Science

QUARTER 1

LESSON 1 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Nose/Mouth
- Pharynx (Throat)
The respiratory system is a network of organs - Larynx (Voice Box)
that do respiration
NOSE/MOUTH
RESPIRATION
“Respiration” is used several different ways:
- Passages filter the air and make it
- Cellular respiration is the aerobic
moist
breakdown of glucose in the
mitochondria to make ATP. NASAL CAVITY
- Respiratory systems are the organs in
- Humidify, warm, filter, and conduit for
animals that exchange gases with the
inspired air, protects the respiratory
environment.
tract using the mucociliary system.
“Respiration” is the act of breathing
- Also acts as the houses for receptors
- inhaling - oxygen in
that are responsible for olfaction
- exhaling - carbon dioxide out
(ability to smell)
BREATHING
ORAL CAVITY
Breathing is the process of delivering oxygen
- An arch of the hard and soft palates
to where it is needed and removes carbon
above the teeth and cheeks laterally,
dioxide
and the tongue on the floor of the
- Oxygen is carried in the blood to all
mouth.
the cells
- Lips and teeth are separated by a
shallow vestibule
- Oral cavity is formed by the smooth
COMPOSITION OF AIR
pink to light red buccal and labial
mucosa
INHALED AIR
- Nitrogen - 78% PHARYNX (THROAT)
- Oxygen - 21%
Passageway that carries air down from the
- Other gasses - >1%
mouth and nose.
- Argon - >1%
- Carbon Dioxide - 0.04% NASOPHARYNX
- Upper part connecting the nasal cavity
EXHALED AIR
above the soft palate
- Nitrogen - 78%
- Oxygen - 16% OROPHARYNX
- Other gasses - >1%
- Posterior to the oral cavity
- Argon - >1%
- Carbon Dioxide - 4.4% LARYNGOPHARYNX
- Hypopharynx bottom of the pharynx
 LARYNX (VOICE BOX) FLOW OF OXYGEN
It is a hollow tube that facilitates the passage - Pulmonary artery - capillary - blood
of air from the throat to the trachea. gas barrier - pulmonary veins - heart
- body
EPIGLOTTIS - alveolar-capillary barrier, key function
- Small movable lid above the larynx element of the lungs, site of oxygen
- Prevents food from entering the and carbon dioxide between the distal
windpipe and airspace and the pulmonary
vasculature
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Trachea STRUCTURE OF THE ALVEOLI AND
CAPILLARIES
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
ALVEOLI
- Alveoli
- Lungs - Tiny air sacs at the end of the
bronchioles in the lungs.
TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) - Thin walls are surrounded by a dense
network of capillaries.
- a cartilaginous tube that connects the
- Thinness of the alveolar walls are
larynx to the bronchi of the lungs,
crucial as it allows efficient gas
allowing the passage of air
exchange
RIGHT MAINSTEM BRONCHUS (RMB)
CAPILLARIES
- First/primary bronchi to branch from
- Microscopic blood vessels wrapped
the trachea at the carina
around the alveoli
LEFT MAINSTEM BRONCHUS - Bring deoxygenated blood from heart
to lungs for oxygenation and carry
- first/primary bronchi to branch from
oxygenated blood away
the trachea at the carina, longer than
RMB
MECHANISM OF GAS EXCHANGE

CARINA
CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS
- Ridge of cartilage at the base of the
trachea separating and opening of - Gases move from areas of high to low
the L/RMB concentration.
- In the alveoli there’s higher
BRONCHIOLES concentration of oxygen, a lower
concentration of carbon dioxide
- Smaller tubes that branch from the
compared to the deoxygenated blood
bronchi . distribute air to specific
in the capillaries
regions within the lungs
- Right lung has 3 lobes while the left
DIFFUSION ACROSS RESPIRATORY
has 2 lobes MEMBRANE
- Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli
PARTS
(where it's abundant) into the blood in
- Terminal bronchioles the capillaries, while Co2 moves from
- Respiratory bronchioles the capillaries (concentration is
- Alveoli higher) into the alveoli. The
respiratory membrane is just the
combined thickness of the alveolar
 wall and the capillary wall, and it’s - Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its
extremely thin, allowing quick and dome shape moving upward into the
efficient diffusion chest cavity
- Decreases the volume of the chest
FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE cavity and increases the internal air
pressure
PARTIAL PRESSURE DIFFERENCES - Air is pushed out of the lungs to
- Concentration gradients for oxygen equalize the pressure
and Co2 are maintained by the - Intercostal muscles relax, allowing the
differences in partial pressures rib cage to lower, which aids in
between these gases in the alveoli and reducing chest cavity volume
the blood. Difference drives the
movement of gases

