Lectures 8,9,10,11,12,13,14

Engineering Design
Hikmet Kocabaş, Prof., PhD.
Istanbul Technical University
Course Description
The product development process is covered from
problem identification through detail design and
evaluation.
• The Scope of Design,
• The Necessity for Systematic Design,
• Fundamentals of Systematic Approach;
• Fundamentals of Technical Systems;
• Process of Planning and Designing;
• General methods for Finding and Evaluating Solutions;
• Steps of Conceptual Design and Embodiment Design;
• Principles of Embodiment Design;
• Developing Size Ranges and Modular Products;
• Design for Quality and Minimum Cost.
A five‐stage model of the design process
A five‐stage model of the design process
• Problem Definition: Detailing Customer
Requirements
• Conceptual Design: Translating Customer
Requirements into Engineering Specifications
• Preliminary Design: Model and analyze chosen
design, Test and evaluate chosen design
• Detailed Design: Refine and optimize chosen
design, Assign and specify design details
• Design Communication: Document final design
Engineering Design
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals
3. Process of Planning and Designing
4. General methods for Solutions (Heuristics)
5. Product Planning and Clarifying the Task
6. Conceptual Design
7. Embodiment Design
8. Design for X
Engineering Design
1. Introduction: The Scope of Design, The Necessity
for Systematic Design Project Proposal Preperation
and Project Management.
2. Fundamentals: Fundamentals of Technical
Systems,. Fundamentals of Systematic Approach.
Process of Planning and Designing: General
Problem‐Solving Process, Flow of work During the
Process of Planning and Designing.
3. General methods for Finding and Evaluating
Solutions: Solution Finding Methods, Selection and
Evaluation Methods.
Engineering Design
3. Product Planning and Clarifying the Task: Product
Planning, Clarifying the Task.
4. Conceptual Design: Steps of Conceptual Design,
Abstracting to Identify the Essential Problems,
Establishing Function Structures, Developing Working
Structures, Developing Concepts, Examples of
Conceptual Design
5. Embodiment Design: Steps of Embodiment Design,
Checklist for Embodiment Design, Basic Rules of
Embodiment Design. Design for X: Design for
Manufacturing, Design for Quality, Design for Recovery
Design Project
• Concept Development Process
• Problem Formulation – Customer Need
Identification
References
• Engineering Design A Systematic Approach, G. Pahl,
W. Beitz, Springer‐Verlag, 2007
• Engineering Design a Project‐based Introduction, G.
L. Dym, Wiley, 4ed, 2014
• Engineering Design Principles, Ken Hurst, Elsevier
Science & Technology Books, 1999
• Case Studies in Engineering Design, Clifford
Matthews, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998
• Engineering Design Methods, N. Cross, John Wiley &
Sons, 1989
Concurrent engineering design
Engineering design process
consists of three
overlapping areas:
‐ Ideation
‐ Refinement
‐ Implementation
which all share
the same 3D CAD
database.
Sharing the CAD database
Basic Design
Before we begin,
1. Design is the satisfaction of need.
2. Design is never an exact process, and each design
will differ.
3. Try to do it right the first time.
4. Most design methods try to cut the problems into
smaller problems.
Basic Design
One of the common problems encountered by
designers is the overwhelming number of details.
Most design methods focus on dealing with detail
overload. The challenges a designer faces are,

• Multiple technologies require arbitrary decisions

• A design will have many components that interact,
and the effects of changes can be widespread
• Economics
• Other competitive designs
Design stages
Design is typically referred to
as having certain stages,
• Conceptual
• Synthesis
• Detailed
• Analysis

