Unit 6- Thinking And Problem

Solving
 Cognition
• Cognition is the mental activities associated
with thought, knowledge, and memory.
• In other words, cognition is the term used to
describe thinking and many other aspects of
our higher mental processes like using
language, reasoning, decision making, problem
solving etc.
 Thinking
• “Thinking is a brain activity in which people
mentally manipulate internal representations
like images, sounds, symbols, signs and other
data.”
• It is an active and complex mental process in
which the mind controls and regulates the
movement of idea in a purposive way.
 Characteristics of Thinking
• Thinking occurs in the absence of external
stimulus.
• It starts with a purpose and ends with the solution.
• Thinking without any problem is called
imagination.
• It is a complex mental process because it involves
different mental processes like perception,
learning, remembering and intelligence.
• It is often described as a problem solving mental
behavior but every problem solving behavior is
not thinking.
• Thinking requires the processing of
information both from environment and
information stored in short-term memory and
long term memory.
• It is influenced by past experience.
• It involves mental exploration- one has to
suspend immediately one’s overt or motor
activities while engaging in thinking through
some or other types of mental exploration.
• Thinking can shift very rapidly from one
incidence to another.
 Elements of thinking
• At any given moment in time, consciousness
contains a rapidly shifting pattern of diverse
thoughts, impressions, and feelings.
• In order to try to understand this complex and
ever changing pattern, psychologists have often
adopted two main strategies.
• First, they have focused on the basic elements of
thought – how, precisely, aspects of the external
world are represented in our thinking.
• Second, they have sought to determine the
manner in which we reason – how we attempt to
process available information cognitively in order
to reach specific conclusions.
 Basic elements of thought
• The various elements are involved in the
thinking process like:
➢Mental images,
➢Concepts
• These elements are also known as tools of
thinking.
Mental images : Examining from the
minds eye
• Mental images are representations of an object,
events or people, in the mind of the person who
thinks.
• They are not just visual representation; our ability
to “hear” a tune in our heads also relies on a
mental image.
• In fact, every sensory modality may produce
corresponding mental images.
• We are able to manipulate and rotate mental
images of objects, just as we are able to
manipulate and rotate them in the real world.
• Production of mental images is a way to improve
various skills through imagination.
• E.g. Piano players who simply mentally rehearse
an exercise show brain activity that is virtually
identical to that of the people who actually
practice the exercise manually.
• People report using images for understanding
verbal instructions, by converting the words into
mental pictures of actions; for increasing
motivation, by imagining successful performance;
and for enhancing their own moods, by
visualizing positive events or scenes.
• Clearly, then, visual images constitute basic
element of thinking.
Concepts: Categorizing the world
• Concepts are mental groupings of similar
objects, events, experiences, ideas or people
that are similar to one another in one or more
respects.
• Concepts enable us to organize complex
phenomena into cognitive categories that are
easier to understand and remember.
• Concepts help us classify newly encountered
objects on the basis of our past experience.
• Ultimately concepts influence behavior.
• Concept can be categorized into two types;
➢Natural and
➢Logical / Artificial concepts.
 Artificial / Logical concept
• A concept that is formed by identifying
specific feature possessed by all things that the
concept applies to is logical concept.
• It has a well defined rule or properties.
• Concept of triangle, square is example of
logical concept.
• Such artificial concepts are very useful in
many areas of mathematics and science.
 Natural concept
• If concept is formed through everyday experience
and not based on accurate set of properties, it is
natural concept.
• They have no fixed or readily specified set of
defining features.
• Love, Sport, vegetable,, crime etc. are an example
of natural concept.
• Natural concepts are more unclear than logical
concepts because the boundaries of natural
concepts are somewhat indistinct.
• Such natural concepts are often based on
Prototype: the best or clearest examples.
• Prototypes are typical, highly representative
examples of a concept that correspond to our
mental image.
• If a certain things matches with our prototype
we readily recognize it as a concept.