SURFACE AREA FOR GAS EXCHANGE

- Combined surface area of all alveoli in
the lungs is vast. A decrease in the
active surface area (due to conditions
like emphysema) impairs the ability to
exchange gas
RESPIRATORY DISEASES
DIFFUSION DISTANCE
- As mentioned, the respiratory Obstructive diseases - characterized by an
membrane is extremely thin. obstruction in the air passage with shallow
Conditions that thicken this exhalation
membrane or introduce fluid into the Restrictive diseases - prevents the lungs from
alveoli can impede gas exchange. expanding
Note: chronic means persisting for a long
DIAPHRAGM time
- Dome shaped muscle located just
below the lungs CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY
- Separated the chest cavity from the DISEASES (COPD) (OBSTRUCTIVE)
abdominal cavity and plays a vital
role in breathing CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
Chronic inflammation and increased mucus
INHALATION PROCESS production, mainly due to smoke irritation in
- Contracts and flattens pulling the airways
downwards
- Increases the volume of the chest EMPHYSEMA
cavity and decreases the internal air Develops over time and involves the gradual
pressure damage of lung tissue, specific the
- Air rushes into the lungs to equalize destruction in the lungs, impairing oxygen
the pressure and Co2 exchange
- Intercostal muscles also contract to lift
the rib cage, aiding the diaphragm in SMOKE INDUCED ASTHMA
creating more space Smoke irritates the airways, causing asthma
attacks and exacerbating symptoms.
EXHALATION PROCESS
 - Smoke irritates the airways, making - chest tightness
them swollen, narrow, and filled with - lungs may feel chronically full or part
sticky mucus full.

RESTRICTIVE DISEASES RESTRICTIVE

- shortness of breath
CYSTIC FIBROSIS - long-term cough
- anxiety
Genetic inherited disease, causing sticky thick
- gasping for breath
mucus to build up. They clog the airway to
- changing of positions to attempt to
make it difficult to breathe
make it easier to breathe.
SARCOIDOSIS
DIAGNOSIS
Inflammatory disease that affects the lymph
glands. Abnormal masses or nodules - Chest X-ray
(granulomas) inflamed tissues form in - Pulmonary Function Test (PFT)
certain organs - CT scans
- Bronchoscopy
PLEURAL EFFUSION
TREATMENT
Build up of excess fluid between layers of the
pleura outside the lungs. “Water in the lungs”
OBSTRUCTIVE
- Inhalers
OBSTRUCTIVE & RESTRICTIVE DISEASES - Antibiotics
- steroid tablets
PNEUMONIA - lifestyle changes
- supportive oxygen therapy
Common lung infection caused by germs,
bacterias, viruses, fungi. Smoking weakens RESTRICTIVE
the immune system, making the body more
- lifestyle changes
susceptible to infections
- Drug-based
TUBERCULOSIS - treatment (Tablets, capsules, etc.)
- supportive oxygen Therapy
Disease caused by germs that is infectious. It
affects the lungs but also other parts. They
LESSON 2
can die if not treated. Smoking impairs the
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
immune response, fostering a conducive
environment for tuberculosis infections.
- Its main function is to move blood
LUNG CANCER
throughout your body and transport
Caused by uncontrolled cell division in the
other materials.
lungs. Smoking introduces carcinogens that
can damage DNA and induce cancer. SYMPTOMS

- Heart
- Lungs
SYMPTOMS
- Blood

OBSTRUCTIVE
- shortness of breath
- wheezing
HEART TRICUSPID VALVE
- The heart is a muscular organ that - Door between your right atrium and
pumps blood throughout our body via right ventricle.
an intricate network of blood vessels. AORTIC VALVE

