Sulawesi

Enigmatic Sulawesi: The Tectonic Collage

Peter Baillie1, John Decker2

1
University of Western Australia , Perth, Western Australia
2
Oro Negro Exploration LLC , Cambria, California, USA

Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Sulawesi has a complex tectonic history that is affected by major plate re-
organisations during the Cenozoic resulting in an extension-dominated setting in an
overall setting of convergence of the Indo-Australian, Pacific and Philippine Sea, and
Eurasian plates. It is a complex collage of disparate tectonic terranes brought into
juxtaposition by a variety of tectonic processes which have occurred at very fast
rates. The island is subject to a variety of geohazards related to earthquake and
volcanic activity.

Keywords: Sulawesi, tectonic, evolution

Copyright ©2022. FOSI. All rights reserved.

Manuscript received 30 Nov 2021, reviewed manuscript

received 3 April 2022, final acceptance 13 April 2022.

DOI: 10.51835/bsed.2022.48.1.388

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Sulawesi

Figure 1: Sulawesi Locality Map; major plate motions relative to Sundaland indicated
(modified after Hennig et al., 2017).

INTRODUCTION significant changes in vertical and

horizontal distribution of land and sea
Located between Borneo in the west and which in turn reflects the complex
the Moluccas in the east, the K-shaped geological history, largely driven by
island of Sulawesi (Figure 1) is the subduction and strike-slip fault
largest island in Wallacea (Hall, 2012a), movements.
the series of islands stretching between
the Eurasian and Australian continental Sulawesi has a remarkable biodiversity,
plates. Sulawesi, comprising four long, a gloriously rich endemic fauna, and
narrow mountainous arms separated by complex geology that has attracted
deep bays, is the spiritual heartland of natural scientists since the 19th century
Wallacea as it was here that Alfred (Nugraha and Hall, 2018). Plate tectonic
Russell Wallace first recognised the hypotheses and tectonic
spectacular divide between Asian and reconstructions for many years
Australo-Pacific biogeography and set interpreted the region in terms of
up the resultant “Wallace Line” to the multiple collisions but there have been
west of Sulawesi in the Makassar Strait. significant changes in our
understanding of Sulawesi's geology in
Rapid geographic changes have recent years, in particular the
occurred throughout Wallacea over the importance of Neogene extension as
last 100 million years. The have the timing and speed of change
biogeographical complexity reflects

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Sulawesi

Figure 2: Major geological units and faults of Sulawesi (modified after White et al.,
2014). Orange dotted line indicates limit of “Australian” continental crust (after Hall et
al., 2017).

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Sulawesi

which led to the formation of the island's terrane comprising ophiolite,

high mountains and deep basins blueschist, and continental fragments
(Nugraha and Hall, 2018). (Sula and Buton microcontinents), the
latter derived from the Australian
In this paper, we provide a continental plate. Tertiary collision
comprehensive summary of the geology between these microcontinents and
of offshore and onshore Sulawesi Western Sulawesi has inactivated west-
utilising, where possible, modern high- directed subduction south of the
resolution bathymetry to demonstrate northern tip of Sulawesi, and has led to
recent and ongoing tectonics. arc reversal, with renewed subduction
from the North Sulawesi Trench (Soeria-
REGIONAL GEOLOGY Atmadja et al., 1999; White et al., 2017).
From a magmatic perspective, Sulawesi
Sulawesi lies within Eastern Indonesia can be sub-divided into four litho-
in a highly complex and dynamic plate tectonic provinces, namely: (a) the
tectonic setting located at the meeting of Western and North Sulawesi Plutonic-
three major tectonic plates – the Volcanic Arc, located in the South Arm
oceanic/continental Indo-Australian, and West Sulawesi through the Neck
predominantly continental Eurasian and the North Arm; (b) the Central
and oceanic Pacific/Philippine Sea Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, (c) the East
plates. As a result of plate interactions, Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt in the East Arm,
a complex system of subduction, back- and; (d) the Banggai-Sula and Tukang-
arc-thrusting, extension, and major Besi continental fragments in the
transform zones have generated a Southeast Arm (Figure 2; Soeria-
composite assemblage of small marginal Atmadja et al., 1999; Maulana et al.,
ocean basins and microcontinental 2020).
blocks bounded by subduction zones,
extensional margins, and major Intrusive rocks, varying in composition
transcurrent faults (Hall, 1996). The from granitic to gabbroic cover almost
region is extremely susceptible to 20% of the island, with the largest
seismic activity, and volcanic arcs line concentrations occurring in western
compressional tectonic boundaries. Sulawesi. These rocks and sometimes
associated with gold and copper
On the eastern margin of Sundaland, mineralization (e.g., Perello, 1994;
Sulawesi consists of an intricate mosaic Bergman et al., 1996; Elburg et al.,
of Gondwana-derived fragments, 2003; Maulana et al., 2020).
obducted oceanic crust, high pressure
metamorphic belts, island arc and “Basement” Rocks and Magmatism
continental margin igneous suites, and
a variety of sedimentary sequences The question of the age and origin of the
which were assembled during Late “basement” rocks of Sulawesi remains
Mesozoic to Late Cenozoic times the single most unresolved question in
(Figures 2 & 3). Broadly, Sulawesi Sulawesi geology.
consists of two terranes; a western
magmatic belt, paired with an eastern

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Sulawesi

Much dating has been carried out The rocks of Southeast Sulawesi include
recently and many previous blueschists, intervening peridotites and
assumptions have proved to be other metamorphic rocks (including
erroneous; many supposed Mesozoic or parts of the Sula Spur microcontinent).
Palaeozoic rocks have been shown to be This apparently simple configuration of
Neogene in age (Figure 4). Suffice to say, continent, accretionary complex,
we are not aware of a single modern date ophiolite, and continent has been
which has been older than that interpreted to be mainly the result of
previously assumed. convergence and accretion.

