ME 406

Fluid Mechanics

Engr. Lendon S. Arcillas

Instructor

1
Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics

2
 What is a fluid?

3
 What is a fluid?

4
 What is a fluid?

► A fluid is any substance that deforms continuously when acted upon by a

5 shear stress of any magnitude.
 What is a fluid?

6
 Classification of Fluid

7
 What is Fluid Mechanics?
► A substance which flows is called as fluid.
► A fluid is any substance that deforms
continuously when acted upon by a shear
stress of any magnitude.
► All liquid and gaseous substances are
considered fluids. Water, oil, and others are
very important in our routine life as they are
used for various applications.
► Also, as example water is used for the
generation of electricity in hydroelectric power
plants and thermal power plants.
8
 What is Fluid
Mechanics?

9
 What is Fluid Mechanics?
► Fluid Mechanics is that branch of science which covers the behavior of
fluids when they are in a state of motion or rest.

10
 What is Fluid Mechanics?
► Fluid statics: This studies the fluid in the state
of rest.
► Fluid kinematics: The fluid in the state of
motion is called as moving fluid. Its study is
fluid kinematics.
► Fluid dynamics: It studies the effect of all
pressures including the external pressures on
the moving fluid.

11
 Application of Fluid
Mechanics

12
 Application of Fluid Mechanics

13
 Types of Fluids

14
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid

15
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid

► Ideal fluid:
A fluid, which is incompressible and having no viscosity, is
known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid
as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity.

16
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid

► Real fluid:
A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All
the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. Example :
Water, Air etc.

17
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid
► Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient, is known as a
Newtonian fluid.
Viscosity remains constant

Example : Water, Benzine etc.

18
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid
► Non Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in not directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient, is known as a
Non Newtonian fluid.
Viscosity of fluid changes
Example : Plaster, Slurries, Pastes etc.

19
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid
► Ideal plastic fluid:
A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient,
is known as ideal plastic fluid.
We need to provide some yield stress for flow

20
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid
► Incompressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid does not change which change
in external force or pressure, is known as incompressible fluid. All
liquid are considered in this category.

21
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Types of Fluid
► Compressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while change in
external force or pressure, is known as compressible fluid. All gases
are considered in this category.

22
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

23
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

24
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

25
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

26
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

27
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

28
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

29
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

30
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

31
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Property of Fluids

32
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

33
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TRY IT!
1. Find the mass and weight of the air in a living room at 20 deg Celsius with a 4.0m x 5.0m floor and a
ceiling 3.0m high.
a. What is the mass and weight of the air?
b. What is the mass and weight of an equal volume of water?
2. On a part-time job, you are asked to bring a cylindrical iron rod of length 85.8 cm and diameter 2.85cm
from a storage room to a machinist. Will you need a cart? (To answer, calculate the weight of the rod. density
of Rod 7.8 x 10^3 kg/m^3
3. A hollow cylindrical copper pipe is 1.50m long and has an outside diameter of 3.50cm and an inside
diameter of 2.50cm. How much does it weigh? Density of copper 8.9 x 10^3 kg/m^3
4. A fluid with a shear rate of 0.5 per second, and the shearing stress 0.76 N per m². What is its dynamic
viscosity?
5. The distance amid two pistons is 0.015 mm and the viscous fluid flowing through produces a force of 1.2 N
per square meter to keep these two plates move at a speed 35 cm/s. Calculate the fluid viscosity in the middle
of the plates?

34
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 1
► Find the mass and weight of the air in a living room at 20 deg
Celsius with a 4.0m x 5.0m floor and a ceiling 3.0m high.
(a) What are the mass and weight of the air?
(b) What are the mass and weight of an equal volume of water?

35
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 1

36
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 1

37
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 2
► On a part-time job, you are asked to bring a cylindrical iron rod
of length 85.8 cm and diameter 2.85cm from a storage room to a
machinist. Will you need a cart? (To answer, calculate the weight
of the rod.)

38
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 2

39
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 2

40
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 3
A hollow cylindrical copper pipe is 1.50m long and has an outside
diameter of 3.50cm and an inside diameter of 2.50cm. How much
does it weigh?

41
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 3

42
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 3

43
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 4
A fluid with a shear rate of 0.5 per second, and the shearing stress
0.76 N per m². What is its dynamic viscosity?