- The heart is a double pump made up - Opens when blood flows out of your
of 4 chambers, namely, the right and left ventricle to your aorta
MITRAL VALVE
left atrium,and right and left ventricles
- Door between your left atrium and left
ATRIUM (ATRIA) ventricle.
PULMONARY VALVE
- These are thin upper cavities of the
- Opens when blood flows from your
heart from which blood is passed to
right ventricle to your pulmonary
the ventricles
arteries
LEFT ATRIUM
- The pulmonary veins delivers blood to
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
the left atrium after the lungs infused
it with oxygen
RIGHT ATRIUM VENA CAVA

- It receives oxygen-poor blood from - It is the largest vein in the body. It is

two big veins. separated into 2 parts; the superior
vena cava and inferior vena cava.
VENTRICLE
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
- These are chambers below the atria
- It receives deoxygenated blood from
that pumps blood out of the heart and
the head, neck, upper limbs and chest.
into the circulatory system.
LEFT VENTRICLE
INFERIOR VENA CAVA
- It is a little bigger than the right
- It receives deoxygenated blood from
ventricle. It transfers blood enriched in
the trunk, viscera, and lower limbs.
oxygen to the rest of your body.
- It has a much thicker wall because it PULMONARY ARTERY
generates the high pressure needed to - Splits into 2 parts; the left pulmonary
push blood to the head and body. artery and the right pulmonary artery.
RIGHT VENTRICLE
- Through the pulmonary artery, it CIRCULATION
transports oxygen-poor blood to the
- It is the heart's pumping movement that
lungs.
causes blood to flow through the body's
- It has a thin wall because it only needs
vessels, distributing nutrients and oxygen
to pump the blood around the lungs at to all parts of the body while also
low pressure. removing waste products

HEART VALVE 3 TYPES OF CIRCULATION

- The doorways between your heart - Systemic Circulation
chambers are similar to your heart - Pulmonary Circulation
valves. They keep the blood from - Coronary Circulation
flowing in the wrong direction.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
CHROMOSOMES
- This part of the cycle carries
- These are thread-like structures
oxygenated blood away from the
located inside the nucleus of animal
heart, to the lungs, and back to the
and plant cells. Each chromosome is
heart.(blood to the body)
PULMONARY CIRCULATION made of protein and a single molecule
- This part of the cycle carries of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
oxygen-depleted blood away from the - There are 23 pairs of chromosomes
heart, to the lungs, and back to the (46 total)
heart.(to the lungs)

CORONARY CIRCULATION
- This type of circulation provides the
heart with oxygenated blood so it can
function properly. (to the heart)

LESSON 3
HEREDITY
- It is also known as deoxyribonucleic
acid, is the genetic material in the
cells of all organisms.
- The two scientist who are given credit
for discovering the structure of the
DNA are Francis Crick and James Visual representation of the DNA structure, genes, and chromosomes
Watson
- The structure of a DNA is a double INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
helix/twisted ladder
- There are four monomers; adenine, NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
thymine, guanine, and cytosine - Any pattern of inheritance wherein
- Two bases that are purines are; traits do not segregate following
adenine, guanine Mendel’s law.
- Two bases that are pyrimidines are; ALLELE
thymine, cytosine - Genes of the same type that contain
- The base pairs are; adenine, thymine different kinds of information.
and guanine, cytosine - Alleles can be dominant or recessive.
- Gregol mendel - father of genetics HOMOZYGOUS
- Organisms that have two identical
GENES
alleles for a particular trait. Ex. XX, YY
- These are segments of HETEROZYGOUS
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that - Organisms that have two different
contain the code for a specific protein alleles – hybrids. Ex. Xx, Yy
that functions in one or more types of HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT
cells in the body. - It has both dominant alleles for a
particular trait.
HOMOZYGOUS RECESSIVE PUNNETT SQUARE & PROBABILITY
- It has both recessive alleles for a - Used to predict the possible gene
particular trait. makeup of offspring – Punnett Square
DOMINANT - Example: Black fur (B) is dominant
- The allele of a gene that masks or to white fur (b) in mice 1. Cross a
suppresses the expression of an heterozygous male with a homozygous
alternative allele recessive female.
- A trait that masks another trait. - 2. Cross 2 hybrid mice and give the
RECESSIVE
genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio.
- An allele that is mashed by a - Example: A man and woman, both
dominant allele. with brown eyes (B) marry and have a
GENOTYPE
blue eyed (b) child. What are the
- The genetic makeup of organisms.
genotypes of the man, woman and
PHENOTYPE
child?
- The physical appearance of an
organism.
MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
- The observable characteristics of an
- Founder: Proposed by Gregor Mendel
organism
in the 19th century.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- Principles: Based on three principles:
- It is referred to as the dilution of the
the Principle of Dominance, the
dominant allele with respect to the
Principle of Segregation, and the
recessive allele
- This pattern of inheritance in which Principle of Independent Assortment.