Figure 3: Simplified geological map of Sulawesi with major structures and litho-tectonic units
indicated (modified after Nugraha and Hall, 2018). Positions of Palu Metamorphic Complex (PMC)
and Malino Metamorphic Complex (MMC) indicated. Line A-B indicates approximate position of the
geoseismic section shown on Figure 6 and line C-D the seismic line on Figure 11. Small red
rectangle in Gorontalo Bay marks position of Figure 10A; larger red rectangle in central Sulawesi
marks position of Figure 10B.

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Sulawesi

beneath the North

Arm. In the Early
Miocene, the East
Sulawesi Ophiolite
was emplaced by
northwest - directed
obduction during
collision of the Sula
Spur with the North
Arm. The Central
Sulawesi Meta-
morphic Belt
includes meta-
morphic rocks
associated with the
ophiolite, the
Sundaland margin
and the Banggai–
Sula Block. Regional
extension, from
Sulawesi eastwards,
commenced in the
Middle Miocene,
associated with
rollback of sub-
duction into the
Banda embayment.
Figure 4: Map showing distribution of late Miocene-Pliocene granitoids There was wide-
with dates (after Liu et al., 2020, incorporating dating reported by
spread magmatic
Hennig et al., 2016 and White et al., 2017); CAK = felsic high-K calc-
alkaline suite, HK = mafic potassic to ultrapotassic suite. activity in the
Western Sulawesi
Igneous Province,
Metamorphic complexes in West and probably mainly extension-related, from
Central Sulawesi were emplaced or the Middle Miocene producing high-K
formed as consequence of mid- calc-alkaline acidic igneous rocks.
Cretaceous accretion of Australian Subduction of the Celebes Sea under
continental fragments to Sundaland. the North Arm is interpreted to have
During the Early Eocene western started around 5 Ma, but the
Sulawesi rifted away from Borneo subduction is quite complicated with
forming the Makassar Strait at the same both southward and eastwards
time as oceanic spreading in the Celebes subduction and associated volcanism
Sea. From the Middle Eocene to Late across the entire length of the North
Oligocene the North Arm Volcanic Arc Arm. Subduction rollback of the North
formed as consequence of north- Sulawesi subduction zone initiated a
directed subduction of the Indian Ocean new phase of extension in northern

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Sulawesi

Sulawesi which has been active until the Miocene magmatism, showing a
present-day. noticeable climax of magmatism (flare-
up) at ~7–6 Ma that forms a continuous
In West Sulawesi, there is no magmatic belt throughout West
geological/geophysical evidence for Sulawesi. The geochemistry indicates
oceanic subduction in the Late Miocene, significant involvement of continental
with the magmatic flare-up occurring ∼8 crustal materials in petrogenesis, in
m.y. after the collision of the Tukang accordance with the common presence
Besi-Buton microcontinent in the of Precambrian to Mesozoic zircons in
Middle Miocene and ∼2 m.y. before the the Late Miocene igneous rocks. This
docking of the Banggai-Sula magmatic flare-up in West Sulawesi and
microcontinent in the Early Pliocene coeval regional extension in eastern
(Hall, 2002; Metcalfe, 2010). Indonesia are attributed to a resumed
episode of slab rollback of the Banda
Magmatic zircons in West Sulawesi slab into the Banda Embayment (Zhang
yielded weighted mean ages of ca. 7.2– et al., 2020).
6.1 Ma. the preponderance of Late

Figure 5: Composite image of Sulawesi topography and bathymetry; compiled from available data.

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Sulawesi

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Eocene to earliest Miocene (van

Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). It forms
Sulawesi comprises numerous the (rifted) continental margin of eastern
disparate geological units brought into Sundaland with basement complexes of
(temporary) juxtaposition by tectonic Gondwanan origin occurring in West
movements. Figure 5 is a composite Sulawesi and the South Arm. The
image of Sulawesi and its offshore areas microcontinental fragments rifted from
utilising SRTM topographic and Australia in the Jurassic and accreted to
available high resolution bathymetric Sundaland in the Cretaceous and
data. These data give a total topographic developed in a continental margin
visualization of Sulawesi and provide a setting on the eastern margin of
wonderful insight into neotectonics and Sundaland during the Late Cretaceous
offshore sedimentary features. Clearly and Paleogene. (e.g., Parkinson et al.,
evident on the figure are the emerging 1998; Hall et al., 2009; Hall, 2012a).
West Sulawesi Fold Belt on the eastern
side of the Makassar Strait, strong In the Lariang/Karama region, 3,500 m
linear features such as the Palu-Koro of Eocene to Oligocene mixed terrestrial
fault and other faults though central and marginal marine sedimentary rocks
and southern Sulawesi, the deep are unconformably overlain by early to
extensional basins of Gorontalo Bay, late Miocene shallow marine carbonate
Bone Bay and the North Banda Basin. and mudstones in turn overlain by early
Pliocene shelf sediments and the Plio-
Several major structures may affect Pleistocene syn-orogenic Pasangkayu
more than one litho-tectonic unit Formation (“Celebes Molasse”) (Calvert
(Hamilton,1979; Silver et al., 1983; and Hall, 2007). Oil seeps have been
Parkinson et al., 1998). Included within known for over 100 years: the
these are a number of structures abundance of terrestrial biomarkers and
interpreted as strike-slip features, the presence of saturated oleane
mostly with an inferred sinistral motion, biomarkers suggest a source deposited
while other major structures have in a deltaic or nearshore environment
usually been interpreted as (Sutadiwiria et al., 2018) It is likely that
compressional features; in the last the source rocks are syn-tectonic
decade large detached extensional faults Eocene coals or carbonaceous
have been recognised near the coast in mudstones.
central Sulawesi.
Serpentinized ultramafic rocks occur in
West Sulawesi (including South Arm) two separate basement complexes in the
South Arm, the Bantimala and Barru
West Sulawesi consists of a Blocks. Both are derived from a supra-
metamorphic basement overlain by Late subduction zone environment and were
Cretaceous turbidites that were obducted during the closure of small
deposited in a forearc setting (Figure 2). back-arc basins. The ultramafic suites
These are in turn covered by volcanic- from these two blocks are juxtaposed
sedimentary successions that were with metamorphic assemblages, which
deposited during the early Middle were later intruded by younger volcanics

