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Introduction ; i ity of Similarly, the fluid velocity at a point P is defined as the instantaneous velocity 0 i i Vs the centre of gravity of the smallest continuous volume 6) The concept of continuum loses validity when the mean free path of the molecules approaches the order of magnitude of the dimensions of the vessel, as, for instance, in highly rarefied gases encountered in high vacuum technology, in rocket flights at high altitudes’ and in electron tubes. In most engineering applications, however, the assumption of a continuum is valid and convenient, and goes hand in hand with the macroscopic point of view. The science of thermodynamics deals with systems existing in thermodynamic equilibrium states which are specified by properties. Infinitely slow quasi-static Processes executed by systems are only meaningful in thermodynamic plots. The name ‘thermodynamics’ is thus said to be a misnomer, since it does not deal with the dynamics of heat, which is nonquasi-static. The name ‘thermostatics’ then seems to be more appropriate. However, most of the real processes are dynamic and nonquasi-static, although the initial and final states of the system might be in equilibrium. Such processes can be successfully dealt with by the subject. Hence, the term ‘thermodynamics’ is not inappropriate. [a5 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS Inthe present text, the SI (System International) system of units has ne present tea been used. The basic units in this system are given in Table 1.1, Table 1.1 System: Basic Units Length (L) Mass (4) Time (0) Amount of substance Temperature (y) Electric current Luminous intensity Plane angle Solid angle The dimensions of 5 all othe; iti ? Nesiven in Table 1.2, “unlilies are derived from these basie units which ne Engineering Thermodynamics Table 1.2 SI System: Derived Units Quantity Unit Symbol Alternative unit Force (F) Newton Energy £) Joule Power ‘Watt Pressure Pascal Frequency Hertz Electric charge Coulomb Electric potential Volt Capacitance Farad Electrical resistance Ohm etic flux Weber eee flux density Tesla Wo/m? kgi(s? A) Inductance Henry Wo/A ___kg ms? A?) It is often convenient and desirable to use multiples of various units, the stan- dard list of which is given in Table 1.3. kg m/s* Nm kg m?/s? Us kg m/s? N/m? kg/(ms’) s As WA=J/C kg ms? A) cv VIA Vs Bagotatm Positive gauge pressure p=tatm Negative gauge pressure or vacuum p $3] = Zpg Nim? If the fluid is a eslumn is equivdleatieeee ee, ele kg/m’, one metre head of mercury alent to a pressure of 1.3366 bar, as shown below I mHg = Z pg =1 x 13616 x 9.81 = 1.3366 x 10° N/m? = 1.3366 bar _The manometer is a sensitive, accurate and simple device, but it is limited to fairly small pressure differentials and, because of the inertia and friction of the liquid, is not suitable for fluctuating pressures, unless the rate of pressure change is small. A diaphragm-type pressure transducer along with a cathode ray oscilloscope can be used to measure rapidly fluctuating pressures. The unit of 1 mm Hg pressure is called torr, so that : 1 mmHg = | torr = 133 Pa Figure 1.22 shows a typical U-tube manometer, one end of which is connected to the vessel the pressure of which is to be measured and the other end is open to atmosphere exerting pressure pyjq. The manometric fluid may be mercury. water, alcohol, oil, etc. The pressure along the horizontal line AB is the same in both the limbs of the manometer, so that P* Pi 821 = Pat * P2 82 If the vessel contains a gas of density p, and since the density of the manometric fluid, (say Hg), P2 >> Pr P~ Pasm = P2 822 = Pause Pan 1.15.3 Specific Volume and Density Volume (V) is the space occupied by a Vessel substance and is measured in m’. The specific volume (v) of a substance is a 2 defined as the volume per unit mass and is measured in m*/kg. From continuum consideration the specific volume at a point is defined as _ OV v= _lim — ov +5’ 5m where dV’ is the smallest volume for which pig. 1,22. Pressure Measurement by a the system can be considered a continuum. Manometer x Engineering Thermodynamics Density (p) is the mass per unit volume of a substance, which has been discussed earlier, and is given in kg/m’. m a In addition to m’, another commonly used unit of volume is the litre (1). 11= 107 m? The specific volume or density may be given either on the basis of mass or in respect of mole. A mole of a substance has a mass numerically equally to the molecular weight of the substance. One g mol of oxygen has a mass of 32 g and 1 kg mol (or kmol) of nitrogen has a mass of 28 kg. The symbol @ is used for molar specific volume (m*/kmol). 