EE326B: Circuit Simulation (E) LABORATORY (Session 2020-21)

Name:- Sachin agrawal

Class:-3rdyear,5thsem

Roll no.-20uele6030

List of experiments S. No. Name of Object

1. Introduction of PSpice and Its Library functions.

2. Introduction of simulation.

3. To Verify KCL & KVL in a Given Electrical DC Network using PSpice simulations.

4. To Verify Superposition theorem for dependent and independent source DC

network using PSpice.
5. To Verify Thevenin’s theorem for dependent and independent source DC
network using PSpice.
6. To verify Norton’s theorem for dependent and independent source DC
network using PSpice.

7. To verify reciprocity theorem for dependent and independent source DC

network using PSpice.

8. To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for independent source

DC network using PSpice.

9. To study and perform the Frequency response analysis of a series RLC

Circuit using PSpice.

10.

Experiment -1

Object: Introduction of PSpice and Its Library functions.

History of PSpice:- PSpice was released in January 1984, and was the first version of UC Berkeley SPICE
available on an IBM Personal Computer. PSpice later included a waveform viewer and analyser program called
Probe.
Installation of PSPICE
• From the extracted files in the PSpice folder in C drive, double click on the stetup.exe file as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 5: Running the setup

• After that the setup will give a warning message saying that the software you are going to
install will not allow any antivirus to run while working with it. Click on the Ok or next button.
And then click Yes on the next prompt message. A dialog box asking you whether you want to
download the schematic as well or not will appear. Check on the schematic box and click next.
Now all you have to do is to click next or Ok on any of the prompt message or dialog box that
is going to appear in order to proceed with the installation part.

Theory of PSpice:- SPICE is a computer-aided simulation program that enables you to design a circuit and then
simulate the design on a computer.

As this is one of its main purposes, it is used extensively by electronic design engineers for building a circuit and
then testing out how that circuit will simulate.

PSPICE stands for Program Simulation with Integrated Circuit Emphasis.

The Electronics Research Laboratory of the University of California developed it and made it available to the
public in 1975.

PSPICE is largely popular because of its user-friendly interface, extensions that support modeling of digital
circuits, and its no-cost basic version.

PSPICE is a general purpose program designed for a wide range of circuit simulation including the simulation of
nonlinear circuits, transmission lines, noise and distortion, digital circuits, mixed digital and analog circuits. It can
perform dc analysis, steady-state sinusoidal (AC) analysis, transient analysis, and Fourier series analysis.

General Guideline on How to Use PSpice:-

The general procedure for using PSpice consists of 3 basic stepes.

Step 1
The user draws the circuit in schematic form which he wants to simulate.

Step 2
The user specifies the type of analysis desired, and directs PSPICE to perform that analysis. This can, for
instance, be DC analysis, AC analysis, transient analysis...
Step 3
The user instructs the computer to print or plot the results of the analysis. In this step, the user sees the
graphical results of the analysis done. For example, he can see the graph of the output voltage vs. output
current (V vs. I), or any data which he wants to analyze.
Interface of PSpice:-

Reference:- https://microcontrollerslab.com/download-install-pspice-software/
 Experiment -2
Object: Introduction of simulation.

Definition:-Circuit simulation is a process in which a model of an electronic circuit is created and analyzed using
various software algorithms, which predict and verify the behaviour and performance of the circuit. Since
fabrication of electronic circuits, especially integrated circuits (ICs), is expensive and time-consuming, it is faster
and more cost-effective to verify the behaviour and performance of the circuit using a circuit simulator before
fabrication.
There are different types of circuit simulators catering to varied needs across the accuracy-
performance/capacity spectrum. At one end of the spectrum are analog simulators that solve accurate
representations of the electronic circuits. They offer high accuracy and are commonly used to simulate small
circuits. At the other end of the spectrum are digital simulators that use functional representations of electronic
circuits, typically described using hardware description languages (HDL). These offer the highest performance
and capacity, but at relatively lower levels of accuracy. Digital simulators are commonly used to simulate very
large circuits.