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Sulawesi

Figure 6: Onshore and offshore geological seismic section West Sulawesi Fold Belt (modified after
Isis, 2005); location of section shown on Figure 2 as line A-B.

(Maulana et al., 2015; Jaya et al., 2017). Two disparate terranes in the South
Detrital zircon age distributions of the Arm are juxtaposed across the sinistral
basement rocks in the South Arm Walanae fault zone which extends into
display predominant Mesozoic Bone Bay. In the west, Paleogene
(Cretaceous and Triassic) and arkosic sandstone, siltstone, claystone,
Palaeozoic populations with a small marl and conglomerate, intercalated
population of Proterozoic ages with layers or lenses of coal and
supporting the hypothesis that the West limestone are overlain by a thick
Sulawesi block originated from the succession of shallow marine carbonate
region of the Bird's Head, namely the which continued until the middle
Inner Banda block (Jaya et al., 2017). Miocene, on high blocks, surrounded by
deep marine sedimentation (Tonasa
South Sulawesi has an almost complete Carbonate Platform; Coffield et al.,
stratigraphic succession (Figure 3) 1993; Wilson and Bosence, 1996;
spanning the late Cretaceous to the Wilson and Moss, 1999). The main
present day, with carbonate and factors affecting carbonate depositional
igneous lithologies spanning much of environments and facies distributions
the Tertiary (Wilson, 1999). It is were differential subsidence, controlling
dominated by a west-verging Late water depths and accommodation
Miocene to Pliocene collisional orogen in space, types of carbonate producers and
the north and a later (Late Pliocene) active faulting (Wilson, 1999). East of
major NNW-SSE trending sinistral the fault zone, lithologies are quite
strike-slip fault system which has distinct from those to the west and the
produced a pull-apart basin (Walanae oldest lithologies are of Eocene age
Depression) with elevated rift shoulders (Maulana et al., 2015).
along its margins (Western and Eastern
Divide ranges) (Guritno et al., 1996; Cenozoic magmatism occurs
Wilson and Moss, 1999). throughout West Sulawesi, whose petro-
genesis, sources, and tectonic settings
have been relatively well constrained by

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Sulawesi

extensive geological, petrologic, offshore and onshore sectors of the

geochemical, and isotopic investigations WSFB and shows the basement involved
(Polvé et al., 1997; Elburg et al., 2003; tectonics onshore near the basin margin
Maulana et al., 2015, 2016; Jaya et al., and the intensity of the deformation
2017). A notable feature of the Late decreasing towards distal parts of the
Cenozoic igneous rocks is that they have fold belt where deformation appears to
an almost exclusively potassic to ultra- be ongoing.
potassic composition. They can be
subdivided into a shoshonitic to ultra- The offshore WSFB (Figure 7) is not a
potassic (HK) series and a high-K calc- single fold belt and is divided into three
alkaline (CAK) series and are interpreted structural provinces based on seafloor
to have formed in a post-subduction characteristics, subsurface
(extensional) tectonic setting (Elburg et deformation, and in particular the
al., 2003). character and position of the
deformation front: the Southern
The most significant Cu–Au Structural Province (SSP) a west-verging
mineralization is at Sassak which thinned-skinned fold-and-thrust belt
occurs in a quartz syenite intrusion of
shoshonitic affinity; K–Ar dates of
nearby related rocks range from 10.6 to
11.9 Ma (Priadi et al., 1994). The
Sassak Cu–Au porphyry is located
within the Walanae fault zone (Soeria-
Atmadja et al., 1999).

West Sulawesi Fold Belt

The West Sulawesi Fold Belt (WSFB;

Figures 3, 6 & 7), first mentioned by
Coffield et al. (1993) was described in
some detail in the offshore area
adjacent to the Lariang-Karama region
of western Sulawesi by Fraser et al.
(2003). The Lariang-Karama region
covers the central and southern
onshore parts of the WSFB and was
described by Calvert and Hall (2003).
The WSFB lies immediately west of the
Palu-Koro Fault, a major crustal
lineament initially set up by spreading
within the Celebes Sea during the
Eocene, and part of the greater Sorong
fault system.