1.15.4 Energy Energy is the capacity to exert a force through a distance, and manifests itself in various forms. Engineering processes involve the conversion of energy from one form to another, the transfer of energy from place to place, and the storage of energy in various forms, utilizing a working substance. The unit of energy in the SI system is Nm or J (joule). The energy per unit mass is the specific energy, the unit of which is J/kg. 1.15.5 Power The rate of energy transfer or storage is called power. The unit of power is watt (W), kilowatt (kW) or megawatt (MW). 1W=1J/s=1Nm/s 1 kW = 1000 W Solved Examples Example 1.1 The pressure of gas in a pipe line is measured with a mercury manometer having one limb open to the atmosphere (Fig. 1.23). If the difference in the height of mercury in the two limbs is 562 mm, calculate the gas pressure. The barometer reads 761 mm Hg, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.79 m/s’, and the density of mercury is 13,640 kg/m. Solution At the plane AB, we have P=Po* pgz Now Po=P 8&2 where z, is the barometric height, p the density of mercury and pp the atmospheric pressure. Therefore P=Pg(zt+z) : fe »640 kg/m? x 9.79 m/s? (0.562 + 0.761) m = 17710? Nim? = = 177 kPa = 1.77 bar = 1.746 atm Example 1. ne After ce 4 turbine is supplied with steam at a gauge pressure of 1.4 MPa. ah nin the turbine the steam flows into a condenser which is main- eo o vecuum of 710 mmHg. The barometric pressure is 772 mmHg. Express the inlet and exha a i te). Take the den- sity of mercury as 13.6 x 10k eee in pascals (absolute). Solution The atmospheric Pressure py = pazy = 13.6 x 10° kg/m? x 9.81 m/s? x 0.772 m = 1.03 x 10° Pa Inlet steam pressure = (1.4 x 105) + (1.03 x 10°)] Pa = 15.03 x 10° Pa = 1.503 MPa Condenser pressure = (0.772 - 0.710) mx 9.81 m/s? x 13.6 x 10° kg/m? = 0.827 x 10* Pa = 8.27 kPa Example 1.3 Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa, assuming that the barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. (a) 40 cmHg vacuum (b) 90 cmHg gauge (©) 1.2m of HO gauge Solution (a) Pracaum = hpg = (40 x 107) x (13.6 x 10°) x 9.8 = 53.31 x 10° N/m? = 53,31 kPa Pabsolute = Patm ~ Pvac = (760 — 400) x 9.8 x 13.6 x 10° = 48 x 10° N/m? = 48 kPa Also, : Paps = 101.325 — 53.31 = 48.015 kPa (b) Prauge = PS = (90 x 107) x (13.6 x 10°) x 9.8 = 120 x 10° N/m? = 120 kPa Since Pa = 760 mm Hg = 101,325 kPa Pas = Pgauge + Pam = 120 + 101.325 = 221.325 kPa ria erste Engineering Thermodynamics kg m ©) Penge = hp = 1.2m x 1000 x 9.81 = 11.772 kPa Pas = 11.772 + 101.325 = 113.097 kPa eExample 1.4 The pressure and specific volume of the atmosphere are related according to the equation pv!" = 2.5 x 10°, where p is in N/m? and v in m'/kg, What depth of atmosphere is required to produce a pressure of 1.033 bar at the earth's surface? Assume g = 9.81 m/s”. Solution Let H be the depth of the atmosphere required to produce the pressure of 1.033 bar at the earths surface. Considering an element of length dh (Fig. 1.24), by force balance: A (p+ dp)=mg+ pA pA + Adp = pAdhg + pA Atmospheric — column of area A or, ah=+ vdp 4 j Fig. 1.24 YS 1.033x10° 1 (2.5105 )i4 a fa-f 1(28x00) p dj : eG. P, 1.033 x 10° H= p (25x oy e p?"4 dp (1.033 x108)""" = 731.214 = 69,462 m = 69.462 km Example 1.5 Acceleration is sometimes measured in g's, or multiples of the standard acceleration of gravity. Determine the net upward force that an astronaut whose mass is 68 kg experiences if the acceleration on lift-off is 10 g's. Solution Net vertical force F=mg=ma . m=68kg a=10g's Fret a= 10 x 9,806 = 98.06 m/s” F= 68 x 98.06 = 6668 N Ans. ee Thermodynamics studi ' “igo mast Rutt ae the energy interactions like work and heat transfer and interactions affe ween a sysiem and the surroundings and how these ; ons affect the properties of th i irical science drawing its material from certain observed Sh aR REE capes ead i laws. Only the macroscopic bebe ne cua rai aa et lle into account the Sean aviour of the system is considered, without pe Properties which are the pete at the molecular ‘or microscopic le intensive, which are pari nen to describe the state of a system can Extensive ' lent of mass, like pressure and temperature. rive properties like volume and energy depend on the mass. Specific ane Properties are intensive properties. me a be of three types: a closed system cal ‘no mass transfer. An open system can have transfer across its boundary. An i: ee 7 z : : . An isolated system is one in w! interaction, either mass or energy transfer, across the boundary. Any operation in which one or more of the properties changes is