• For example, If you think of fruit probably you
think of Apple.
• Prototypes emerge from our experiences with the
external world, and new items that might
potentially fit within their category are then
compared with them.
• The more attributes new items share with an
existing prototype, the more likely they are to be
included within the concept.
• For example, consider the following natural
concepts: clothing, art.
• For clothing, most people think of items like
shirts, pants, or shoes. They are far less likely to
mention wet suits, mink coats, or coats of armor.
• Similarly, for art, most people think of paintings,
drawings, and sculptures. Fewer think of artwork
such as the light show at Disney World.
 How are concepts represented?
• First, concepts may be represented in terms of
their features or attributes.
• As natural concepts are formed, the attributes
associated with them may be stored in
memory. Then, when we encounter a new
item, we compare its attributes with the ones
we have already learned about.
• The closer the match, the more likely we are to
include the item within the concept.
• A second possibility is that natural concepts
are represented, at least in part, through visual
images: mental pictures of objects or events in
the external world.
 Creativity
• Creativity is a ability to produce valued outcomes that
is both novel i.e. original, unexpected and appropriate.
• Creativity should be rational and pro-social.
• It provides new knowledge and inventions that
promotes quality of human life.
• Its highly valued in every society and every culture.
• Creative people can look the same thing as everyone
else but see something differently.
• We can provide best alternative to overcome different
situation denotes creativity.
• Occurrence of everyday creative ideas which
comes from past knowledge and experience
known as mundane creativity.
• Exceptional creativity is defined as the new
inventions, which requires thinking ‘outside
the box ’ of individual mind differently.
• Novel prize winner are put in this category of
exceptional creativity.
 Characteristics of Creativity
(Lubart,1994)
• Intellectual abilities: The ability to see problems in
different new ways, applies, solve and convince
others.
• Knowledge base: Creativity is influenced by the
knowledge, organization and retrieval access to
information stored in long term memory. They show
broad ideas when needed.
• Style of thinking: Ability to transfer principles
locally and globally. The mental quickness to
discover new facts and relationship among objects
and as a result solution to problems and events are
succeeded.
• Personality Attributes: Traits as self-monitoring,
risk taking, conscientiousness, high energy,
intuitiveness, independence, self acceptance etc
lead to creativeness. They can tolerate ambiguity
and complexity .
• Right atmosphere: Time and supporting situation
to think in novel ways. Creative people do much
when provided independence, effective
atmosphere and brainstorming sessions.
• Motivation: Persistent, hard-working, task
focused; when all these condition prevail high
level of creative thinking is more likely to appear.
 Types of creative thinking
• Convergent Thinking
• Divergent Thinking
Convergent Thinking:
• It brings knowledge and information together focused
on the well-defined solution of a problem.
• It is logical, factual, conventional and problem-centric.
• Its used in academic sector while teaching and
assessment.
• Students are encouraged to discover right answer to
judge their academic excellency.
 Divergent Thinking
• Its an ability to discover multiple possibilities in a
given situation.
• It gives multiple answer of a question from multiple
direction
• It is loosely organized, partially directed and
unconventional.
• It is also characterized by ‘moving away’ in various
directions, to a variety of relevant aspects.
• It tends to be creative which yield novel ideas and
solution.
• Divergent thinker use variety of thought to a solve a
problem.
 Steps In Creative Thinking
• Creative thinker provide various strategies
during while solving problem.
• The creative problem solving typically follows
the following steps (Graham Wallas, 1926):
➢Preparation
➢Incubation
➢Illumination
➢Verification
 Preparation
• First stage of formulation of the problem
where facts and material are collected,
recalled, unnecessary are avoided for the new
solution.
• Its done to enhance deep understanding of
elements of the targeted goals.
• For writing book, all of the material needed are
collected.
 Incubation
• The second period describes the period of rest.
• Creative thinker find problem isn’t easy to solve,
it takes weeks, months or years of patience and
concentrated efforts.