Figure 6 is a composite seismic and Figure 7: Composite bathymetric and SRTM

image of West Sulawesi Fold Belt.
geological section through both the

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Sulawesi

with thrust faults detaching on different (“Celebes Molasse”) formed in response

decollement layers; Central Structural to uplift of the hinterland. Continuing
Province (CSP) with less deformation; deformation is recorded on offshore
and the Northern Structural Province seismic sections and syn-depositional
(NSP) strongly deformed where folding, folding of younger parts of the
thrusting, and detachment layers are Pasangkayu Formation (Calvert and
difficult to interpret (Puspita et al., Hall, 2003; Fraser et al., 2003). A
2005). It is considered there is similar spectacular canyon, no longer active,
contraction in all three areas, but eroded into the WSFB by the paleo-Palu
compression in the CSP did not ramp up depositional system (Baillie et al., 2008)
into a Tertiary detachment as it did in is shown as Figure 8.
SSP and NSP and all the offshore
compression was taken up by The Neck and North Arm
basement-involved thrusting onshore
(Figure 6). The section describes the land portion of
Sulawesi north of the western part of the
The age of folding is well-constrained Palu-Koro Fault system and comprises
onshore where continental alluvial plain the Sulawesi Neck and the North Arm
and marine deposits of the Plio- (Figures 2 & 3).
Pleistocene Pasangkayu Formation

Figure 8: Bathymetric image of northern sector of West Sulawesi Fold Belt showing prominent
Palu Canyon shown as oblique view inset (after Baillie et al., 2008).

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Sulawesi

The North Arm is varied and complex samples have been generated in a
with volcano-plutonic, sedimentary and continental arc setting and the more
metamorphic suites present in an intra- easterly samples in an oceanic arc
oceanic arc of tholeiitic to calc-alkaline (Elburg et al., 2003).
composition built on Eocene oceanic
crust Two distinct geochemical The North Sulawesi subduction zone
provinces are present (Elburg et al., has been active since about 8 Ma (Hall,
2003; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2011), located to the north of an earlier
2005). Porphyry Cu-Au and Mo Tertiary volcanic arc (Hall, 2012b). Age
mineralisation is associated with dating of calc-alkaline rocks associated
magmatic processes in the North Arm: a with subduction from the north took
lower crustal source for Mo and Au-rich place 2.35 Ma (Pliocene) age (Perello,
porphyry systems independent of the 1994). Ten active volcanoes overlie the
nature of the crust and derived from subduction zone which underlies North
mantle sources has been suggested Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The
(Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1999). Tondano caldera, immediately south of
Manado (Figure 2), is a 15x30 km NE-
Geochemical and isotopic data indicate SW elongate caldera formed by large
that the North Arm was part of an arc volume explosive eruptions and caldera
system between 51 and 18 Ma, with collapse. It contains small inactive post-
eruption and intrusion of subduction- caldera volcanoes and an active
related magmas of continental affinity in geothermal system and is ringed by
the western part of the area and of weakly welded and intensely dissected
oceanic affinity in the east (Elburg et al., ignimbrite deposits (Kushendratno et
2003). High-K magmatism in the west al., 2012).
started around 14 Ma, and its isotopic
signature can only be explained by a Low-temperature thermochronology on
source with a long and varied apatite from granitoid rocks in the Neck
geochemical history, probably located reveals rapid exhumation rates of 0.75–
within the Australian subcontinental 0.9 mm/yr that indicate removal of
lithospheric mantle. around 2 km of upper crust since the
Middle Pliocene (Hennig et al., 2014).
Volcanic activity in the region is a Two significant metamorphic complexes
consequence of dual subduction of the are present in the Neck and North Arm
Molucca Sea, west beneath North and provide information on the high
Sulawesi and east beneath Halmahera. speed at which tectonic processes,
Paleocene to Pliocene magmatism shows including magmatism, exhumation, and
a progression from an Older Series with reworking into a sediment, must have
calc-alkaline /tholeiitic signatures (51– occurred (Hennig et al., 2017).
17 Ma) to a Younger Series of mafic-
intermediate high-K magmas (14–5 Ma) The Palu Metamorphic Complex (Figure
and felsic K-rich calc-alkaline magmas 3; van Leeuwen et al., 2016) represents
(9–2 Ma). The isotopic and geochemical a medium-P metamorphic belt, ranging
compositions of the Older Series from chlorite to staurolite grade
samples indicate that the more westerly metamorphism, which is exposed
immediately adjacent to the Palu Fault.

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Sulawesi

Its lithologies are dominated by biotite quartzite, graphite schist, marl and
gneiss and schist, with subordinate amphibolite. Greenschists form a
amphibolite, granulite, migmatite, discontinuous selvage around the
peridotite, calc-silicate rocks and meta- complex. The MMC is interpreted as a
granitoids. The metamorphic rocks are metamorphic core complex which
strongly deformed, and some were underwent lithospheric extension
partially melted to form migmatites. during the Early–Middle Miocene.
Metamorphic rocks of the PMC have Exhumation took place during a second
yielded Early to Late Pliocene cooling phase of extensional uplift was
ages. Intruded S-type granites have accommodated by brittle faulting from
similar Pliocene ages. Both show very the Late Miocene-Pliocene onwards.
fast cooling rates, indicating rapid Preliminary zircon dating and isotope
exhumation of the complex (Hennig et analysis indicate that their igneous and
al., 2017). sedimentary protoliths were old
continental crust, probably of
The Malino Metamorphic Complex Australian derivation. Reconnaissance
(Figure 3; MMC) is in the western part of dating indicates that the MMC rocks
the North Arm and consists were metamorphosed in the mid-
predominantly of quartzo-feldspathic Miocene (23–11 Ma) (Advokaat et al.,
schist and gneiss, with intercalations of 2017).