44
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 4

45
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 5
► The distance amid two pistons is 0.015 mm and the viscous fluid
flowing through produces a force of 1.2 N per square meter to
keep these two plates move at a speed 35 cm/s. Calculate the
fluid viscosity in the middle of the plates?

46
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 5

47
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 4

48
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
Hydrostatics

49 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana

 HYDROSTATICS
► COMBINED GAS LAW – states that the ratio of the product of
pressure and volume and the absolute temperature of a gas
is constant
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2

► ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE – states that the upward buoyant

force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether
fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid
that the body displaces
BF =Wf = fVsub

► PASCAL LAW – states that the unit pressure at specified point

below surface of fluid is equally distributed in all direction
50
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure

51
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure
► When a fluid is at rest, it
exerts a force perpendicular
to any surface in contact with
it. While the fluid as a whole
is at rest, the molecules that
make up the fluid are in
motion; the force exerted by
the fluid is due to molecules
colliding wit their
surroundings.

52
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure
► If we think an imaginary surface
within the fluid, the fluid on the
two sides of the surface exerts
equal and opposite forces on
the surface.
► We define pressure (p) as the
normal force per unit area:

► If the pressure is the same at all

points of a finite plane surface
with area A, then:
53
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure
► Atmospheric pressure (pa)
- Is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at the
bottom of this sea of air in which we live.
- This pressure varies with weather changes with elevation.
- Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1atm or 101, 325
Pa.

54
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

55
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 6
► In example 6, what is the total downward force on the surface
of the floor due to air pressure of 1.00atm? floor dimension 5m x
4m

56
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 6

57
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure, Depth and
Pascal’s Law

58
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure

59
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure
► Atmospheric pressure is less at high altitude than at sea level,
which is why an airplane cabin has to be pressurized when flying
at 35,00ft. When you dive into deep water, your ears tell you
that the pressure increases rapidly with increasing depth below
the surface.

60
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure

61
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure

62
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure
► This equation shows that when y increases, p decreases; that is,
as we move upward in the fluid, pressure decreases, as we
expect.
► If p1 and p2 are the pressures at elevations y1 and y2,
respectively, and if density and g are constant, then:

63
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure and Dept
► You can also express this in terms of the depth below the
surface of a fluid.

64
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
Hydrostatics

65 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana

 HYDROSTATICS
► COMBINED GAS LAW – states that the ratio of the product of
pressure and volume and the absolute temperature of a gas
is constant
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2

► ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE – states that the upward buoyant

force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether
fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid
that the body displaces
BF =Wf = fVsub

► PASCAL LAW – states that the unit pressure at specified point

below surface of fluid is equally distributed in all direction
66
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure

67
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Pressure
► When a fluid is at rest, it
exerts a force perpendicular
to any surface in contact with
it. While the fluid as a whole
is at rest, the molecules that
make up the fluid are in
motion; the force exerted by
the fluid is due to molecules
colliding wit their
surroundings.

68
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
► Gauge Pressure
- Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure,
and negative for pressures below it.

► Absolute Pressure
- Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure.

For example, if your tire gauge reads 34 psi (pounds per square inch),
then the absolute pressure is 34 psi plus 14.7 psi (Patm in psi), or 48.7
psi (equivalent to 336 kPa).
69
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

70
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

71
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 7
A storage tank 12.0m deep is filled with water. The top of the tank
is open to the air. What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of
the tank? The gauge pressure?

72
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 7

73
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 7

74
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure Meters

75
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 PIEZOMETER GAUGE

76
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 PIEZOMETER GAUGE
a head measuring or level
indicator for liquid fluid inside the
very large reservoir. It is made up of
a small glass tubing of about 8 mm
to 10 mm in diameter graduated
with linear measure. It is vertically
installed beside a very large tank or
reservoir to indicate the level of
liquid fluid inside the tank.

77
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER

78
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER
a fluid head measuring indicator consisting a small
glass tubing bended and formed to accommodate
different liquid fluid. It can be an open type manometer
or a closed type manometer.