called a change of state. When the path of the change of state is specified, itis called @ process. A thermodynamic cycle is a series of state changes such that the final state is identical with the initial state. A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from its surroundings. If a system satisfies three types of equilibrium, viz, mechanical, Chemical and thermal, itis said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium. A quasi- static process is a succession of equilibrium states, occurring infinitely slowly, so that the process takes infinite time to complete it across @ finite gradient. A pure substance is one that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition throughout its mass like a mixture of ice and water. The two- property rule holds that the state of a pure substance of given mass can be fixed by specifying two independent intensive properties. Introduction n have only energy both mass and energy hich there is NO &e Review Questions tand by macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints? the subject? dynamics differ from the concept of heat 1.1 What do you unders 1.2 Is thermodynamics a misnomer for 1.3. How does the subject of thermo transfer? 1.4 What is the scope of classical thermodynamics? 1.5 What is a thermodynamic system? 1.6 What is the difference between a cl 1,7. An open system defined for a synonymous. Explain. 1.8 Define an isolated sysetm. 1.9 Distinguish between the terms ‘change of state’, ‘path’, and ‘process’. 1.10 What is a thermodynamic cycle? Josed system and an open system? fixed region and a control volume are Engineering Thermodynamics 1.11 What are intensive and extensive properties? 1.12 What do you mean by homogeneous and heterogencous systems? 1.13 Explain what you understand by thermodynamic equilibrium. 1.14 Explain mechanical, chemical and thermal-equilibrium. 1.15 What is a quasi-static process? What is its characteristic feature? 1.16 What is the concept of continuum? How will you define density and pressure using this concept? 1.17 What is vacuum? How can it be measured? 1.18 What is a pressure transducer? & Problems 3 1.1 A pump discharges a liquid into a drum at the rate of 0.032 ms. The drum, 1.50 m in diameter and 4.20 m in length, can hold 3000 kg of the liquid. Find the density of the liquid and the mass flow rate of the liquid handled by the pump. Ans. 12.934 kg/s gravity is given as a function of elevation above sea level by g = 980.6 — 3.086 x 10° H where g is in cm/s’, and His inom. Ifan aeroplane weighs 90,000 N at sea level, what is the gravity force upon it at 10,000 m elevation? What is the percentage difference from the sea-level weight? Ans. 89;716.4 N, 0.315% 1.3 Prove that the weight of a body at an elevation H above sea-level is given by 2 mg(_d wore; ae &o (; +2H } where d is the diameter of the earth. 1.4 The first artificial earth satellite is reported to have encircled the earth at a speed of 28,840 km/h and its maximum height above the earth’s surface was stated to be 916 km. Taking the mean diameter of the earth to be 12,680 km, and assuming the orbit to be circular, evaluate the value of the gravitational acceleration at this height. The mass of the satellite is reported to have been 86 kg at sea-level. Estimate the gravitational force acting on the satellite at the operational altitude. Ans, 8.9 m/s’; 765 N 1.5 Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa, assuming that the barometer reads 760 mmHg: (a) 90 cmHg gauge, (b) 40 cmHg vacuum, (c) 1.2 m H,O gauge, (d) 3.1 bar. 1.6 A30m high yerueal column of a fluid of density 1878 kg/m? exists in a place where g = 9,65 m/s”. What is the pressure at the base of the column. : Ans. 544 kPa 7 aa that the pressure p and a specific volume v of the atmosphere are according to the equation po' = 2.3 x 10°, where p is in N/m? abs and 1.2. The acceleration of et vis in m/kg. The acceleration due to gravity is cons! the depth of atmosphere necessary to produce a pre: earth’s surface? Consider the atmosphere as a fluid cblumn. The pressure of steam flowing in a pipe- line is measured with a mercury manom- eter, shown in Fig. 1.25, Some steam condenses into water, Estimate the steam pressure in kPa, Take the density of mer- cury as 13.6 x 10° kg/m’, density of wa- ter as 10° kg/m’, the barometer reading as 76.1 cmHg, and g as 9,806 m/s”, A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 mHg. What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa? Ans, 13.3 kPa at 9.81 m/s”. What is a of 1.0132 bar at the ‘Ans. 64.8 km Steam at pressure, P Fig. 1.25

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