Figure 9: Bathymetric image of north-western sector of North Sulawesi Fold & Thrust Belt;
prominent N-S lineament on western edge of mage is the Palu Fault.

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Sulawesi

North Sulawesi Fold & Thrust Belt sea, bounded by the mountainous North
Arm on the north, central Sulawesi and
The North Sulawesi Fold & Thrust Belt the East Arm on the south and bounded
(NSFTB) occurs offshore of the North by to the west by the narrow Sulawesi
Arm in the southern part of the Celebes Neck. It is surrounded by mountains up
Sea (Figure 3). It is bound to the north to 2–3 km high formed by metamorphic
by the North Sulawesi Trench. complexes and granitoid intrusions that
Deformation is related to Palu-Koro fault can be traced from the Central North
zone movements and subduction of the Arm to the Neck and further south into
Celebes Sea beneath the North Arm. mid Central Sulawesi (Hennig et al.,
2014). A thick depositional succession
Seismic evidence in the northern within the bay exceeds ten kilometres in
Makassar Strait shows the presence of thickness (Jablonski et al., 2007).
major flower structures between the
present day Mangkalihat Peninsula and Pholbud et al. (2012) recognised a three-
Sulawesi representing periods of part stratigraphy: basement is proposed
transpression developed along the Palu- to be Sundaland continental crust,
Koro fault system “structural freeways” below a major unconformity interpreted
(Fraser et al., 2003). to be either Mid Eocene or Early Miocene
in age; above the unconformity is a
Seafloor bathymetry (Figure 9) shows sequence up to 6 sec TWT divided into a
the characteristic fold-and-thrust belt lower part interpreted as quartz-rich
geometries as well as several ovoid marine sediments, with little volcanic
basins immediately north of the North debris, derived from granites and
Arm which appear to be extensional (or continental basement of western
perhaps transtensional), related to the Sulawesi and an upper shallow-water
rollback of the southward subducting carbonate succession. At the top of the
Celebes Sea since the Pliocene succession and imaged beautifully on
(Advokaat et al., 2017, Tiranda and Hall, bathymetric data (Figure 10A, for
in prep). The continuation of the Palu- location see Figure 3) are submerged
Koro fault system forms a prominent reefs and pinnacle reefs which mark
lineament against the Mangkalihat rapid subsidence which began at about
Peninsula, there is no evidence of faults 5 Ma and are partly buried by Pliocene–
crossing from Sulawesi into Borneo. Recent deep-water deposits in the basin
centre. Initiation of subsidence has been
Deformation in the NSFTB is interpreted related to rollback-driven extension
to have occurred from the latest Miocene from the North Sulawesi Trench (Cottam
or Pliocene to present with subduction et al., 2011; Hall, 2011, 2012a; Hennig
of Celebes Sea at the North Sulawesi et al., 2014).
Trench and movement on the Palu-Koro
Fault (Tiranda and Hall, in prep). Rapid subsidence began at about 5 Ma
and rates of subsidence eventually
Gorontalo Bay exceeded rates of carbonate production,
killing all the reefs except for rare
Gorontalo Bay (Figure 2; also known as pinnacles and close to the present
the Gulf of Tomini) is a deep, inter-arm

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Sulawesi

East Arm

A Central Sulawesi
comprises metamorphic
rocks of the former
accretionary margin of
Sundaland (Parkinson,
1998), which are over-
thrusted by a complete,
but dismembered, ophio-
lite exposed in the East
Arm (Parkinson, 1998;
Kadarusman et al.,
2004). The ophiolite belt
extends from central
Sulawesi to the east and
southeast arms, in-
cluding Buton and Muna
Islands.

The East Sulawesi

Ophiolite (ESO), one of
the three largest
B ophiolites in the world, is
a tectonically dis-
membered full suite of
ophiolite lithologies and
Figure 10: Evidence of extension in and around Gorontalo
Bay. (A) Bathymetric image of prominent submerged carbonate
comprises, from base to
complex, Gorontalo Bay. Base of the complex around 1300m top, residual mantle
water depth, central part of the complex 600–800m, pinnacle peridotite and mafic–
tops 400–500m. (B) SRTM image of northern Central Sulawesi ultramafic cumulate
showing metamorphic complexes.
through layered to iso-
tropic gabbro, to sheeted
coastlines, and exceeding rates of clastic dolerites and basaltic volcanic rocks of
supply, so that they are now between normal mid-oceanic-ridge basalt
1800m and 2000m deep in their deepest (MORB) composition (Parkinson, 1998;
parts. Kadarusman et al., 2004). Trace
element data on the lavas and dolerites,
Una-Una (Figures 2 & 3) is an isolated and particularly their depletion in Nb
active calc-alkaline shoshonitic volcano compared to neighbouring incompatible
(Sendjaja et al., 2018). Broom-Fendley elements, suggest a subduction zone
et al. (2011) have proposed that Una- environment for their origin (Monnier et
Una and the nearby Tongian Islands (~2 al., 1995).
Ma) are the product of young extension
of Gorontalo Bay due to slab roll-back. It is intercalated with Cretaceous or
Mesozoic pelagic sedimentary rocks