79
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER

80
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER
One of the simplest instruments that we can use to help us
measure the pressure within a given container is called an
open-tube manometer.
In fact, many more complicated devices that help us measure
the pressure are based off of the open-tube manometer. The
open-tube manometer is a U-shape tube that is partially filled with
a fluid, usually mercury or water. The pressure that is measured is
related to the difference in height of the fluid at the two ends of the
U-shaped tube.
One end of the tube is attached to the container while the
other end is exposed to the atmosphere. If there is a difference in
pressure between the atmosphere and the container, the level on
both ends will not be the same. In this case, we can calculate the
pressure within the container by taking the sum of the atmospheric
pressure and the pressure due to the change in height of the fluid
level
81
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER

82
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 MANOMETER

83
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BAROMETER

84
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BAROMETER
A barometer is a modified version of the open-tube
manometer that allows us to measure the pressure of the
atmosphere at some given point.
A barometer is created by taking an empty tube, filling
it with a dense liquid (usually mercury), inverting the test
tube and placing it into a bowl containing the same liquid.
The inversion will create a space above the liquid that
contains a vacuum, which means the pressure in that space
will be zero (since there are no atoms or molecules to exert
a pressure on the liquid).
The surface of the liquid found in the bowl will be
exposed to the atmosphere and so that atmospheric
pressure will act on the liquid, which in turn will hold up a
certain amount of liquid within the tube. We can then
calculate the pressure of the atmosphere by taking the
product of the vertical length of the tube, the gravitational
constant and the density of the liquid.
85
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BAROMETER

86
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 PRESSURE DIAL GAUGE

87
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 PRESSURE DIAL GAUGE
graduated dial gage that
indicate the intensity of
pressure at a given point in a
pressurized system.

88
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

89
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 8
The liquid in the open-tube manometer is mercury with y1=3.00cm
and y2=7.00cm. Atmospheric pressure is 980millibars.

(a) What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the U-shaped

tube?
(b) What is the absolute pressure in the open-tube at a depth of
4.00cm below the free surface?
(c) What is the absolute pressure of the gas in the tank?
(d) What is the gauge pressure of the gas in pascals?

90
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 8

91
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 8

92
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 8

93
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 9
An electrical short cuts off all power to a submersible diving vehicle
when it is 30m below the surface of the ocean. The crew must push
out a hatch of area 0.75m2 and weight 300N on the bottom to
escape. If the pressure inside is 1.0atm, what downward force must
the crew exert on the hatch to open it?

94
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 9

95
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 9

96
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pascal's Law

97
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pascal’s Law

98
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pascal’s Law
► Pascal's principle states that whenever an external pressure is
applied to a fluid, the fluid pressure within that fluid is
increased by the amount equal to the external pressure. For
example, let us consider the fluid pressure inside a lake.
► We know that as long as the density of the lake is assumed to
be constant, we can calculate the pressure at a certain depth
of the lake by taking the product the density, gravitational
constant and the distance from the surface of the lake to that
point that we are considering.
► However, this will just give us the pressure due to the volume
of liquid that is above that point. To find the total pressure, we
must take the sum of the pressure due to the volume of liquid
above that point and the volume of air molecules found above
99
that liquid (atmospheric pressure).
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pascal’s Law
► In other words, our atmosphere exerts an external
force on the surface of the lake, which increases the
fluid pressure at every point in that lake by the amount
equal to the atmospheric pressure. One particularly
useful application of Pascal's principle is the hydraulic
lift.
► The hydraulic lift allows us to use a relatively small
input force to create a larger output force. This occurs
because the pressure that is applied on one piston is
equal to the pressure that the second piston feels. In
other words, the pressure within the fluid remains
undiminished.
100
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pascal’s Law
► Pascal’s Law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the
walls of the containing vessel.

101
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
Buoyancy

102 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana

 BUOYANCY
► A body immersed in water seems to weight less than when it is
in air. When the body is less dense than the fluid, it floats. The
human body usually floats in water, and a helium filled balloon
floats in air.

► Archimedes Principle: When a body is completely or partially

immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

103
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BUOYANCY

104
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BUOYANCY

105
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 BUOYANCY
► The concept of buoyancy helps explain common phenomena, such as why
certain objects float and why solid objects seem to weigh less in water than on
land. If you submerge a solid object into a fluid, the object will experience two
different pressures at the top and the bottom of its shape.
► This is due to the fact that pressure is directly related to the depth of the object
as so the bottom surface of any object in a given fluid will experience a higher
force than the top surface of that same object.
► Therefore, there will be a difference in pressure that will create a force that will
point vertically upward and this force is known as the force of buoyancy.
► Note that the buoyant force opposes the force of gravity and if the two forces
have the same exact magnitude, they will cancel one another out and the object
will remain in static equilibrium within the fluid. If we derive the equation for the
force of buoyancy, we see that the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to
the product of the mass of the fluid that is displaced by the object and the
gravitational constant g.