The typical stages of design include,

Design factors commonly considered are,
• Functional requirements
• Physical constraints
• Specifications
• Aesthetics
• Usability / user interface
• Cost
• Manufacturing
• Evaluation/testing/analysis
• Maintenance
• Retirement
Detailed design sequence
A more detailed
design sequence
is shown below
Detailed design sequence
• Conceptual ‐ The selection of general components to go
into a system. At this point the exact form of final point
is inexact. At this point we might be deciding to put
wheels on a car.
• Synthesis ‐ The selection of components or devices for
the system. At this point the general geometry, and
components for the system are selected.
• Detailed ‐ Exact dimensions are finally assigned to parts
in the system.
• Analysis ‐ The review of design details to determine
suitability. This is done after the exact design is
complete. It may lead to redesign.
Detailed design sequence
• The activity of design creates a dilemma for
management in that it adds to the overall cost of a
product, but it can also reduce the final cost of a
product.
• We can draw graphs that illustrate the total amount
committed in the final cost from the first concept,
to the final product. Most of the final cost is
determined by decisions early in the design phase.
Cost
The total amount committed in the final cost from the
first concept, to the final product.
Design
By planning for design, and then committing fully,
we can obtain a better product.
Design
• Over‐the‐wall is an engineering approach that has
developed because of management pressures.
• It helps split designs into clean stages and
responsibilities. This approach does simplify
management up front, but requires fire fighting as
problems arise.
A product life cycle has four phases,
1. Identify needs, plan and design
2. Manufacture and deliver
3. Use, maintain, repair
4. Retire

References
• Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process,
McGraw‐Hill, 1997.
• “design.pdf” at http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu
Commercial
The commercial view of product development typically
looks like,
Other significant functions
Other significant functions that will be considered are,
• Documentation user/service manuals
• Maintenance / service / installation training
• Packaging
• Governement forms in regulated industries
• Business plans for financing ‐ banks or venture
capital
• Market survey and testing
Product design
When designing a product there are certain terms that
designers use,

Configuration Form Refine

Connection Function Reversing
Components İnterface Substituting
Copying Magnifying Transition
Decomposing Rearranging
Legal Design Axioms
Some rules to follow to reduce the chance/success of a
law suit
• The design process should examine hazards and
probabilities (e.g., FMEA)
• Make sure that all employees conform to the current
standards and legal requirements (e.g. toxicity)
• Inspection and quality control in manufacturing
• Clearly written warning labels and manuals that
outline proper use and hazards
• Keep good records of all tests, inspections, etc.
Specifications
• Specifications are a brief list of functional objectives.
• These are often called Functional Requirements
(FRs).
• We can look at the design process as mapping
Functional Requirements (FRs) to Design
Parameters (DPs).
• We can also look at mapping from the design
parameters to the Process Parameters (PPs) as the
task of process engineering.
Specifications

• Examples of DPs could be # of engine cylinders, or a

final dimension.
Specifications
Good rules of thumb for specifications are,
• Try to talk in general terms that focus on the
function instead of solution (e.g., “the automobile
should be able to move on ground with a 12 inch
variation in height” instead of “the axle clearance
should be 12 inches”).
• Break requirements into separate parts.
• Keep the requirements as simple as possible.
• Avoid vague language, use numbers and technical
goals.
• Don’t specify more FRs than needed.
Specifications
In design we should try to meet, not exceed
specifications.
The Kano model
helps to illustrate
this [Ullman].
Specifications
If we construct a graph we can show how the
consumer response shifts as a function of time
Specifications
We can combine a number of new and old features in
products as FRs. These will affect both customer
expectations and product cost. A graph shows what
marketing departments research in terms of customer
needs.
Specifications
For new products we can try to determine their value
with market surveys and by examining competitors
products.
10 Heuristics: How Designers Think
(sezgisel çözüm arama yöntemleri)
• Empiricism (Trial & Error) (knowledge comes only or
primarily from sensory experience, tecrübe deneysel
çalışma) (Deneycilik akılcılığın rasyonalizmin karşıtıdır)
• Empiricism (Bullseye) (ilk başta insan zihni boştur)
• Study History
• Ignore History
• Reframe Constraints
• Embrace (hug) Failure over Fearing Failure
• Emphasis on Proportions
• Aim for Wow! First principles over fashion trends
• Reverse Engineer from Perfection
• Eat your own dog food over observe dogs eating food
Study History Ignore History
Study History
Study History , Reframe Constraints
Reframing Problems over Accepting
Analogical Insights Reframing Problems
Reframing Problems over Accepting
Customer doesn’t know what’s Right
over Customer is Always Right
Aim for Wow!
Aim for Wow!
• shock absorber shoes vacume cleaner