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Sulawesi

Metamorphic ages (28–32Ma; of Australian origin (Monnier et al.,

Parkinson, 1998) from rocks overthrust 1995)
by the East Sulawesi Ophiolite suggest
emplacement of this ophiolite sequence Southeast Arm
occurred during or after the middle to
late Oligocene. The geochemical The Banggai-Sula islands lie offshore to
variations and disparities for both the east of the East Arm, whilst Tukang-
peridotite and basalt and the non- Besi, Buton and the surrounding
cogenetic relationship between crust islands are located to the southeast of
and mantle sections in several locations the tip of the Southeast Arm (Figure 3).
suggest that the ESO may have been On the Banggai-Sula islands Permo-
formed at one tectonic setting and was Triassic slate, schist, and gneiss are
later overprinted by magmatism in intruded by Permo-Triassic granitoids.
different environments through its birth These metamorphic and igneous rocks,
to emplacement. A possible Cretaceous which comprise the basement complex,
origin of an oceanic plateau has been are microcontinental fragments of
suggested (Kadarusman et al., 2004). Australian origin were previously
considered to be separate fragments
The Central Sulawesi metamorphic belt sliced from New Guinea and carried
is confined to the central part of the west along the Sorong Fault system
eastern arm of the island and is (Hamilton, 1979; Garrard et al., 1988).
considered to have resulted from They are now interpreted as part of the
collision between fragments of Sula Spur that collided with the North
Gondwana origin and the active Asian Arm in the Early Miocene and
margin in the Late Oligocene or Early subsequently fragmented (Spakman &
Miocene. It consists of sheared Hall, 2010; Hall, 2011).
metamorphic rocks including the
Pompangeo schist complex and a The Mesozoic and Tertiary successions
melange complex (Parkinson, 1998), as of Buton and Tukang-Besi are similar to
well as an ophiolite terrane (Lamasi those on Banggai-Sula and considered
Complex) (Polve et al., 1997). This region to have Australian affinities (Pigram &
has been interpreted to represent an Panggabean, 1984; Garrard et al.,
accretionary complex that was formed 1988).
during Cretaceous and Paleogene times,
as a suture between the western and To the east of the Southeast Arm, large
eastern parts of Sulawesi (Hamilton, gravitational collapse structures in the
1979; Parkinson et al., 1998). the Tolo Trough are interpreted to be
caused by the regional exhumation of
Obduction did not involve westward Sulawesi (Rudyawan and Hall, 2012;
thrusting of a piece of Australia on the Titu-Eki and Hall, 2020). Abundant
Eurasian margin but was more likely normal faults in the area are due to
emplaced by north-to-south obduction extension related to subduction rollback
of the margin of the Eurasian plate, in the Banda Sea (Spakman and Hall,
represented by the Celebes Sea, over the 2010; Titu-Eki and Hall, 2020)
basement of eastern Sulawesi, probably

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 16

Sulawesi

Bone Bay the basin is largely transtensional in

origin: some seismic sections show
Bone Bay (or Gulf) is located between classic half-graben geometry (Figure 11)
the South and SE Arms of Sulawesi and others show a “bath-tub” section with
is the site of a thick undeformed synrift steep sides to both the west and east.
Neogene section with carbonate
buildups on both basin flanks and A prominent channel system is present
deeper marine sediments in axial parts. in the centre of the basin with the main
The main basin trends N-S and is channel having a width of up to 3 km
divided into several sub-basins and (Figure 11). The channelling is only
highs. Based on modern 2D seismic and present above a marked probable Early
multibeam bathy-metry we suggest that Pliocene unconformity. This event
records major uplift of
Sulawesi and subsi-
dence of Bone Gulf with
resultant major influx of
clastic sedi-ments from
the north, development
of a southward - flowing
canyon system, and
back-stepping and
drowning of carbonates
at the basin margins
(Camplin and Hall,
2014).

It is suggested that the

prominent channel is
formed by density flows
initiated by large
volumes of water fed
into the gulf by annual
rains (Baillie et al.,
2008). The climate of
Sulawesi is tropical with
two seasons: “dry” from
March to September,
and “rainy” from
October to February.
The city of Makassar,
located to the west of
Figure 11: Bone Bay bathymetric and seismic images. (A) Bone Bay on the South
bathymetry image of Bone Bay. (B) seismic image of basin infill, Arm average rainfall
location of line shown as line C-D on Figure 2 (C) detailed bathymetric around 1,000–
image of main channel. (D) Seismic image showing channel
1,500mm per year;
development of main channel.

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 17

Sulawesi

orographic rain is significantly higher in That model began to be questioned in

higher areas. the past 15 years or so as the result of
the huge amount of new information
SYNTHESIS AND TECTONIC becoming available from GPS
EVOLUTION measurements, SRTM, satellite and
bathymetric imagery, advanced
While the broad details of its geology radiometric dating, seismic imaging
have long been known, the tectonic carried out by the petroleum exploration
evolution of Sulawesi is very complex, industry, seismic tomography, and
remains controversial, and not fully importantly, the field-based work of
understood. Professor Robert Hall and his students
at Royal Holloway, University of London.
Until the last decade, there had been
consensus that Sulawesi was largely the Figure 12 is a series of tectonic
product of contractional and strike-slip reconstructions (after Hall, 2012b) is
tectonics and consequent rotation. For used to illustrate the tectonic
example, Katili (1978) regarded development of the Indian Ocean–
Sulawesi as the result of early Pliocene Indonesia region at selected time
collision of Sulawesi and the Australian- intervals since 120 Ma (that is, Early
New Guinea plate, transforming Cretaceous).
Sulawesi into an island with its convex
side turned towards the continent, at There are two main periods of activity,
the same time causing obduction of (a) a Mesozoic and Paleogene period of
ophiolite in the eastern east of the formation of the main tectonic “blocks”
island. Similarly, Silver et al., (1983) which would eventually comprise
postulated that Sulawesi had been Sulawesi, and (b) Neogene moving and
shaped and deformed because of interaction of the blocks to build
collision with the Sula platform and that Sulawesi.
the collision had resulted in rotation of
the North Arm and the development of Rotation
the North Sulawesi Trench.
Internal rotation of fragments within
In a landmark paper, Pigram and Sulawesi is thought to have been
Panggabean (1984) recognised detached achieved via a linked system of strike-
continental fragments of Australian slip and thrust faults (Hamilton, 1979;
origin in Eastern Indonesia, including Silver et al., 1983). This rotation is
parts of Sulawesi, and proposed a model related to the accretion of
of tectonic transport by seafloor microcontinental fragments onto
spreading – colloquially known as the eastern Sulawesi and to the subduction
“salami slicer” model. It became of oceanic crust of the Celebes Sea
generally accepted that collisions in southwards down the North Sulawesi
Sulawesi had been driven by terrane Trench (Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al.,
from the east. 1983; Parkinson, 1998). To accommo-