106
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
ARCHIMEDES
PRINCIPLE

107 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana

 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

108
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
► Archimedes principle is a statement about the buoyant force that
acts on an object when that solid object interacts with a fluid.
► Recall that if you place a solid object into a fluid, that object will
feel a greater pressure on its bottom face than its top face. This is
a result of the fact that pressure within a liquid increases with
depth.
► This difference in pressure creates a force called that buoyant that
acts on the object and points in the opposite direction of the force
of gravity.
► Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force acting on a
submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid that is
displaced by that object.
109
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

110
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 10
A 15.0-kg solid gold statue is being raised from a sunken ship. What
is the tension in the hoisting cable when the statue is
density of gold: 19300kg/m^3, sea water: 1030 kg/m^3
(a) At rest and completely immersed
(b) at rest and out of the water.

111
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 10

112
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 10

113
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 10

114
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 10

115
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 11
A slab of ice floats on a freshwater lake. what minimm volume must
the slab have for a 45.0kg woman to be able to stand on it without
getting her feet wet?

116
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 11

117
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 11

118
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 11

119
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
MIDTERMS
120 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
FUNDAMENTALS
OF FLUID FLOW
121 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Discharge or Flow
Rate

122
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Discharge or Flow Rate
► Discharge or rate of flow (Q) is defined as the fluid flowing
per second through a channel or section of a pipe. This rate
of flow is expressed in terms of “volume” when the fluid flow
is incompressible and is taken in terms of “weight” when the
flow is compressible.
► For liquid flow, discharge (Q) is expressed in litres/sec or m3/s
and for gaseous flow, the discharge is expressed in kgf/s or
Newton/s.
► If the liquid flowing through a pipe of area of cross-section ‘A’
has a velocity of ‘V’, then discharge,
► Q=Axv
123
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Discharge or Flow Rate

124
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Energy and Head

125
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
► Energy is defined as ability to do work. Both energy and
work are measured in Newton-meter (or pounds-foot in
English). Kinetic energy and potential energy are the two
commonly recognized forms of energy. In a flowing fluid,
potential energy may in turn be subdivided into energy due
to position or elevation above a given datum, and energy
due to pressure in the fluid. Head is the amount of energy
per Newton (or per pound) of fluid.

126
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Kinetic Energy and Velocity Head
► Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue
of its velocity. The kinetic energy of a mass m having a
velocity v is ½mv2. Since m = W/g,

127
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Velocity Head of Circular Pipes
► The velocity head of circular pipe of diameter D flowing full
can be found as follows

128
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Elevation Energy and Elevation Head
► In connection to the action of gravity, elevation energy is
manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position or elevation
with respect to a horizontal datum plane.

129
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Pressure Energy and Pressure Head
► A mass of fluid acquires pressure energy when it is in
contact with other masses having some form of energy.
Pressure energy therefore is an energy transmitted to the
fluid by another mass that possesses some energy.

130
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Total Energy of Flow
► The total energy or head in a fluid is the sum of kinetic and
potential energies. Recall that potential energies are pressure
energy and elevation energy.

● In symbol, the total head energy is

131
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Total Energy of Flow

Where:
v = mean velocity of flow (m/sec in SI and ft/sec in English)
p = fluid pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI and lb/ft2 or psf in English)
z = position of fluid above or below the datum plane (m in SI and ft in
English)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2 in SI and 32.2 ft/sec2 in
English)
γ = Unit weight of fluid (N/m3 in SI and lb/ft3 in English)
132
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Power and Efficiency
Power is the rate of doing work per unit of time. For a fluid of
unit weight γ (N/m3) flowing at the rate of Q (m3/sec) with a
total energy of E (m), the power (Watt) is

Note:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N-m/sec = 1 Joule/sec
133
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation

134
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation
► A continuity equation or transport equation is an equation
that describes the transport of some quantity. It is
particularly simple and powerful when applied to a
conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to
any extensive quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum,
electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved
under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of
physical phenomena may be described using continuity
equations.
► In Fluid mechanics , the mass of a moving fluid doesn’t change
as it flows
135
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation
► The transfer of various quantities, such as fluid or gas, is
described by the continuity equation. The formula describes how
a fluid conserves mass while moving. How a fluid conserves
mass while moving is described by the equation. The continuity
equations can be used to demonstrate the conservation of a
wide range of physical phenomena, including energy, mass,
momentum, natural numbers, and electric charge. The continuity
equation offers useful knowledge about the flow of fluids and
their behaviour as they go through a pipe or hose. The
Continuity Equation is used on a variety of objects, including
tubes, pipes, rivers, and ducts that carry gases or liquids. The
continuity equation can be written in differential form, which is
applied at a point, or in integral form, which is applied in a finite
136
region. Deriving the Equation of Continuity
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation

137
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation

138
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Continuity Equation

139
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

140
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 12
► As part of a lubricating system for heavy machinery, oil of
density 850 kg/m3 is pumped through a cylindrical pipe of
diameter 8.0cm at a rate of 9.5 liters per second.
(a) What is the speed of the oil?
(A.1) What is the massflowrate?
(b) If the pipe diameter is reduced to 4.0cm, what are the new
values of the speed and volume flow rate? Assume that the oil is
incompressible.

141
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 12

142
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 12

143
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 12

144
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 12

145
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 13
A shower head has 20 circular openings, each with radius 1.0mm.
The shower head is connected to a pipe with radius 0.80cm. If the
speed of the water in the pipe is 3.0m/s, what is its speed as it exits
the shower-head openings?

146
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 13

147
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 13

148
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

149
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► What is Bernoulli's principle?
○ Bernoulli's principle is a seemingly counterintuitive statement
about how the speed of a fluid relates to the pressure of the
fluid. Many people feel like Bernoulli's principle shouldn't be
correct, but this might be due to a misunderstanding about
what Bernoulli's principle actually says. Bernoulli's principle
states the following,
○ Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points
of higher fluid speed will have less pressure than points of
slower fluid speed.
150
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► Why does it have to be horizontal?
○ So within a horizontal water pipe that changes diameter,
regions where the water is moving fast will be under less
pressure than regions where the water is moving slow. This
sounds counterintuitive to many people since people
associate high speeds with high pressures. But, we'll show in
the next section that this is really just another way of saying
that water will speed up if there's more pressure behind it
than in front of it. In the section below we'll derive Bernoulli's
principle, show more precisely what it says, and hopefully
make it seem a little less mysterious.
151
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► How can you derive Bernoulli's principle?
○ Incompressible fluids have to speed up when they reach a
narrow constricted section in order to maintain a constant
volume flow rate. This is why a narrow nozzle on a hose
causes water to speed up. But something might be bothering
you about this phenomenon. If the water is speeding up at a
constriction, it's also gaining kinetic energy. Where is this
extra kinetic energy coming from? The nozzle? The pipe?

152
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► The only way to give something kinetic energy is to do work on it. This
is expressed by the work energy principle.

So if a portion of fluid is speeding up, something external to that portion

of fluid must be doing work it. What force is causing work to be done on
the fluid? Well, in most real world systems there are lots of dissipative
forces that could be doing negative work, but we're going to assume for
the sake of simplicity that these viscous forces are negligible and we have
a nice continuous and perfectly laminar (streamline) flow. Laminar
(streamline) flow means that the fluid flows in parallel layers without
crossing paths. In laminar streamline flow there is no swirling or vortices
in the fluid
153
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can
vary along the paths of the fluid. Thus, the pressure can also
vary, it depends on the height as in the static situation and it also
depends on the speed of flow.
► Bernoulli’s equation relates the pressure, flow speed and the
height for a flow of an ideal, incompressible fluid.
► Bernoulli's equation is based on the law of conservation of
energy; the increased kinetic energy of a fluid is offset by a
reduction of the "static energy" associated with pressure.

154
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► What is Bernoulli's equation?
○ Bernoulli's equation is essentially a more general and
mathematical form of Bernoulli's principle that also takes into
account changes in gravitational potential energy. We'll
derive this equation in the next section, but before we do,
let's take a look at Bernoulli's equation and get a feel for what
it says and how one would go about using it.

155
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, speed, and height of
any two points (1 and 2) in a steady streamline flowing fluid of
density (ρ). Bernoulli's equation is usually written as follows,

156
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

157
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
► When using Bernoulli's equation, how do you know where to
choose your points? Choosing one of the points at the location
where you want to find an unknown variable is a must.
Otherwise how will you ever solve for that variable? You will
typically choose the second point at a location where you have
been given some information, or where the fluid is open to the
atmosphere, since the absolute pressure there is known to be
atmospheric pressure Patm=101, 325 Pa.