• compliance
Embrace (hug) Failure
over Fearing Failure
Emphasis on Proportions
Eat your own dog food
over observe dogs eating food
First principles over fashion trends
10 Heuristics (sezgisel arama yöntemleri)
• Elegant Simplicity
• Inside‐Out Craftsmanship
• Embracing (hug) Failure
• Never Leave Well Enough Alone
• Reframing (constraints) Problems
• Customer doesn’t know what’s right
• Analogical Insights
• Eat your own dog food
• First principles over fashion trends
• Zealous (gayretli) Missionaries
Design Methods
Black Box Design
• Characterized by considering inputs and outputs
only, while disregarding what is in the box.
• This approach can be used for off‐the‐shelf
components.
• There is a heavy dependance on the manufacturers
specifications.
Conceptual Design
• The first creative stage of any design is to generate
concepts such as the choice between gasoline or
electric powered vehicles.
• The most important rule in conceptual design is
generate a few concepts and then select the best.
Preliminary design sketches for cell phone
• Ideation drawing phase
• Rough sketches
• Conceptual computer model
Pages from a designer’s sketch notebook
Designer’s notebook as a historical record
Refinement
of a battery contact design
Modeling
• Mathematical predictive model
(power loss of a thrust bearing
at various speeds)

• Real model created from clay

Modeling
Modeling and simulation
Generation of Concepts
• This is the typically the hardest part of design.
• When talking about invention ‐ this is the
‘inspiration’

• Brain Storming
• Basically this
method generates
a large number
of diverse concepts
using a group.
Brain Storming
One approach might be,
1. Have a meeting individuals (6‐12 is good) related to
the design tasks.
2. Make it clear that criticism is not allowed and every
idea is good.
3. Ask everyone
to write ideas
on separate pieces
of paper.
Brain Storming
4. Start going round the room one at a time, and ask
for the ideas. (Don’t allow criticism or judgement!)
After the idea is given, the paper is placed in the
center of the table.
5. This continues until all ideas are exhausted.
(Participants should generate new ideas based on
what they have heard from others). Encourage
participants to suggest ridiculous ideas.
6. Go through the ideas in the middle of the table,
and vote for the best one(s).
Practice Problems
• Use brain storming to develop concepts for putting
on shoes
Diagramming
• We can break functions down to subfunctions shown
as black boxes
• Basically we draw functional blocks that show
interfaced systems and indicating inputs and
outputs of information, energy and materials.
• We can start by drawing one main box for a function
(e.g., ‘a pen must draw a consistent line width)
Diagramming
Diagramming
The rules of thumb when creating the main diagrams
are,
• Pick reasonable function boundaries (not too much
or too little)
• Conserve energy and material
• Indicate interfacing/involved parts of the system
• Add information flows to determine how well the
system is performing
Diagramming
(as with IDEF) we can break the main function into sub
functions. To do this we,
• Make sub function boxes that show how
• Create as many boxes as possible
• List alternates
• Make sure all applicable flows are included
• Consider sequences
• Use standard notations
• Use available documents, parts, etc to develop ideas
• Don’t be afraid to add new items not on the first
diagram
Diagramming