Types of Circuit Simulation:-

There are three basic types of circuit simulation: analog, digital, and mixed-mode.
Analog circuit simulation involves the use of highly accurate models (i.e., representations) of the electronic
circuit to achieve high accuracy. The models include non-linear, linear, and simpler table-based representations
of the various electronic devices in the circuit. Analog simulation can run in different modes. These include AC
(frequency domain), DC (non-linear quiescent), and transient (time-domain). All analog simulators employ
algorithms to mathematically analyze the behaviour of the electronic circuit in these different modes. They all
share the quality of solving matrices to predict the performance of the electronic circuit. Signals are propagated
as continuously varying values.
There are two primary types of analog circuit simulators: SPICE and FastSPICE. SPICE simulators use highly
accurate non-linear and linear models of electronic devices to analyze the behaviour of the circuit. SPICE
simulators employ many different integration methods, such as Forward Euler, Backward Euler, and Newton-
Raphson as well as matrix decomposition techniques to compute the response of the entire circuit (i.e.,
mathematical representation) at every single time point in the simulation period of interest.
By contrast, FastSPICE simulators use simpler table-model representations of electronic devices to analyze
circuit behaviour. They employ sophisticated algorithms to reduce the complexity of the circuit and partition the
circuit based on various criteria, essentially creating a simpler and more modular circuit representation. This
representation is then selectively evaluated at a given time point in the simulation period of interest, a process
that greatly improves the performance and capacity of the simulation. FastSPICE simulators offer various
simulation knobs to help balance the tradeoffs between simulation accuracy and performance.
Digital circuit simulation involves the use of simpler models of the electronic circuit. These models are typically
created using HDL. In digital simulation, rather than propagating continuously varying signals, a few discrete
voltage levels (primarily logic 0 and logic 1) are propagated. The methods to propagate these signals have
varying degrees of accuracy regarding the propagation delay of the logic levels through the circuit. This method
of simulation allows much larger circuits to be simulated in less time with fewer compute resources when
compared to analog simulation.
Mixed-mode circuit simulation combines the analog and digital simulation approaches. The circuit is partitioned
between the two regimes to support the correct level of analysis detail for each part of the circuit. Analog
simulators (SPICE and FastSPICE) are used for the analog analyses and a digital simulator is used for the digital
analyses. This method of simulation allows for much larger circuits to be simulated in less time with fewer
compute resources when compared to analog simulation.
Benefits of Circuit Simulation:-
Circuit simulation provides a critical view into the behaviour of electronic circuits. Given the expense and time
involved in fabricating electronic circuits, especially ICs, it’s much more practical to validate circuit behaviour
and performance via circuit simulation prior to manufacturing.
Some of the specific areas of validation include:

• Memory Performance. The read and write access times and latency of memory devices are built from
analog circuit simulation of the bit cells and read/write paths inside these memories.
• Overall Digital Simulation Accuracy. Digital circuit simulators model the propagation of voltage for logic
level 1 and logic level 0. Analog circuit simulation is used to determine the time it takes for a circuit to
transition between these voltage levels. This forms the basis for the overall accuracy of the digital
circuit simulator.
• Noise and Crosstalk. Higher level models for noise and crosstalk are developed based on the detailed
circuit level analysis of these parasitic effects from analog circuit simulations.
• Optimization of High-Frequency and High-Power Circuits. These types of circuits must undergo detailed
continuous time analysis to determine their behaviour and performance criteria. Analog circuit
simulation delivers these important analyses.
• The overall performance and behaviour of complex digital circuits (core processors and AI accelerators
are examples) are verified with digital circuit simulation.

Reference:- https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-circuit-simulation.html

Reference:- https://www.electricalveda.com/circuit-simulation.html

Experiment - 3

Object:- To Verify KCL & KVL in a Given Electrical DC Network using PSpice simulations.

Component used:-
S.No. Component No. of Component Notation Values
1. Voltage source 1 V 30V
2. Resistors 4 R1,R2,R3,R4 10ohm,20ohm,30ohm,
40ohm
3. Ground 1 Gnd_Earth ------------------

Theory:- Gustav Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL):-

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is
equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the
algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the
Conservation of Energy.
Gustav Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):-
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly
equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within
the node “. In other words, the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to
zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Simulation:-

For KVL For KCL

Analyse:-

• By this circuit we analyse that when we remove upper branch then current through R1,R2,R3 remains
same but the total current through the source decreases. This indicate verification of KVL.
• We also analyse that node voltage does not change when we remove the branch. This indicates
verification of KCL.