both alleles are present results in an - Traits: Involves single-gene traits.

intermediate phenotype. - Pattern: Traits are inherited in a

- It is also known as partial dominance predictable fashion according to the

- It is when two traits blend together laws of dominance, segregation, and

independent assortment.
Example: - Ratios: Produces specific phenotypic
A cross between a homozygous red-flowered ratios in the offspring (3:1 for
plant (RR) and a monohybrid crosses and 9:3:3:1 for
homozygous white-flower plant (WW) dihybrid crosses in heterozygous
parents). Alleles: Alleles are typically
dominant or recessive. Examples:
R R
Mendel’s pea plant experiments
W RW RW demonstrating traits like seed shape
and flower color.
W RW RW

NON - MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

Phenotype: 4 pink flowers
- Complexity: More complex than
Genotype: RW (100% pink flowers)
Mendelian Inheritance, involving
Genetic notes multiple genes or non-nuclear DNA.
 - Patterns: Doesn’t follow the expressed separately.
predictable patterns or ratios of
Mendelian inheritance. Punnett Square
- Chromosomes Involved: Can involve - It was developed by Reginald Punnett,
autosomal or sex chromosomes. and is used in order to determine the
- Examples: Human skin color, height, phenotype and genotype of an
blood types, and diseases like sickle individual.
cell anemia and cystic fibrosis

➢ In incomplete dominance, the phenotype Example:

of heterozygotes is intermediate between the If a black chicken (BB) is mated with one that
phenotypes of the two homozygotes. is black and white (BW) what are the chances
➢ A great example of this is the flower color of having chicken that is black and white?
characteristic of some plants where
true-breeding varieties produce either red or B B
white flowers.
B BB BB
➢ Most of the physical characteristics of
humans, including hair, eye color, height, skin W BW BW
color, sound pitch, and hand size, show
incomplete dominance. Phenotype: black chicken and black and
➢ Children born with semi-curly or wavy hair white chicken
are an example of individuals exhibiting Genotype: BB, BW ( 50% black chicken, 50%
incomplete dominance because of the black and white chicken)
crossing of parents’ alleles both straight and
Genetic notes
curly hairs to produce such offspring.
➢ The eye color of humans is a more common LESSON 5
example of incomplete dominance. However, MULTIPLE ALLELES (ABO BLOOD TYPES)
understanding incomplete dominance for
A single gene that has more than two alleles
eye color is quite complicated.
is called multiple alleles. The ABO blood
groups in humans as an example of a gene
“Incomplete dominance is a form of
that has multiple alleles is the one that
intermediate inheritance in which one allele
controls the inheritance.
for a specific trait is not completely dominant
over the other allele. This results in a third
Remember!
phenotype in which the expressed physical
trait is a combination of the dominant and
recessive phenotypes.”
A = IAIA or IAi AB= IAIB
LESSON 4 B = IBIB or IBi O = ii
CODOMINANCE
Codominance
- A type of inheritance, wherein two Example:
alleles of the same gene are fully
Two parents think their baby was switched at X Y
the hospital. It's 1968, so DNA fingerprinting
technology does not exist yet. The mother has X XX XY
blood type “O,” the father has blood type
X XX XY
“AB,” and the baby has
blood type “B”
Phenotype: Male and Female
IA IB Genotype: XX, XY( 50% female, 50% male)