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 18

Sulawesi

Figure 12: Montage of tectonic reconstructions of Indian Ocean - Indonesian region at selected times
(after Hall, 2012b). (A) 120 Ma: East Java–West Sulawesi (EJWS) and Southwest Borneo (SWB) have
moved away from Australia and closing on Sundaland margin. (B) 65 Ma: EJWS and SWB part of
Sundaland; brief episode of NW-directed subduction marked by volcanic activity in West Sulawesi.
(C) 45 Ma: Celebes Sea spreading in a back-arc setting; Ceno-Tethys subducted northwards from
Sumatra to Halmahera. (D) 25 Ma: Sula Spur about to contact the North Arm volcanic arc. (E) 10 Ma:
Subduction rollback of the Celebes Sea caused spreading of the Sulu Sea in a back-arc setting;
rollback into Banda Embayment caused extension of the Sula Spur to form the North Banda Sea. (F)
5 Ma: Molucca Sea subduction was almost complete, Halmahera and Sangihe arcs about to collide;
Sulawesi amalgamation almost complete.

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 19

Sulawesi

date this movement, linkage of a northern margin of the Australian Plate

splaying fault system across Sulawesi (i.e., the Bird’s Head of New Guinea) into
has been suggested (Hamilton, 1979; the outer edge of Sundaland (Pigram
Silver et al., 1983; Parkinson, 1998). and Panggabean, 1984; Hutchison,
Socquet et al. (2006) showed that 1996). There is no evidence that the
ongoing deformation of Sulawesi is Sorong fault system extends into
largely confined to the region north of Sulawesi beyond the Sula islands;
the Paul-Koro and Lawanopo fault instead, there is a highly extended
systems (Figure 2) and can be continental margin north of the North
reasonably described by a small number Banda Basin which is underlain by
of rapidly rotating crustal blocks (Figure Middle Miocene–Pliocene (12.5–7.3 Ma)
13). Relative to the Sunda Plate, the oceanic crust (Rudyawan and Hall,
southwestern part of Sulawesi rotates 2012).
anticlockwise at 1.4°/Myr. The north-
eastern part of Sulawesi comprises During the Pliocene, prior extensional
three blocks rotates clockwise at 2.5– settings in the Makassar Strait became
3°/Myr. South of the Palu-Koro fault compressional as the Sulu Spur collided
system, GPS observations showed that with the south-eastern corner of
the relative motion between Sundaland Sundaland. This collision not only
and Sulawesi is small (<2 mm yr−1), but helped assemble Sulawesi into its
north of the fault system current (ephemeral) K-shape but also
accommodation rates varied from 11 to formed the WSFB, progressively
42 mm/year (Socquet et al., 2006). The obscuring the original Eocene rift
authors noted that Sulawesi provides a system in the Makassar Strait (Fraser et
primary example of how collision can be al., 2003).
accommodated by crustal block rotation
instead of mountain building. The WSFB is the direct result of
transpression and collision, resulting
Wrench Faulting from movements on the Paul-Koro fault
system. Walsperdorf and Vigney (1998)
The sinistral wrench systems are the reported five years of GPS
western extremity of one of the most measurements across the Palu-Koro
important and longest structural fault showing left lateral strike-slip of
elements in the Western Pacific and 3.4 cm/yr with a small normal
Southeast Asia. The eastern end is the component of 0.4 cm/yr.
Sorong fault system (SFS), the southern
boundary of both the Molucca Sea and Wrench faulting is important in the
the Philippine Sea plates with the Bone Bay area and has produced
Australian Plate (Hall and Wilson, multiple depocentres and structural
2000). The SFS, initiated no later than highs (Camplin and Hall, 2014). We
the early Miocene and still active, the believe a sinistral strike-slip fault
result of oblique convergence of system extends in a general north-
Australia and the Philippine Sea plates, northwesterly direction from Bone Bay
has been responsible for translating through the South Arm and is
continental fragments from the responsible for the formation of the

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 20

Sulawesi

thick, transtensional depocentre in 1. A Late Miocene–early Pliocene

Bone Bay. WNW-trending shortening characterized
by transpressional deformation along
Fission Tack and Fault Kinematics the Palu-Koro Fault. This resulted from
the collision between the Sula Spur with
Fault kinematic and fission-track Sulawesi and produced locally a
analyses show that the Late Cenozoic transpressional regime because of the
central Sulawesi deformation results northward extrusion of the Central
from three successive tectonic regimes: Sulawesi block limited by the Palu-Koro
Fault. Soon after 25 Ma the Sula Spur
began to collide with the
North Sulawesi volcanic
arc, and this is the first
Australia–SE Asia
collision. Ophiolites were
thrust onto the
continental crust, derived
from the ocean north of
the Sula Spur and
probably from the North
Sulawesi fore-arc (Hall,
2011).