Observation Table: For KVL

S.No. Voltage across Analytical value Simulate value Error (%)

(in volts) (in Volts)

1. Resistor R1 13.64 13.64 0

2. Resistor R2 16.36 16.36 0

3. Resistor R3 16.36 16.36 0

4. Resistor R4 30 30 0

For KCL

S.No. Current through Analytical value Simulate value Error (%)

(in amps) (in amps)

1.364 1.364 0
1. Resistor R1
0.81818 0.81818 0
2. Resistor R2
0.54546 0.54546 0
3. Resistor R3
0.750 0.750 0
4. Resistor R4

Result: Hence we have successfully Performed KCL and KVL experiment in PSpice in which we are getting 0%
error.

Discussion and Comments: In this simulation we are getting 0% error because all the voltage and current
sources are ideal and Resistors are also ideal. And there is no effect of Environmental conditions, defective
instruments and using or reading and instrument incorrectly.

Experiment -4
Object: To Verify Superposition theorem for dependent and independent source DC network using PSpice.
Component used:
S.No. Component No. of Component Notation Values
1. Voltage source 2 V1,V2 12V,24V
2. Current source 1 I1 3A
3. Resistors 4 R1,R2,R3,R4 8ohm,4ohm,3ohm,3ohm
4. Ground 1 Gnd_Earth --------
Theory:
The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a linear system the response (voltage or current)
in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of
the responses caused by each independent source acting alone, where all the other independent sources are
replaced by their internal impedances.
To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first must be "turned off" (set to
zero) by:
● Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating difference of
potential i.e. V=0; internal impedance of ideal voltage source is zero (short circuit)).
● Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (there
by eliminating current i.e. I=0; internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit)).

This procedure is followed for each source in turn, then the resultant responses are added to determine the
true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is the superposition of the various voltage and
current sources.
The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It is used in converting any circuit into its Norton
equivalent or Thevenin equivalent.
The theorem is applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant) consisting of independent sources,
linear dependent sources, linear passive elements (resistors, inductors, capacitors) and linear transformers.
Superposition works for voltage and current but not power. In other words, the sum of the powers of each
source with the other sources turned off is not the real consumed power. To calculate power we first use
superposition to find both current and voltage of each linear element and then calculate the sum of the
multiplied voltages and currents.
Simulation:
(considering all sources):

(considering only V1(12V) working): (considering only V2(24V) working):

(considering only I1(3A) working):

Observation table:

S.no Voltage across Considering considering considering considering Error%

all sources (in only 12V V.S. only 24V V.S. only 3A C.S.
volts) (in volts) (in volts) (in volts)
1. Resistor R1 -20 4 -14 -10 0
2. Resistor R2 6 6 3 -3 0
3. Resistor R3 -2 -2 7 -7 0
4. Resistor R4 6 6 -3 3 0

S.no current across Considering considering considering considering Error%

all sources (in only 12V V.S. only 24V V.S. only 3A C.S.
amps) (in amps) (in amps) (in amps)
1. Resistor R1 2.5 1.75 0.5 1.25 0
2. Resistor R2 1.5 0.75 1.5 -0.75 0
3. Resistor R3 0.5 -1.75 0.5 1.75 0
4. Resistor R4 2.0 -1.0 2.0 1.0 0
Note:- for reference we suppose all current is positive through R1,R2,R3 when all sources are acting.

Analyse:-

• When we change the source position we saw that current and voltage through every resistor changes
this happens because our circuit is not symmetrical so when we change the source position the net
effect of single source will change when other sources will replace by their internal resistance.
• If the circuit will symmetrical we will see that voltage and current will be the same as previous this
indicate the verification of superposition theorem.

Result :
Hence, we have successfully verified the superposition theorem using PSpice in which we are getting 0% error.
In this simulation we have verified that total voltage across and current through resistors is the algebraic sum of
individual independent source considering at a time.
Discussion and Comments:
• In this simulation we are getting 0% error because all the voltage and current sources are ideal and
Resistors are also ideal. And there is no effect of Environmental conditions, defective instruments and
using or reading and instrument incorrectly.
• This theorem is used to measure current and voltage but cannot be used to measure power.
• There must be more than one source to apply this theorem.
• This theorem is not applicable for unbalanced bridge circuit.