i IAi IBi
LESSON 5.2
i IAi IBi
SEX LINKED TRAITS

SEX LINKED TRAITS

Phenotype: Type A blood and Type B blood - These are genes expressed through
Genotype: IAi, IBi (50% type a blood and pairs of alleles from autosomal
50% type b blood)
chromosomes.
- autosomal traits that are expressed in
both sexes but more frequently in one
LESSON 5.2
than in the other sex.
GENDER PROBABILITY
- Examples: baldness, harelip, gout, or
lipoma formations (lumps).
The Odds Of Having A Girl And A Boy SEX INFLUENCED TRAITS
- Two X chromosomes (XX) produce a - Genes found either on X or Y
girl, while an X and a Y chromosome chromosomes which are inherited
(XY) produce a boy. differences among male and females.
- To have a girl, the sperm must be
fertilized by an X chromosome Example:
- To have a boy, the sperm must be Color-blindness is a recessive, sex-linked
fertilized by an Y chromosome disorder in humans. A color-blind man has a
child with a woman who is a carrier of the
Y SPERM
disorder
KEY: X = normal vision Xc = color blindness
- Faster but survive for less time in the
female gential tracts
X SPERM XC Y
- Slower but they are more resistant and
X
therefore survive longer XXC XY

XC
Example: XcXc XcY
Draw a Punnett square which shows the
inheritance of the sex chromosomes.
Phenotype: Female colorblind carrier, Normal
male, Female colorblind, Male colorblind
Genotype: XXC, XY, XCXC, XCY ( 25% female ➢If one of its components experienced
colorblind carrier; 25% normal male; 25% changes and it doesn’t adapt to its new
female colorblind, 25% male colorblind)
environment or situation it may probably die
and lessen in numbers.
LESSON 6
BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION INTERACTIONS
- Biodiversity is the term used to - When the sea otter population is
describe the number and variety of healthy and abundant, they keep the
life found on Earth. sea urchin population in check by
- Biodiversity has three types: genetic, consuming them
species, and ecosystem - When the sea urchin population is
GENETIC DIVERSITY controlled, the kelp forests flourish, as

- Refers to the variety of genetic there are fewer sea urchins to eat

information contained in all the them. kelp forests

individual plants, animals, fungi, and

IMPACT OF DISRUPTION
microorganisms.
- Let's say that the sea otter population
- It occurs within a species as well as
decreases due to external factors
between species. For example, the
(e.g., oil spills, disease, or increased
genetic differences between individual
predation by sharks).
humans or between different breeds
- ➢ With fewer sea otters, the sea
of dog
urchin population sea otter sea urchin
SPECIES DIVERSITY kelp forests explodes
- Refers to the variety of species within - The unchecked sea urchin
a region. population will overgraze the kelp forests,
- The Earth is home to millions of leading to a dramatic decline in kelp. This
different species, from the largest has a cascading effect on other species that
mammals to the tiniest insects and rely on the kelp forest for habitat, shelter,
microbes. and food.

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
- Refers to the variety of habitats, living ADAPTATION OR DECLINE

communities, and ecological - If, for some reason, sea urchins could
processes in the living world. not adapt to an environment with less
- Examples of different ecosystems kelp (maybe there's not enough
include deserts, rainforests, alternative food sources), their
grasslands, wetlands, and coral reefs, numbers would also start to decrease
to name just a few. after initially booming.
- Each ecosystem provides habitats for - The decline in both sea otters and kelp
a unique set of species and has its could lead to a decrease in sea urchin
own processes that contribute to the numbers, even if they were initially the
planet's overall system. "winners" in the Scenario. kelp forests
➢All parts of the ecosystem are interacting sea otter sea urchin
with one another.
 RICHNESS ➢ 1 represents a community with perfect

- Definition: Refers to the number of evenness, and it decreases to zero as the

different species present in a relative abundances of the species diverge

particular area or ecosystem. It's a from evenness. Enhanced Science 9

simple count of species and doesn't

consider the abundance of each ➢ Populations can be of the same size, but

species. (number of species) they may have different densities.