158
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

159
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

160
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
● Let us derive!
○ Consider the following diagram where water flows from
left to right in a pipe that changes both area and height. As
before, water will speed up and gain kinetic energy K at
constrictions in the pipe, since the volume flow rate must
be maintained for an incompressible fluid even if those
constricted sections move upward. But now since the
constriction also causes the fluid to move upward, the
water will be gaining gravitational potential energy Ug as
well as kinetic energy K. We will derive Bernoulli's
equation by setting the
161
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

162
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation
● Let's assume the energy system we're considering is composed
of the volumes of water 1 and 2 as well as all the fluid in
between those volumes. If we assume the fluid flow is
streamline, non-viscous, and there are no dissipative forces
affecting the flow of the fluid, then any extra energy
added to the system will be caused by the external work
(Wexternal ) done on the fluid from pressure forces surrounding it.
● We can express this mathematically as,

163
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

164
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

165
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Bernoulli’s Equation

166
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Let us solve!

167
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 14
Water enters a house through a pipe with an inside diameter of
2.0cm at an absolute pressure of 4.0x105 Pa (about 4.0atm). A
1.0-cm diameter pipe leads to the second-floor bathroom 5.0m
above. When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is 1.5m/s, find the
flow speed, pressure, and volume flow rate in the bathroom.

168
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 14

169
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 14

170
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 14

171
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 14

172
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 15
► A sealed tank containing seawater to a height of 11.0m also
contains air above the water at a gauge pressure of 3.00atm.
Water flows out from the bottom through a small hole. How fast
is this water moving?

173
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 15

174
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 15

175
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 15

176
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 16
► A small circular hole 6.0mm in diameter is cut in the side of a
large water tank, 14.0m below the water level in the tank. The
top of the tank is open to the air. Find
▪ The speed of efflux of the water, and
▪ The volume discharged per second.

177
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 16

178
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 16

179
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 16

180
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
Fluid Flow
on Pipes
181 ©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Fluid Flow on Pipes
► Fluid Flow is a part of fluid mechanics and deals with fluid
dynamics.
► It involves the motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced forces.
This motion continues as long as unbalanced forces are applied.
► For example, if you are pouring water from a mug, the velocity
of water is very high over the lip, moderately high approaching
the lip, and very low at the bottom of the mug. The unbalanced
force is gravity, and the flow continues as long as the water is
available and the mug is tilted.

182
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID
FLOW

183
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

► Fluid flow has all kinds of aspects — steady or unsteady,

compressible or incompressible, viscous or non-viscous,
and rotational or irrotational, to name a few. Some of these
characteristics reflect the properties of the liquid itself, and
others focus on how the fluid is moving.

184
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
► Steady or Unsteady Flow
► Fluid flow can be steady or unsteady, depending on the fluid’s
velocity:
Steady: In steady fluid flow, the velocity of the fluid is constant at
any point.
Unsteady: When the flow is unsteady, the fluid’s velocity can differ
between any two points.
► Viscous or Non-viscous Flow
Liquid flow can be viscous or non-viscous.
Viscosity is a measure of the thickness of a fluid, and very gloppy
fluids such as motor oil or shampoo are called viscous fluids.
185
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 LAMINAR FLOW

186
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
► Laminar Flow
○ When a fluid is flowing in the laminar regime, its flow behavior is very
easy to visualize and understand. Flow is driven entirely by external
forces, which are usually just gravity and the driving pressure. Laminar
flow is sometimes characterized as only occurring in incompressible
inviscid fluids—this is incorrect. The Euler equations can be used to
predict flow behavior in the case of inviscid incompressible flows, while
the general Navier-Stokes equations would be used for other flow
situations where turbulence may arise or the fluid is compressible.
○ In laminar flow, the fluid undergoes smooth linear flow that generally
follows the boundary in the system. For example, for the flow in a pipe,
the flow pattern is relatively linear and does not experience strong
fluctuations. Eventually, when the Reynolds number for the flow gets
large, the fluid flow behavior transitions from laminar to turbulent.
187
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