• There is absence of overt activities and seems no
progress but past experience, knowledge,
associations are working covertly.
• It’s the period where creative thinker put problem
aside and continue thinking unconsciously.
• Its used concept of egg which need incubations
before its hatched.
 Illumination
• In this stage, the critical insights arrive
abruptly or at unexpected time and places.
• There is ‘wow’ experience, sudden flashes of
solution.
• Material seems to be organize because ideas
come smoothly and rapidly.
• Time away from problem is beneficial because
it removes fatigue, frustrations and
unproductive mental sets.
 Verification
• In last stage, we test the desirability of the
solution.
• It is necessary to test, evaluate and revise.
• This stage evaluates solution to see if it is
satisfactory.
• Sometimes insight proves to be wrong and
unsatisfactory at that time creative thinkers
should go back at the beginning.
Reasoning: Making up our mind
• Reasoning is the process of running particular
sequence of ideas inside the mind to arrive at a
conclusion.
• In reasoning, people move from what is
already known to infer a conclusion or to
evaluate a proposed conclusion.
• In the process of reasoning, the individual
reason from the past experience to solve the
problem.
• It may involve imagination, concept, precepts
and languages.
• For example, if we perceive an object lying on
the table and if we go on thinking deeply about
that particular object , we fall into the process
of reasoning.
• Some person have greater reasoning ability
than others. It’s a skill.
 Some types of reasoning are:-
• Formal reasoning ( Deductive reasoning &
Inductive reasoning)
• Informal or everyday reasoning
 Formal reasoning ( Deductive
reasoning & Inductive reasoning)
• Its also called syllogistic reasoning.
• In syllogistic reasoning, the problem is solved
through a set of assumption called premises.
• If the premises are correct or true then the
reasoning is correct.
• It can be made through on the basis of
literature, one’s past experience, observation
and so on.
• There are two types of Formal reasoning:
➢Deductive reasoning
➢Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning:-
• Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the
general to the specific.
• Psychologists, like all scientists use deductive
reasoning when they start with a general, broad
theory, then derive a hypothesis from the
theory, and ultimately test the hypothesis by
calling data to arrive at a conclusion.
• Example:
Premise 1: All human beings are mortal.
Premise 2: John is a human being.
Conclusion: Therefore, John is mortal.
 Inductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is reasoning from the specific to
the general.
• It is data driven, in that pieces of information are
collected and put them together to form a conclusion.
• After analyzing high-performing and successful
employees in the marketing department, a recruiter
recognizes they all graduated with a degree in
business, marketing or journalism. She decides to
focus on future recruiting efforts on candidates with a
degree in one of those three disciplines.
• Deductive and Inductive reasoning are called
Formal reasoning since all the required
information is supplied, the problem to be
solved is straightforward, and the reasoning we
apply follows a specific method.
 Informal / Everyday reasoning
• Everyday reasoning involves the kind of thinking
we do in our daily lives: planning, making
commitments, evaluating arguments.
• In this type of reasoning, premises are usually not
completely supplied with the problem.
• The person handling them needs effectiveness,
seriousness and careful attention.
• We usually solve them with concentration.
• For example:- Evaluation of reports, meeting
people to solve some issues etc
 Problem Solving
• Problem solving is a process of overcoming
difficulties that appear to interfere with the
attainment of a goal. It is procedure of making
adjustment in spite of interferences” (Skinner,
1968).
• Problem solving behavior occurs in novel or
difficult situations in which a solution is not
obtainable by the habitual methods of applying
concepts and principles derived from past
experience in very familiar situations
(Woodsworth, 1948).
• Problem solving thinking occur only when:
➢The goal is quite purposeful and essential for
the individual
➢There is serious interference in the realization
of this goal.
➢This interference or obstacle cannot be
overcome by simple habitual acts or
mechanical trial and error methods.
• Problem solving behavior involves quite
deliberate conscious and serious efforts on the
part of the problem solver.