➢ When we consider the number of
individuals per unit area, we are referring to
EVENNESS
the density of the population. ➢ Differences
- Definition: Refers to how equal the
in population density in any community may
abundances of different species are in
be attributed to many factors.
an ecosystem. An ecosystem where
every species has a similar number of
➢ Organism populations can change over
individuals is said to have high
time. ➢ Changes are influenced by various
evenness. Conversely, an ecosystem
limiting factors. ➢ Limiting factors include:
where one species dominates in
▪ Scarcity of resources such as food, water,
abundance while others are rare has
and space.
low evenness. (how even the number
▪ Predation.
of individuals are)
▪ Diseases.
▪ Migration.
BIODIVERSITY INDEX ▪ Light, temperature, and soil nutrients.
➢ It is a scale of the diversity of plant and
animal species in a given area. It is a widely DNA (DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID)
used tool for estimating the complexity, - This chemical substance is present in
stability, and thus general health of an the nucleus of all cells in all living
ecosystem. It is expressed with the equation organisms
of: - DNA controls all the chemical changes
which take place in cells
- The kind of cell which is formed,
(muscle, blood, nerve etc) is
SHANNON-WIENER DIVERSITY INDEX controlled by DNA
➢ The most widely used diversity index in the - The kind of organism which is
ecological literature is the Shannon-Wiener produced (giraffe, herring, human
etc) is controlled by DNA
diversity index. ➢ Accounts for both richness
and evenness in an ecosystem. ➢ The DNA MOLECULE
Shannon index is given by the expression
- DNA is a very large molecule made up
of a long chain of sub-units
PIELOU’S EVENNESS - The sub-units are called nucleotides
➢ a way to measure how the species are - A molecule of DNA is formed by
millions of nucleotides joined together
evenly distributed in a community.
in a long chain
➢ value is defined between 0 and 1.
- Each nucleotide is made up of :
1. a sugar called deoxyribose
 2. a phosphate group -PO4 ERWIN CHARGAFF
3. an organic base
- Chargaff studied DNA itself, in hopes
of providing some clues about its
structure.
- Discovered that there are always
equal amounts of the bases Adenine
and Thymine, and equal amounts of
Cytosine and Guanine.
NUCLEOTIDES
- Chargaff proposed that these bases
- A nucleotide is the basic building pair with one another in some way.
block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)
SUGAR (DEOXYRIBOSE) WILKINS AND FRANKLIN

- Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but - Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
with only five carbon atoms in its worked with X-ray crystallography to
molecule find more clues about the structure of
- Deoxyribose is almost the same but DNA.
lacks one oxygen atom - Franklin’s X-ray images suggested a
PHOSPHATE GROUP helical structure.
- A molecule made up of phosphorus
and oxygen that plays a vital role in WATSON AND CRICK
the structure of DNA. - James Watson and Francis Crick were
THE BASES also working on discovering the
structure of DNA.
- Applied Chargaff’s rule, assumed that
A always pairs with T, C with G.
- Watson was not entirely convinced of
the helical structure that Franklin had
suggested, and his critique of her work
led her to doubt herself.
- Wilkins consulted with Watson and
COMPLEMENTARY NATURE Crick. Without Franklin’s knowledge,
he handed them the data that he and
- Adenine-Thymine Rule: Adenine
Franklin had worked on.
always pairs with thymine, forming
- Watson immediately recognized the
two hydrogen bonds.
significance. He and Crick went to
- Cytosine-Guanine Rule: Cytosine
work on a model of DNA.
always pairs with guanine,
establishing three hydrogen bonds. FUNCTION OF DNA
- It stores genetic information necessary
DNA STRUCTURE for organisms to develop, survive, and
- DNA usually consists of a double reproduce.
strand of nucleotides - Damage to DNA may cause cells to
- The sugar-phosphate chains are on stop dividing, cell death, or become
the outside and the strands are held malignant.
together by chemical bonds between
the bases THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
- The paired strands are coiled into a - Leaves have a large surface area for
spiral called A DOUBLE HELIX absorption of light, and they are also
 thin which speeds up the exchange of
gases. Chloroplast

– An organelle in the plant cell. It absorbs

Photosynthesis sunlight and uses it in conjunction with water
– by which plants convert light energy into and carbon dioxide gas to produce for the
chemical energy in order to make their own plant.
food.
– consists of the inner and outer membrane,
– is the process of capturing and converting stroma, and inner membrane.
light energy to chemical energy in the form of
sugar in the presence of chlorophyll using – appears green as seen by the eyes because
sunlight and water. it is the one being reflected.

