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The Structure of DNA 3

DNA is a long, double-stranded molecule that resembles a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. It consists of two chains made from alternating sugar and phosphate groups, with nucleic acid bases attached as rungs. There are four nucleic acid bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - that bond together in specific base pairs (A-T and C-G) to form the rungs of the DNA ladder. The base pairs hold the two strands together through weak hydrogen bonds that allow the DNA helix to separate for replication. DNA stores and transmits genetic information that directs cell functions and is responsible for differences between cells and organisms.

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47 views

The Structure of DNA 3

DNA is a long, double-stranded molecule that resembles a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. It consists of two chains made from alternating sugar and phosphate groups, with nucleic acid bases attached as rungs. There are four nucleic acid bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - that bond together in specific base pairs (A-T and C-G) to form the rungs of the DNA ladder. The base pairs hold the two strands together through weak hydrogen bonds that allow the DNA helix to separate for replication. DNA stores and transmits genetic information that directs cell functions and is responsible for differences between cells and organisms.

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yossifwaleed611
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Name : ………………………………. Date : ………………………..

References : (2010 ). In R. Armstrong, Biology 4/5 for the international student. Eleanor Gregory .

The structures of DNA


DNA is a very long molecule

that looks like a twisted ladder

or spiral staircase. It consists of

two chains (or strands) of atoms

twisted around each other. This

structure is called a double

helix. The atoms within each

strand are held together by

strong covalent bonding . Much

weaker electrostatic forces

(hydrogen bonds) hold the two

strands together in the spiral.

This means the DNA double

helix can be easily ‘broken’ or

‘unzipped’ down the middle, but

it is not so easy to break up a

strand. This is very important,

because the helix needs to be

‘unzipped’ when the DNA

molecule reproduces and, when it is used to instruct the cell how to make proteins. The
repeating units DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is classified as a polymer, a giant molecule made

of repeating units (monomers). Its monomers are called nucleotides, so DNA is termed a

polynucleotide. Covalent bonds join one nucleotide to the next. Each nucleotide is made up of

three components: a base, a sugar and a phosphate group.

Each strand of the DNA molecule

consists of alternating sugar and

phosphate groups. This is termed the

sugar–phosphate backbone of DNA.

The bases, which are attached to the

sugar groups, hang off the backbone

like the ‘rungs’ on a ladder . The

sugar, the base and the phosphate

group each consists of a group of

atoms in a particular arrangement.

The sugar group, for example, has at

its center a ring of five atoms . As

indicated by its name, the phosphate

group contains a phosphorus atom

that is bonded to oxygen atoms. The

base on each nucleotide is the key to

the way DNA works. In fact, there is

not just one base but four different possible bases, so there are four possible nucleotides.

These nucleotides are repeated over and over again along each strand, in all kinds of

sequences. This is like making a giant necklace when you only have four kinds of beads to

choose from. You can make many different arrangements, even with this restricted range of
beads. The names of the four bases present in a DNA molecule are guanine, cytosine,

adenine and thymine, but they are usually known as G, C, A and T. While they have many

similarities, the structures of these four bases also have important differences. Due to their

chemical structure, the bases can only form the ‘rungs’ of the ladder in two possible

combinations. The only pairs that bond together are G and C, and A and T. These two

combinations are known. as base pairs

The weak electrostatic forces that hold the base pairs together are due to hydrogen bonds.

These bonds occur between and within molecules, and consist of the attraction between a

hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen. The bonds are easily

disrupted if the DNA is exposed to acidic or basic solutions, or heat . Notice there are three

dotted lines between the C and G, but only two dotted lines between each A and T pair. This

means A–T separate more easily than C–G pairs, and is the basis for an important technique

for comparing species .

What makes DNA such a special molecule? The hydrogen bonds holding the two bases

together provide the clue to how the molecule replicates itself. Suppose the molecule was

divided in half, so you only had one strand of nucleotides. Can you work out the order of

nucleotides in the second strand? For example, if a particular segment on one strand had the

base sequence AATGCCGGTAA, the other sequence, that is the complementary sequence,

will be TTACGGCCATT. This arrangement provides a kind of insurance for the information the

molecule carries. To change the sequence, an entire base pair would need to be inserted or

deleted. Whenever a cell divides, the DNA molecule splits and each strand is copied. This

results in two identical DNA molecules and each molecule will end up in one of the two

daughter cells. DNA is found in the nucleus of all living cells and in bacteria and provides the

information that ultimately controls the processes that occur in each cell. There are thousands

of different types of cells in an organism. Each type of cell contains a copy of the same DNA
sequence, but uses different parts of it; much like the same computer hard disk and software

may produce many different files. Consider what differences might be found in the skin cells of

a freckled person, for example. DNA is the main contributor not only to the differences

between one type of cell and another, but also between one organism and another

Investigating the differences in the DNA of species has become a powerful tool for

understanding how different organisms are related to one another. The weak electrostatic

hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases can be broken by gentle heating. On

cooling, the DNA will re-form into double helixes. This is called DNA–DNA hybridization. If the

DNA is in short pieces, you could expect this hybridization to be almost perfect. What might

happen if you mixed the DNA from two closely related species and tried the same technique?

The amount of hybridization is a strong indicator of the similarity of the DNA, and how closely

the two species might be related.

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