2. A Pliocene collapse
tectonic regime associated
with W-trending
extension. Coeval with
these events regional
cooling and exhumation
took place.

3. A Quaternary
transtensional regime
resulting from the
combined effects of the
Central Sulawesi block
northward motion, and
extension related to back-
Figure 13: Sulawesi rotation. (A) GPS velocities and interpreted
blocks, East Indonesia (after Socquet et al., 2006; Hall, 2011) (B) arc spreading behind the
rotational part of the inferred velocity field relative to the Sunda North Sulawesi sub-
Plate, error ellipses indicated (after Socquet et al., 2006). duction zone (Bellier et al.,
2006).

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 21

Sulawesi

Neogene Extension complexes at the same time as

subsidence in Gorontalo Bay.
Through the latter part of the 20th
century and the early part of the 21st, Analysis of SRTM data for central
Sulawesi has generally been interpreted Sulawesi reveals two grooved, dome-like
as the product of convergence in the massifs that form the northern end of
Cretaceous and Cenozoic; more recent the Tokorondo Mountains in the
studies have indicated that extension northwest and the Pompangeo
has played a significant role in its Mountains in the southeast (Figure
Neogene evolution. For example, high 10B). Each massif extends from near
mountains in west Central Sulawesi sea level to ~2.5 km elevation. The
have been considered the product of larger, southeastern corrugated
magmatism and metamorphism related landform, centred on the Pompangeo
to Neogene collision; however, new Mountains and extending over ~2000
dating of metamorphic and granitoid km2, consists primarily of marble,
rocks has identified protoliths and phyllite, quartz-mica schist, and meta-
sources of melts and indicates an conglomerate (Parkinson, 1998). The
important role for extension (Hennig et landforms are interpreted as the
al., 2016). denuded footwalls of extensional
detachment faults with aerially
Late Miocene magmatic flare-up in West extensive, topographically smooth
Sulawesi and coeval regional extension footwalls similar to those at other active
in eastern Indonesia are attributed to a core complexes (Spencer, 2010, 2011).
resumed episode of Banda slab rollback The North Arm is deforming in response
(Zhang et al., 2020). Neogene to gravitational potential energy
extensional tectonics has also been contrasts. Subduction of the Celebes
recognised in southwest Sulawesi where Sea beneath the northern arm of the
widespread block-faulting and the onset island initiated at 8 Ma (Hall, 2011) with
of potassic volcanism commenced the rollback of the slab causing back-arc
around 14–13 Ma. It reached its peak extension and rapid subsidence of
about one million years later with the Gorontalo Bay. Rapid uplift and
juxtaposition of the Bone Group against exhumation metamorphics and
the Salokalupang Group along the synchronous rapid subsidence offshore
Walanae Fault Zone. Potassic volcanism in Gorontalo Bay (Pholbud et al., 2012;
continued up to the end of the Pliocene, Pezzati et al., 2014) has been interpreted
and locally into the Quaternary (van to be linked to northward rollback of the
Leeuwen et al., 2010). southward-subducting Celebes Sea
under the North Arm during the
Widespread Neogene extension, driven Pliocene to present-day (Hall, 2011).
by subduction, has also been recognised GPS data show rapid northward motion
as important in the northern part of of the North Arm with respect to the
Sulawesi from central Sulawesi, though Celebes Sea, indicating that this process
Gorontalo Bay and beyond the North is ongoing at present day (Advokaat et
Arm where extension exhumed the deep al., 2017).
crust in onshore metamorphic core

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 22

Sulawesi

Greenfield et al. (2021) analysed The importance of the role of extension

earthquakes around Sulawesi to study has become more apparent in recent
the active deformation and suggested years and it may be that many more
that the accretionary wedge above the features previously thought to be
subducting Celebes Sea is being contraction will be reassessed as due to
deformed in response to gravitational extension or hyper extension. For
potential energy contrasts, spreading example, the Seram–Kumawa shear
from a region of high gravitational zone is a newly recognised major
potential energy to a lower one. The hot Neogene structure within the Australian
and weak continental fragment is continental margin of the Banda
spreading out under its own weight with embayment (Hall et al., 2017). Figure 14
deformation is driven by stresses shows a cartoon summary of the major
transmitted though the lithosphere, structures during the Early Pliocene
rather than tractions on the base of the development of this structure, and it
lithosphere caused by circulation in the may be that the continental fragments
underlying mantle. were dispersed by extension rather than
multiple collisions.

Figure 14: Early Pliocene reconstruction of the northern and eastern Banda arc in the
Early Pliocene (after Hall et al., 2017): areas shown in light pink were highly stretched
by the Early Pliocene and further extended since

Berita Sedimentologi, 2022 V. 48(1) 23

Sulawesi

CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sulawesi comprises a series of disparate The authors thank Alfend Rudyawan for
tectonic terranes, developed under a his thoughtful review of this paper. We
variety continental and oceanic settings, also thank the Government of Indonesia
brought into juxtaposition while for its support for the various projects
sedimentation continued and we were involved with over a number of
undergoing continuing deformation. The years. We also acknowledge the
processes involved in that juxtaposition numerous colleagues with whom we
include strike-slip and extensional worked and collaborated, in particular,
processes and occurred at very fast Robert Hall (Royal Holloway, University
rates. of London), Phil Teas, Dan Orange and
Ian Longley.
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