– occurs in the chloroplast specifically the – What is really absorbed are the red and
chlorophyll which is the green coloring matter blue light which in turn absorbs the light
of the leaves. energy being used.

– literally means putting together in the Granum

presence of light. It occurs in the leaves and – a series of flattened interconnected sacs
rarely in the stem. that looks like a pancake

Thylakoid
– is the internal membrane of chloroplasts
An ordinary leaf consists of the lower and and cyanobacteria, and provides the
upper epidermis, the vascular bundles platform for the light reactions of
(veins), the mesophyll, and the stomata. photosynthesis.
These parts are responsible for the following:
– the flattened interconnected sacs.
a.) Lower and upper epidermis
– the covering or protection of other parts of Stroma
the leaf. – colorless fluid surrounding the granum
within the chloroplast.
b.) Stomata
– holes in the lower epidermis where the air is Photosynthesis occurs in a two-part process.
exchanged

– allow CO2 to go out and oxygen to come

EPIDERMIS:
in.
- Outermost layer of the leaf.
c.) Vascular bundle - Secretes a waxy substance known as
– the leaf’s transportation system. They the cuticle.
transport water and nutrients to all the parts - The cuticle helps retain water inside
of the leaf where they are needed. the leaf cells.

d.) Mesophyll
– contains the chloroplasts where
photosynthesis occurs.
LOWER EPIDERMIS
- Contains openings called stoma
(stomata).
- Carbon dioxide enters through here.
- Oxygen passes out from here.

- Surrounding each stoma are guard

cells.
1. Bean-shaped cells.
2. An epidermal cell containing - Between these membranes lies the
chloroplasts. - stroma.
3. Regulates the opening and 1. Liquid part of the chloroplast.
closing of the stomata. - Contains a complex network of
stacked sacs:
1. Each stack is termed a granum
(plural: grana).
2. Each flattened sac is known as
a thylakoid.
3. Contains green-colored
pigments known as
chlorophylls.
4. Absorbs light.

MESOPHYLL LAYER:
- Located between the upper and lower
epidermis.
- Composed of:
1. Palisade cells: Arranged like
columns.
2. Spongy cells: Loosely arranged
cells.
- Contains organelles known as
chloroplasts. UNDERSTANDING THE FOOD-MAKING PROCESS IN PLANTS
1. Have green pigments that trap - Dive into photosynthesis, the
energy from the sun. ingenious process where plants
transform sunlight into sustenance,
powering life on Earth.
CHLOROPHYLL AND LIGHT ABSORPTION:
- Photosynthesis is initiated by the
CHLOROPLAST:
chlorophyll present in the chloroplast.
- Enclosed by a double membrane: 1. Absorbs light energy, primarily
- Outer membrane. from sunlight.
- Inner membrane. - Plant Leaf Coloration:
1. Leaves are predominantly
green because:
 - Chlorophyll absorbs most colors ➢ Electrons in the reaction center become
except green. energized.
- Reflects green light, giving leaves their ➢ Energized electrons leave PSII for an
green appearance.
electron
ENTRY OF RAW MATERIALS: acceptor in the electron transport chain.
- Co2 enters and leaves via tiny ➢ To replace these electrons, water is split,
openings of the stomata resulting in:
- Water and nutrient absorption plant • Release of oxygen.
soaks up dissolved water and nutrients • Production of two hydrogen ions.
from the soil • Production of two electrons.