 Stages of Problem Solving
• Identification of the problem
• Formulation of potential solution
• Evaluating the alternative
• Implement the solution
Identification of the problem:
• Explain issues, obstacles and goals related to
it. It should be clearly stated.
• Try to think about problem in flexible way.
Formulation of potential solution:
• Describes different alternatives to be drawn for
possible solutions.
• Alternatives should be critically analyzed.
• Information stored in long term memory help
in generating possible alternatives.
Evaluating the alternative:
• Describe each alternatives with its outcomes.
• Eliminating poor choices
• Reducing error
• Saving time and effort
• Driving toward goals
• Examining the consequences of each
alternatives
• More positive valances are chosen and more
negative results are neglected.
Implement the solution
• Select the best alternatives
• Its time to convert plan into action
• If it doesn’t guarantee solution, various other
alternatives is to be generated.
 Methods of Problem Solving
• Algorithm
• Heuristic
• Trial and error
• Insight
 Algorithm
• Algorithm is a step wise step procedure that
guarantees a solution if followed correctly.
• In algorithm if particular set of rules are followed
properly, it will solve in a time.
• For example: length multiplied by area breadth
gives an area of rectangle.
• Algorithm won’t provide answer if its problem
isn’t clearly mentioned.
• Sometimes algorithm may be so vast that
algorithm is impracticable because both the
information needed to solve them and criteria for
determining the solution are vague.
• We can use an algorithm even if we cannot
understand why it works.
• Algorithm is a rule that guarantees a solution
to a specific type of problem but might be
time-consuming in terms of solving real life
problems.
• For example, you may know that you can find
the hypotenuse a right triangle by using the
formula h2 = p2 + b2.
• When the solution aren’t met with the help of
algorithm then we shall go for another
alternatives.
 Heuristic
• When the algorithm are inapplicable to solve complex
problem then we should follow much more effective
problem solving techniques known as Heuristic
• It often provides useful shortcuts.
• Heuristics breaks the problem down into smaller sub-
problems and increases the probability of the solution
but don’t guarantee for the solution of problem.
• This techniques lead to correctness of your cues and
simplify task.
• Heuristics guide our cognition involving strategies
which our past experience suggests that might be
applicable or might not be that’s why it won’t guarantee
solution.
• Heuristic make more efficient use of time, provide
quick solution.
• Human being try to solve problem by using heuristics
rather than algorithm because algorithm require more
cognitive capacity, knowledge of the subject and effort
which must of us do not possess.
• In the case of forgotten password, you might begin by
assuming that the password could be the birth year of
your loved ones or your bike number etc
• According to Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
(1973), there are two heuristics used in problem
solving:
➢ Representative Heuristics and
➢ Availability Heuristics
Representative Heuristics
• Representativeness refers to the predictions
based on similarity between information
obtained through past experience and the result
to draw
• Whether current situation is an image of
something we already have experienced.
• Sometimes this method may lead to good
strategy and sometimes it may mislead by the
surface similarities at other times.
• For example: Tipper driver are called Yamaraj.
.
Availability Heuristics:
• When we base our judgment on accessibility of
information in our memories rather than seeking more
information.
• a strategy for making judgments on the basis of how
easily specific kinds of information can be brought to
mind, such as priming (increased availability in
memory of specific type of information, involving
emotions or feelings)
• In this heuristics, we use readable information and
another shortcut.
• We assess such events are common and recurrence help
us in making decisions and solving problem.
• For example: after watching a horror movie, many
people find that they are more easily frightened by
unexpected sights and sounds like moving shadows
 Trail and error
• Trail and error involves trying different possible
solution one after another until it works
• It is simplest problem solving technique
commonly used by people.
• It is like hit-miss or gain approach, which may
instantly solve the problem or take much time.
• Trail and error used by people who do not have
much information about the problem to adopt a
more systematic, standard steps to solve the
problem.