• We can then combine the function blocks into a

single diagram. (Step 3)
• Finally, we convert the diagram to a conceptual
design. The functional diagram(s) are used to
provide clues, and in many cases they will lead
directly to a design. (Step 4)
Practice Problems
Considering the example started in the notes,
a) develop more subfunction blocks for the pen
b) using the previous blocks, draw a detailed functional
diagram
c) Develop a final pen design using the final diagram.
Patents
• Use patents as a source for ideas
• Using keywords patents can be searched on‐line

• A patent is typically made of common parts. The

most useful are,
• an abstract
• references
• a long description
• a set of specific claims
Concept Evaluation and refinement
• After design concepts have been developed they
must be reviewed.
• When evaluating concepts, we are best to start with
many concepts and then refine,
Concept Evaluation
Conceptual design
Process to generate
a conceptual design
Decision Matrix
• Basically we set some criteria, give them a value,
and then compare conceptual designs to it.
The final results are numerical.

• For this method we,

1. List the conceptual designs as columns.
2. List the criteria as rows (these criteria are like those
used in QFD).
3. A weight is given to each criteria.
Decision Matrix
4. A score is given to the concept for each criteria.
The ranking is done relative to one of the design
concepts, with the middle of the scale being the
first concept. A scale of ‐3 to +3 is reasonable.
5. Using the criteria weights, the column values are
multiplied and added to get a score for the design.
6. The design with the highest score is often judged
the best candidate for detailed design (although
other designs may be chosen).
A decision matrix for a syringe
A decision matrix for a self‐administered syringe
Human Factors/Ergonomics
• Ergonomics is the study of the interactions/interface
between humans and machines/processes.

• There are a variety of areas for ergonomic analysis

• manufacturing ‐ reducing worker stress
(physiological) can reduce health problems (lost
days), decrease product cost and increase product
quality.
• consumer ‐ increasing ease of use can increase utility
of the product.
Ergonomics
• Ergonomics is the basis for many design methods
such as DFA