188
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TURBULENT FLOW

189
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
► Turbulent Flow
○ The turbulent flow regime is at the other end of the flow spectrum
corresponding to very fast flow rates. Turbulence is one of the most
mathematically complex areas of fluid dynamics, generally requiring
numerical techniques and specialized models to examine flow behavior.
When turbulence arises, fluid flow becomes convective (vortical) during
flow, which arises in the boundary layer and begins growing in expanse
along the flow direction. Turbulent flow behavior is not necessarily
random, although statistical approaches can be used to quantify the
amount of turbulence.
○ Instead of being random, the specific trajectory of turbulent flow is
deterministic and can be predicted, but it is highly sensitive to initial
conditions and boundary conditions. In addition, flow that is ostensibly
laminar could quickly turn turbulent given small changes in the system
parameter (orientation, density, flow rate, etc.). An excellent example
occurs in aerodynamics, where airflow over an airfoil can become
190 turbulent as the angle of attack changes,
©2022 Batangas State University
even though other flow
Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

191
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TRANSITION
REGION

192
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
► Transition Region
○ There is a region of Reynold number values called a transition region,
wherein the flow behavior begins to change from laminar to turbulent.
This should underscore that there is no sharp dividing line between the
laminar regime to turbulence; the typical behavior observed in turbulent
flow eventually becomes dominant at high Reynolds numbers. The exact
range of Reynolds numbers is system-specific and fluid-specific, and
even very similar systems could have very different Reynolds number
values beyond which turbulence becomes dominant.
○ The underlying physics that causes a fluid to begin behaving turbulent
versus laminar as a function of Reynolds number is still a matter of
investigation. As a result, there have been many models developed that
attempt to model and understand the mechanism governing the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow. A good overview of
contemporary transitional flow models can be found in the following
reference:
193
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Reynolds Number

194
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
► What is a Reynolds Number?
► Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to
determine the type of flow pattern as laminar or turbulent while
flowing through a pipe. Reynolds number is defined by the ratio
of inertial forces to that of viscous forces.

195
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
► Where,
○ Re is the Reynolds number
○ ρ is the density of the fluid
○ V is the velocity of flow
○ D is the pipe diameter
○ μ is the viscosity of the fluid
► If the Reynolds number calculated is high (greater than 2000), then the flow
through the pipe is said to be turbulent. If Reynolds number is low (less than 2000),
the flow is said to be laminar. Numerically, these are acceptable values, although in
general the laminar and turbulent flows are classified according to a range. Laminar
flow falls below Reynolds number of 1100 and turbulent falls in a range greater
than 2200.
► Laminar flow is the type of flow in which the fluid travels smoothly in regular paths.
Conversely, turbulent flow isn’t smooth and follows an irregular math with lots of
mixing.
196
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
► The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces within a fluid which is subjected to relative internal
movement due to different fluid velocities. A region where these
forces change behavior is known as a boundary layer, such as the
bounding surface in the interior of a pipe.

197
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
► The Reynolds number is defined as where:

► ρ is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)

► u is the flow speed (m/s)
► L is a characteristic linear dimension (m) (see the below sections
of this article for examples)
► μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s))
► ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).

198
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 17
► Calculate Reynolds number, if a fluid having dynamic viscosity of 0.4
Ns/m2 and relative density of 900 Kg/m3 through a pipe of 20 mm
with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.

199
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 18
► Determine the flow of fluid having a relative density of 100 kg/m3, the
viscosity of 0.5 Ns/m2 with a velocity of 5 m/s through a pipe of 0.2 m.

200
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 19
Calculate the Reynolds number, Re, for oil flow in a circular pipe. The
diameter of the pipe is 60 mm, the density of the oil is 910 kg/m3, the
volumetric oil flow rate is 60 L/min, and the dynamic viscosity of the
oil is 50 m Pa s.