VASCULAR TISSUES
ELECTRON JOURNEY AND ROLE OF PS1
- Plants contain special tissues known
as vascular tissues or xylem and Electron Journey and Role of PSI:
phloem ➢ Electrons move from PSII to PSI via the
- Xylem - water electron transport chain.
- Phloem - food ➢ Hydrogen ions are pumped from the
stroma into the thylakoid by a protein in this
FORMULA FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
chain.
6 CO2+ 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6+ 6 ➢ As electrons transition between
O2 photosystems, they lose energy.
➢ PSI absorbs light to re-energize these
LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE OF electrons.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
➢ Chemical NADP accepts the electron and
-
hydrogen, transforming into high-energy
LOCATION AND REQUIREMENT
molecule NADPH.
- Occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
• Requires a continuous supply of
FORMATION OF ATP
light.
ROLE OF CHLOROPHYLL • Accumulated H+ ions inside the thylakoid
Absorbs light energy and converts it into are allowed to diffuse back to the stroma by
chemical energy. ATP synthase.
• Comprises two units of light-absorbing • This enzyme captures the energy of their
molecules: movement and stores it in ATP (adenosine
o Photosystem II (PSII) (1st) triphosphate).
o Photosystem I (PSI) (2nd)
BALANCING NADPH AND ATP PRODUCTION
- An enzyme in the thylakoid membrane
utilizes energy from electrons of both
PSII PSII and PSI to:
Begins when PSII receives light energy. • Produce more ATP.
➢ Light energy is transferred to a chlorophyll • Halt the generation of NADPH.
reaction center. • It's crucial to keep a balanced proportion of
NADPH and
ATP for the next phase of photosynthesis. five-carbon sugar molecule.
• The enzyme involved: Rubisco.
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION STAGE • The reaction results in an unstable
6-carbon molecule.
OXYGEN • This molecule splits into two 3-carbon
- Produced as a byproduct when water molecules known as 3 phosphoglyceric acid
molecules are split in the photosystem (3PGA).
II.
CO2 REDUCTION
ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE) The process involves adding electrons and
- The main energy currency of the cell, energy to the carbon dioxide molecule.
produced from ADP and inorganic
phosphate via the ATP synthase • When 3PGA interacts with ATP (from the
complex as protons flow down their light-dependent reaction), it transforms into
gradient from the thylakoid lumen into biphosphoglycerate (BPGA).
the stroma. • BPGA then combines with NADPH, which
carries a high-energy electron enhanced by
NADPH
light energy and also carries a hydrogen
- Reduced form of NADP+. It is
proton.
produced when NADP+ accepts the
• NADPH donates this high-energy electron
high-energy electrons (along with a
and hydrogen to BPGA, converting it into
proton) after they pass through the
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL).
photosystems.
• Carbohydrate ADP and NAD+ are sent back
to the thylakoid to be transformed again into
CALVIN CYCLE (LIGHT INDEPENDENT ATP and NADPH via the light-dependent
REACTION)
reaction.
- Location: Occurs in the stroma of the
• One of the 3PGA molecules is reserved for
chloroplast.
glucose synthesis, while the majority move on
to the next phase of the Calvin cycle.

REGENERATION OF RUBP
-
Regeneration of RuBP:
• In this phase, RuBP molecules are formed
using
Phases of the Calvin Cycle:
ATP, which then combine with the 3PGA
• Carbon Fixation:
molecules.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
• This RuBP later combines with additional
atmosphere is captured and diffuses into the
carbon dioxide molecules to eventually form
stroma.
the
•Here, it encounters RuBP
glucose molecule.
(Ribulosediphosphate), a
• The cycle turns six times, with each turn
adding
only one carbon atom from the incoming
carbon
dioxide to the glucose molecule.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION

-
Light-independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle):

• Glucose (or other sugars): While technically

the Calvin Cycle produces G3P
(Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate) molecules, it
takes multiple turns of the Calvin Cycle and
subsequent reactions to ultimately produce
glucose or other carbohydrate molecules.
• ADP and Inorganic Phosphate: Used ATP
gets converted back into ADP and inorganic
phosphate, which can then be reused in the
light-dependent reactions.
• NADP+: NADPH donates its electrons during
the Calvin Cycle and gets oxidized back to
NADP+, which then goes back to the
light-dependent reactions to be reduced
again.