 Insight
• Sometimes we are unaware about using any problem
solving strategy. We feel puzzled for some time and
stay away form it. Then suddenly the sudden flashes of
inspiration hit us and the problem seems organized and
solved. This is called Insight.
• Inner vision or enlightenment refers to the cognitive
understanding of the problem which need knowledge of
the subject thoroughly.
• Human being gain a sense of happiness and satisfaction
when problem solved by using insight.
• For example: Thirsty crow seeing water in jar which is
beyond its reach, drops pebbles into jar to raise the
water level and quenched its thirst.
Factors affecting problem solving
• Sometimes, despite our best efforts, we are unable
to solve problems.
• In many cases our failure stems from obvious
causes, such as lack of necessary information or
experience.
• We may also lack internal cognitive frameworks
that allow us to represent the problem situation
fully and effectively.
• As a result, we don’t know which variables or
factors are most important, and we spend lots of
time “wandering about”, using an informal type
of trial or error.
• In other cases, though, difficulties in solving
problems seem to stem from more subtle
factors like:
1. Functional fixedness
2. Mental set
 Functional fixedness
• It is our strong tendency to think of using
objects only in ways they have been used
before.
• It refers to the tendency to rely heavily on past
experience which doesn’t allow to think in
some other perspectives.
• It prevents people from fully seeing all of the
different options that might be available to find
a solution.
• What solutions do you come up with?
• For example: a person may throw the materials
here and there in the room in search of screw
driver when a spoon or knife would have done
the job.
• While these techniques may work, they
overlook a much more elegant solution.
• Described like this, the solution probably
sounds obvious. Then why don’t most people
think of it?
• The answer has to do with functional
fixedness.
 Mental set
• It is another factor that often gets in the way of
effective problem solving
• It is habitual way of approaching a problem.
• Mental set sometimes leads to appropriate,
sensible and productive problem solving but at
a times it may lead to “mental ruts” with
wrong or inappropriate solutions.
• It is the tendency to stick with a familiar
method of solving particular types of
problems-one that has worked before.
• However, difficulties arise when this tendency
causes us to overlook other more efficient
approaches.
• You pull on a door handle to open it. The door
doesn’t open. You pull on it a few more times
before you try to push, failing to notice the
“push” sign on the door.
 Decision Making
• Decision making is the process by which an individual
weighs the advantages and disadvantages, pros and
cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice (
Westen, 2002).
• Planning, organizing, controlling, approaching all are
related to decision related issues in organization.
• The information processing model describes two things
when people make decision: Utility and Probability
• The utility explains the value assigned to the
alternatives according to the priority, importance or
need.
• It suggests judging each criteria , labeling its
significance and finding out the weighted utility value.
• The probability is the estimated outcome of each
alternative.
• The process of utility and probability goes
together.
• For example, buying motorcycle makes people to
choose one among several alternatives.
• Deciding how well the potential choice
(Motorcycle) meets each criterion ( in term of
money, durability, brand, color, importance etc)
• People do not get always what they want so they
have to make rational decisions in terms of utility
(maximum utility) and probability ( certain
limitation) .
 Common Biases And Errors In
Problem Solving
• Decision is very complex and difficult task
because it involves cognition.
• Decision making rely greatly on their past
experience as guidelines for making choices
quickly and cleverly which hampers them to
enhance quality and correctness of decisions.
• The shortcuts they used leads them to several
biases and errors in problem solving.
• Some of the errors are listed below:
➢Over- Confidence,
➢Anchoring Bias,
➢Availability Bias,
➢Confirmation Bias,
➢Representative Bias,
➢Escalation Of Commitment And
➢Hindsight Bias.
 Over- Confidence
• It is tendency to overestimate the accuracy of
knowledge and judgment.
• We tend to think we know more than we do and
accomplish in less time than it actually takes.
• Failing to estimates one potential may lead to
serious disasters.
• Overconfidence is general bias which is
applicable to both lay people and experts.
• E.g. Students thinking that they can secure good
grades even when they start reading books after
exam routine is out.