• Ergonomics takes into account,

• body proportions
• strength
• desired function

• Non‐ergonomic designs typically lead to personal

injuries (and hence lawsuits, etc.)
Ergonomics
• Typical ergonomic problems in manufacturing are
listed along with possible solutions,
• discomfort ‐ uneeded strain on worker (e.g.
hunching over)
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. rearrange operation locations and sequence to
reduce unnatural motions.
• efficiency ‐ unnatural motions slow production
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. rearrange operation locations and sequence to
reduce unnatural motions.
Ergonomics
• cummulative trauma disorders ‐ muscle strain
injuries (lifting 30lb packages all day)
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. use special lifting equipment
• repetitive stress injuries ‐ repeated motions. For
example carpel tunnel syndrome in the wrists.
1. rearrange operation locations and sequence to
reduce unnatural motions.
2. use ergonomically redesigned equipment (e.g.
computer keyboards)
Ergonomics
• information overload/confusion ‐ excessive,
inappropriate or a lack of detail. (e.g. Fighter pilots,
airtraffic controllers)
1. redesign displays to be clear with a minimum
amount of good information
2. use of color coding and pictures
3. simplify controls to minimum needed
Ergonomics
• eye strain ‐ fine focus or bad lighting
1. adjust lighting
2. use magnifying lenses
• noise ‐ direct hearing or annoyance. (e.g., piercing
tones, just too noisy)
1. special hearing protection equipment
2. redesign workspace to reduce noise reverberation
3. redesign equipment to reduce sound emmisions
Safety
• It is natural for a machine to have hazardous
parts/functions/flows.
• If the risk (probability) of comming in contact is high
we call this danger
Safety
Typical hazards include,
• Pinch points
• Crushing
• Collision with moving objects
• Falling from heights
• Slippery surfaces
• Explossion
• Electric shock
• Temperature/fire
• Toxicity
• Physical strain
Environment
• Environmental considerations are a natural
consideration of the design process and can be
considered an extension of safety.
• Design factors that will impact the environment
include,
• discharges/waste (gas, liquids, solids) from
production processes
• energy/fuel utilization in production
• aging of the product ‐ decay, inert, toxic, etc.
• energy/fuel efficiency in use
Environment
• There are a wide variety of laws, agencies and
organizations that influence manufacturing and
consumer products,
• OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration)
• EPA (Environment Protection Agency)
• NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational
Safety & Health)
• UL (Underwriters Laboratory)
• CSA (Canadian Safety Association)
Concurrent engineering design
Engineering design process
consists of three
overlapping areas:
‐ Ideation
‐ Refinement
‐ Implementation
which all share
the same 3D CAD
database.
Concurrent Engineering
Some methods have already been identified for
supporting concurrent engineering,
• Axiomatic Design
• Design For Manufacturing (DFM) guidelines
• Design For Assembly (DFA)
• Taguchi Methods
• Group Technology
• Failure‐Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
• Value Engineering
• Simulation
Concurrent Engineering
The advantages of the various tools can be any of the
following,
• Optimize design satisfaction of customer
requirements
• Simplify designs
• Ensure manufacturability
• Optimize production ease and cost.
Design For X
• During design, we often focus on the final product,
and not its manufacture.
• The Design For X (DFX) philosophy suggests that a
design be continually reviewed from the start to the
end to find ways to improve production and other
non‐functional aspects.
• These rules are nothing new, they are just common
sense items written down, but they can be a good
guide through the design process.
Design For X
Advantages of these techniques are,
• Shorter production times
• Fewer production steps
• Smaller parts inventory
• More standardized parts
• Simpler designs that are more likely to be robust
• They can help when expertise is not available, or as a
way to reexamine traditional designs
• Proven to be very successful over decades of
application
Design For X
• These techniques can be used as a very substantial
part of concurrent engineering.
• Some of the DFX acronyms are, (modified from
[Dodd, 1992])
Design For X
• DFA Design For Assembly
• DFD Design For Disassembly
• DFEMC Design For ElectroMagnetic Compatibility
• DFESD Design For Electrostatic Discharge
• DFI Design For Installability
• DFM Design For Maintainability
• DFM Design For Manufacturability
• DFML Design For Material Logistics
• DFP Design For Portability (Software)
• DFQ Design For Quality
• DFR Design For Redesign
• DFR Design For Reliability
• DFR Design For Reuse
• DFS Design For Safety
• DFS Design For Simplicity
• DFS Design For Speed
• DFT Design For Test
Design For Assembly (DFA)
• These techniques attempt to simplify products to ease
the assembly process, without compromising
functionality of the product.
• First, consider the basic steps involved in assembly,
1. a) parts are purchased, and put into inventory, or
storage bins. b) parts are manufactured, and put into
inventory, or storage bins.
2. batches of parts are often inspected for quality.
3. the batches are moved to the work station.
4. the partially completed assembly may be already at the
work station, or the operator may accept it from
another source (e.g., a belt on an assembly line)
Design For Assembly (DFA)
5. the part base will be set in position.
6. The operator will pick a part from the parts bin.
7. the operators will (if not already) position the part
correctly in their hand, and prepare to insert it into the
work.
8. The operator will guide the part into the final position.
9. The operator will move the two parts so that they fit
together
10. The operator will perform any fastening operations
required.
11. Additional alignment or quality inspection steps may
sometimes be included.
Design For Assembly (DFA)
• Each one of these steps has potential for problems,
or improvement. For example, if one part can be
modified to match another, we cut the need to
perform steps 1 to 5 in half. For each part that can be
eliminated we reduce steps 1‐11.
Design For Assembly (DFA)
One report of these techniques applied to circuit
boards [Boothroyd and Knight, 1993] reports,
• manufacturing costs down almost 20‐30%
• component costs down 10‐20%
• component counts down almost 25‐40%
• board densities down almost 5‐20%
• problem parts down over 20‐90%
• yield up over 30‐50%
Design rule summary
Part Design
1. Eliminate/minimize tangling between parts in
feeders.
2. Use symmetry to reduce the orientation time during
handling
3. If symmetry is not possible, use obvious features to
speed orientation
Product Design
1. Reduce the number of parts when possible
2. Build the part in layers from the top on the bottom,
using gravity to locate parts
3. Have the already assembled product stable on the
work surface
4. Have the work lie in a horizontal plane
5. Use chamfers and fillets to ease mating of parts.
6. Use snap‐fits, and other quick fasteners, avoid
screws, glue, etc.
Rules for Manual/Automatic Assembly
The basic strategies of DFA for automated assembly
are,
1. Reduce the number of parts
2. Allow assembly from the top of a fixtured part
3. Develop symmetry for easy part orientation
4. Use guides to simplify part mating, such as chamfers
5. Aim for snap‐fit connectors, avoid screws
6. Reduce handling problems
Rules for Manual/Automatic Assembly
The basic rules of DFA for manual assembly are,
1. the number of parts should be reduced
2. parts should be standardized where possible
3. alignment operations should be reduced
4. locating and aligning features should be used
5. allow clear paths for parts being added to the
assembly
Rules for Manual/Automatic Assembly
The basic rules of DFA for manual assembly are,
6. add orientation features so that parts can only be
assembled in the correct orientations
7. consider part feeding/picking from batches
8. introduce symmetries to reduce the need for
reorientation
9. add orientation features to simplify orientation
identification
Reducing the Number of Parts
Designs often include more parts than are necessary