201
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss

202
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► What Does Head Loss Mean?
○ Head loss refers to a measurement of the energy dissipated in a fluid
system due to friction along the length of a pipe or hydraulic system, and
those due to fittings, valves and other system structures. The total head
loss of a fluid as it moves through a fluid system is the sum of the elevation
head, velocity head and pressure head losses.
○ Head loss is unavoidable in real fluid systems containing liquids or gases. It
is a result of the friction between the walls of a pipe and the fluid, the
friction between fluid particles as they move relative to one another, and
the turbulence that is caused whenever the fluid’s flow is redirected or
obstructed in any way by components such as piping entrances and exits,
pumps, valves and fittings.
○ When analyzing piping systems, pressure loss is of upmost importance due
to viscous effects along the length of the system, as well as other
additional pressure losses arising from attached equipment.
203
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation
head, velocity head and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid
system. Head loss is unavoidable in real fluids. It is present because of: the
friction between the fluid and the walls of the pipe; the friction between
adjacent fluid particles as they move relative to one another; and the
turbulence caused whenever the flow is redirected or affected in any way by
such components as piping entrances and exits, pumps, valves, flow reducers,
and fittings.
► Frictional loss is that part of the total head loss that occurs as the fluid flows
through straight pipes. The head loss for fluid flow is directly proportional to
the length of pipe, the square of the fluid velocity, and a term accounting for
fluid friction called the friction factor. The head loss is inversely proportional
to the diameter of the pipe.
204
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Friction Factor
○ The friction factor has been determined to depend on the Reynolds
number for the flow and the degree of roughness of the pipe's inner
surface.
○ The quantity used to measure the roughness of the pipe is called the
relative roughness, which equals the average height of surface
irregularities (ε) divided by the pipe diameter (D).

205
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► The value of the friction factor is usually obtained from the Moody
Chart, an example of which is shown below. The Moody Chart can be
used to determine the friction factor based on the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness.

206
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss

207
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Example:
○ Determine the friction factor (f) for fluid flow in a pipe that has a
Reynolds number of 40,000 and a relative roughness of 0.01.
► Solution:
○ Using the Moody Chart, a Reynolds number of 40,000 intersects the
curve corresponding to a relative roughness of 0.01 at a friction
factor of 0.04.

208
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Darcy's Equation
○ The frictional head loss can be calculated using a mathematical
relationship that is known as Darcy's equation for head loss. The
equation takes two distinct forms. The first form of Darcy's equation
determines the losses in the system associated with the length of the
pipe.

209
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Darcy's Equation
where:

f = friction factor (unitless)

L = length of pipe (ft)
D = diameter of pipe (ft)
v = fluid velocity (ft/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (ft/sec2)

210
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 20
A pipe 100 feet long and 20 inches in diameter contains water at 200°F
flowing at a mass flow rate of 700 lbm/sec. The water has a density of
60 lbm/ft3 and a viscosity of 1.978×10-7 lbf-sec/ft2. The relative
roughness of the pipe is 0.00008. Calculate the head loss for the pipe.

211
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 20
The sequence of steps necessary to solve this problem is first to
determine the flow velocity. Second, using the flow velocity and the
fluid properties given, calculate the Reynolds number. Third,
determine the friction factor from the Reynolds number and the
relative roughness. Finally, use Darcy's equation to determine the
head loss.

212
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 20

213
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Minor Losses
○ The losses that occur in pipelines due to bends, elbows,
joints, valves, etc. are sometimes called minor losses. This is
a misnomer because in many cases these losses are more
important than the losses due to pipe friction, considered
in the preceding section. For all minor losses in turbulent
flow, the head loss varies as the square of the velocity.
Thus a convenient method of expressing the minor losses in
flow is by means of a loss coefficient (k). Values of the loss
coefficient (k) for typical situations and fittings is found in
standard handbooks. The form of Darcy's equation used to
calculate minor losses of individual fluid system
214 components is expressed by
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Equivalent Piping Length
○ Minor losses may be expressed in terms of

the equivalent length (Leq) of pipe that would

have the same head loss for the same
discharge flow rate. This relationship can be
found by setting the two forms of Darcy's
equation equal to each other.
215
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► This yields two relationships that are useful.

216
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss
► Typical values of Leq/D for common piping
system components are listed in Table 1. The
equivalent length of piping that will cause the
same head loss as a particular component can
be determined by multiplying the value of
Leq/D for that component by the diameter of
the pipe. The higher the value of Leq/D, the
longer the equivalent length of pipe.
217
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Head Loss

218
 Example 21
► A fully-open gate valve is in a pipe with a
diameter of 10 inches. What equivalent length
of pipe would cause the same head loss as the
gate valve?

219
©2022 Batangas State University Engr. Aljon H. Besana
 Example 21
► From Table 1, we find that the value of Leq/D for a
fully-open gate valve is 10.
○ Leq = (Leq/D) D

○ = 10 (10 inches)

○ = 100 inches

By adding the equivalent lengths of all

components to the actual length of pipe in a
system we can obtain the Leq value for the entire
piping system.
220