 Anchoring Bias
• In anchoring bias, we make modification in
making decision on the basis of pre-
information we have.
• Usually we fixate on initial information and
fail to adjust other incoming information.
• Anchors are used in profession like
advertising, real estate, management etc.
• Anchoring is much seen in negotiations.
• Biases related to anchoring stem from two distinct
aspects: First, one could use irrelevant anchors
and second, one could insufficiently adjust up or
down from original starting value or anchor.
• For example:- if you first see a T-shirt that costs
Rs2000 – then see a second one that costs Rs 800
– you’re prone to see the second shirt as cheap.
Whereas, if you’d merely seen the second shirt,
priced at Rs 800, you’d probably not view it as
cheap.
• The anchor – the first price that you saw – unduly
influenced your opinion.
 Availability bias
• It is the tendency to make judgments about the
frequency or likelihood of events in terms of how
readily examples of them can be brought to mind.
• This shortcut tends to work fairly well, because
the more readily we can bring events to mind, the
more frequent they generally are; but it can lead
us into error as well.
• In a way we are hacked in social judgments.
• E.g. The availability heuristic influences many
people to overestimate their chances of being a
victim of violent crime, being involved in an
airplane crash, or winning the lottery.
• Because such events are given extensive
coverage in the mass media, people can readily
bring vivid examples of them to mind.
• As a result people make errors while making
judgments because they rely on how easy these
information flow in their mind.
 Confirmation Bias,
• It is the tendency of people to look for
information that confirms their view point or
belief.
• It explains that we seek evidence that will verify
our ideas more clearly and eagerly than what
disproves them.
• It is a selective perception in which individual
looks for the facts that support their opinion and
ignore facts that do not support their opinion.
• Confirmation bias limits our ability to make
rational choices by limiting our ability to see
other criteria for decision making.
• For example:- business manager, follow the
successful career of the person they have hired
than those they have rejected because they
want to confirm their hiring ability.
• For example:- While observing a very old man
who still smokes and is perfectly healthy, the
chain smoker may find his past belief
strengthened that smoking does not necessarily
shortens life.
 Representative Bias
• Representative bias is when a decision maker
wrongly compares two situations because of a
perceived similarity, or, conversely, when he or
she evaluates an event without comparing it to
similar situations.
• It is a mental rule of thumb suggesting that the
more closely an event or object resembles
typical examples of some concept or category,
the more likely it is to belong to that concept
or category.
• In representation bias, we judge by likelihood
of thing in terms of how well they represent
particular of prototype that may lead in errors
and biases while solving problem.
• For example:-
• People with dark skin are from Africa.
• People with glasses are intelligent.
 Escalation Of Commitment
• It is the tendency to commit additional time,
effort, and resources to the failing course of
action in order to turn the situation around.
• While we make decision is escalation of
commitment which refers that people stick
with a decision even when they know that is
wrong and bad.
• People demonstrate their decision wasn’t
wrong and they do not admit their mistake.
• For example:- Escalation of commitment
involves staying in a job we despise. To an
outsider, the situation may seem painfully
obvious: quit your job and find a more
rewarding career. But when we're in this
particular situation, we experience a
commitment bias.
 Hindsight Bias
• Hindsight is the tendency to think that we knew some
event was likely to occur even before we learned that it
had in fact taken place.
• Hindsight bias is also known as the ‘I-knew-it-along’
or ‘I knew it was going to happen’ phenomenon.
• It is the tendency to judge events as more predictable
after their occurrence than in foresight.
• It means that after specific events occur, we often have
the impression that could have predicted or actually did
predict them.
• We become more confident about the accuracy
of future decisions than we have a right to be.
• We construct a situation where we fool
ourselves into thinking we knew more about
an event before it happened, hindsight bias
restricts our ability to learn from the past and
makes us overconfident about future
predictions.
• For example, after attending a game, you
might insist that you knew that the winning
team was going to win before hand.