• A set of questions must be satisfied for any two

parts in an assembly to justify their being separated

1. Do the parts move relative to one another?

2. Must the parts be made of different materials?
3. Must the parts be separable for maintenance or
manufacture
Reducing the Number of Parts
• Some simple ideas possible are,

1. Instead of attaching labels on plastic parts, add the

lettering into the mold so that the letters are added
at the time of molding. The completely eliminates a
part, and the associated operations.
Reducing the Number of Parts
2. In sheet metal parts create features using sheet
metal, instead of attaching them with other means.
Some examples are,

• instead of adding hook to a sheet metal part, cut

and bend hooks out of the sheet metal

• don’t add screw standoffs to metal, but punch the

metal to create a standoff, and tap the hole.
Reducing the Number of Parts
3. When possible use snap fits instead of screws. Most
screwed connectors require 1 nut, 1 bolt, typically 2
or more washers, and possibly a lockwasher, as well
as a great deal of time and dexterity to assembly.
Snap fittings can be made very simple and fast.
NOTE: press fits can also be considered for these
operations, although their need for higher forces can
be a negative.
Reducing the Number of Parts
Snap fittings
When possible use
snap fits instead
of screws.
Reducing the Number of Parts
Snap fittings
ASIDE:
Basically these catches are designed to be deflected
during assembly, but to not have any forces on them
after assembly. This will prevent creep of the plastic.
Care must be exercised during design to make sure the
plastic is not permanently deformed.
Reducing the Number of Parts
4. If screws must be used try integrating washers with
the screw heads, this will eliminate at least one
part.
Reducing the Number of Parts
5. Replace separate springs with parts with thin
sections that act as springs.
Reducing the Number of Parts
6. When screws are required (often for maintenance)
try to reduce the number to a minimum.
7. Cables can be eliminated for a reduction in cost,
and an increase in reliability, and access for
maintenance. Card edge connectors, and PCBs will
be slightly higher in material costs, but the boards
are simply plugged together. If cables are strung
between boards and other boards/components,
they will require additional time for soldering, be
the source of soldering quality problems, and make
the boards tricky to orient, etc.
Feeding and Orienting Parts
• It must be considered that more complicated parts
require greater handling time to properly orient
them.

• Part Tangling/Nesting
• It should be considered that when small parts are
shipped, they come in bulk lots. (large/more
expensive parts are often shipped in pallets, or
separately.