP of booster system with MT flooded evaporator for different
optimum gas cooler pressures at various gas cooler temperatures are shown in Fig. 8.
It is observed that with an increase in ambient temperature, COP of the system
decreases and also with an increase in the gas cooler pressure, COP of the system
decreases up to 305 K, after that, its COP increases with increase in gas cooler
pressure. This behavior of gas cooler pressure on COP of the system is due to the
variation in properties of CO2 when operated in transcritical region which can be
seen in p-h chart of CO2 refrigerant. Maximum COP obtained is 3.11, which is for
8 MPa optimum pressure at 283 K gas cooler temperature.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Transcritical CO2 Booster Systems … 303

Fig. 8 COP of MT flooded 8 MPa 8.5 MPa

evaporator at various 4 9 MPa 9.5 MPa
ambient temperatures and
gas cooler pressure 10 MPa 10.5 MPa
3

COP
2

0
280 290 300 310 320
Ambient Temperature (K)

6 Conclusions

Thermodynamic model has been developed for the modified booster system with
flooded evaporators, i.e., LT, MT and, LT and MT flooded systems. The detailed
analysis has been carried out and explored for the possibility of getting better per-
formance from the system at higher ambient conditions. It is concluded that at lower
temperature (283 K), the improvement in COP of LT, MT and LT and MT both flooded
evaporator over standard booster system is found to be 0.44, 10.8, and 11.2%, respec-
tively. While at higher temperature (317 K), performance improvement of LT, MT
and, LT and MT flooded evaporator over standard booster system is 33.7, 41.9, and
51.2%, respectively. Hence, the improvements are more as the system operated at
higher temperature. However, with the standard operating temperature (309 K), the
improvement observed up to 8.51, 21.3, and 22.7% for LT, MT, LT and MT flooded
system, respectively. Therefore, the addition of another flooded evaporator as LT
along MT flooded leads to higher cost, which may not be justified economically.

References

1. Sawalha, S.: Theoretical evaluation of trans-critical CO2 systems in supermarket refrigeration.

Part I: Modeling, simulation and optimization of two system solution. Int. J. Refrig. 31, 516–524
(2008)
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Correction to: Climate Control
of Greenhouse System Using Neural
Predictive Controller

Shriji V. Gandhi and Manish T. Thakker

Correction to:
Chapter “Climate Control of Greenhouse System Using
Neural Predictive Controller” in: D. Deb et al. (eds.),
Renewable Energy and Climate Change, Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_19

In the original version of the chapter, the following belated corrections have
been incorporated: The author (Shriji V. Gandhi) affiliation “Government Poly-
technic Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India” has been changed to “Gujarat Technolog-
ical University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India” in the Frontmatter, Backmatter and in
Chapter 19. The correction chapter and the book have been updated with the change.

The updated version of this chapter can be found at

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_19

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 C1

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_28
Author Index

A Kodgire, Santosh, 277

Abhishek, Kumar, 119 Kumari, Soni, 119
Agrawal, Neeraj, 175 Kumar, Manish, 199
Kumar, Rajesh, 99
B Kushwaha, Shivbachan, 257
Baldha, Piyush, 109
Bhargava, Kshitij, 109 L
Bhatt, Praghnesh, 141, 153 Lakhani, Harsh, 119
Bhoraniya, Rameshkumar, 267 Long, Chao, 141

C M
Chandra Shekharaiah, P. S., 257 Mamillapalli, Raja Sekhar, 287
Manju Lata, 293
D Mehta, Alpesh, 39
Daftary, Dhrumil, 129 Mehta, Bhinal, 141
Dasgupta, Santanu, 257, 277 Mehta, Nirvesh, 39
Desai, Atul K., 61 Mehta, Pankita, 153
Desai, Dishant, 277 Mistry, Vishwash K., 223
Dixit, Ambesh, 1, 99 Modi, Bhaumik, 87
Modi, Nishant, 77
G Modi, Yash D., 11
Gandhi, Shriji V., 211 Mudgal, Anurag, 87
Guerrero, Josep M., 49
Gupta, Dileep Kumar, 293 N
Nagababu, Garlapati, 11
H Namboodiri, V. Vishnu, 287
Harichandan, Atal Bihari, 267 Nashikkar, Bhargav, 165

J P
Jadeja, Rajendrasinh, 165 Panda, Anup Kumar, 49
Jain, Anjana, 23 Pandya, Bhargav, 77
Jani, Hardik K., 11 Pandya, Vivek, 153
Patel, Bhavesh, 87
K Patel, Jatin, 77, 239
Kazi, Juned R., 175 Patel, Jaydeep, 11

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 305

D. Deb et al. (eds.), Renewable Energy and Climate Change,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 161,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0
306 Author Index

Patel, Krunal, 109, 239, 249 Shah, Bhavin, 119

Patel, Nilay, 141 Shah, Hemal J., 61
Patel, Rajesh, 249 Sheth, Mit, 267
Patel, Ranjeeta, 49 Singh, Sunita, 277
Patel, Vinod, 165 Sipai, Uvesh, 165
Paul, Vishal, 257
Pujara, Mit, 267 T
Thakker, Manish T., 211
R Tiwari, Ajay, 1
Rachchh, Nikunj, 267 Trapasia, Nidhi, 249
Rajendra, Shah Krupa, 199 Trivedi, Tapankumar, 165
Ramana, P. V., 185
Raval, Chirag H., 129 V
Raval, Harshil, 239 Varia, Dipak J., 223
Varmora, Tarang, 199
S
Sanyal, Debanjan, 257, 277 Y
Sapre, Ajit, 257 Yadav, Ashish Kumar, 293
Saravanakumar, R., 23 Yadav, C. O., 185
Saxena, Nishant, 277