Experiment -5
Object: To Verify Thevenin’s theorem for dependent and independed source DC network using PSpice.
Component used:
S.No. Component No. of Notation Values
Component
1. Voltage source 3 V1,V2,V3 10V, 20V, 30V
2. Current source 1 I1 6A
3. Resistors 4 R1,R2,R3,R4(load) 5ohm,10ohm,2ohm,4ohm
4. Ground 1 GND_Earth ------------------

Theory:
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load “. In other
words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent two-
terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance)
connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other
interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:

Simulation:
Circuit diagram:-

Load Resistance R4=4ohms

Thevenin Voltage Vth=32.86V
Thevenin Resistance=2.857(calculated)
Converting the circuit diagram into it’s Thevenin equivalent:
Calculation:
s.no. Voltage across and current Analytical value Simulate value Error (%)
through load resistor
1. voltage 19.17V 19.17V 0
2. current 4.792A 4.792A 0

Analyse:

• When we change the load resistance by 4 ohm to 8ohm we saw that voltage and current on each
component will change but it’s Thevenin resistance and voltage will be the same so we can say by
this that Thevenin voltage and resistance does not depend on load. This is the very common use
of Thevenin theorem to get the current and voltage in various types of load.

Result:
Hence, we have successfully Verified Thevenin’s theorem for dependent and independent source DC
network using PSpice in which we are getting 0% error.
Discussion and Comments:
• In this simulation we are getting 0% error because all the voltage and current sources are ideal
and Resistors are also ideal. And there is no effect of Environmental conditions, defective
instruments and using or reading and instrument incorrectly.
• Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where one
particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to change, and re-calculation
of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine voltage across it
and current through it.
• Source modeling and resistance measurement using the Wheatstone bridge provide applications
for Thevenin’s theorem.
 EXPERIMENT:6
OBJECT: To verify Reciprocity Theorem for independent source DC network using PSpice.
DISCOVERED BY-: Hermann von Helmholtz

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
s.no. Components used No. of components Notation values

1 Voltage source 1 V1 100V

2 Resistor 8 R1,R2,R3,R4, 200ohm,100 ohm,1K ohm,100

R5,R6,R7,R8, ohm,200 ohm,100 ohm,50 ohm, 50
R9 ohm,50ohm

3 Ground 1 GND_EARTH -----

THEORY:
Reciprocity Theorem states that – In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a single
source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which the source
was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current was originally
obtained. This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists of bilateral components.

we can state the reciprocity theorem as when the places of voltage and current source in any network
are interchanged the amount or magnitude of current and voltage flowing in the circuit remains the
same.

This theorem is used for solving many DC and AC network which have many applications in
electromagnetism electronics. These circuits do not have any time-varying element.

Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem

The location of the voltage source and the current source may be interchanged without a change in
current. However, the polarity of the voltage source should be identical with the direction of the branch
current in each position.

The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown below
 reciprocity-theorem-fig the various resistances R1, R2, R3 is connected in the circuit diagram above
with a voltage source (V) and a current source (I). It is clear from the figure above that the voltage
source and current sources are interchanged for solving the network with the help of Reciprocity
Theorem.

The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single-source networks and not in the multi-
source network. The network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear and consist of
resistors, inductors, capacitors and coupled circuits. The circuit should not have any time-varying
elements.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.

Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis method.

Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.

Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.

Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and the
current which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to each other.
SIMULATION:

When source is connected at 1st side:

When source is connected at 2nd side:

Observation table: 1st side = primary side, 2nd side = secondary side

Voltage source = 100 V

S.NO. Position of voltage Current in other Current in other Error (%)
source side(simulated) (in mA) side(analytic) (in mA)

1 Primary side 46.76 46.76 0

2 Secondary side 46.76 46.76 0

Result: Hence, we have successfully verified the Reciprocity theorem using PSpice in which we are
getting 0% error. In this simulation we have verified that the current due to a single source of voltage
(V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which the source was originally placed
when the source is again put in the branch in which the current was originally obtained.

Discussion and comment:

Now doing simulation in PSpice we ensured that the current at one point in a circuit due to a voltage at
a second point is the same as the current at the second point due to the same voltage at the first. The
reciprocity theorem is valid for almost all passive networks.

• In this simulation we are getting 0% error because all the voltage sources are ideal and
Resistors are also ideal. And there is no effect of Environmental conditions, defective
instruments and using or reading and instrument incorrectly.
• Not applicable to the circuits consisting of any time varying element.
• Not applicable to the circuits consisting of the dependent source even it is linear.
• Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non-linear elements like diode, transistor, etc.
 EXPERIMENT:7
OBJECT: To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for independent source DC network using PSpice.
GIVEN BY-:

Moritz von Jacobi

COMPONENTS USED:

S.NO. Component No. of Notation Values

Component

1. Voltage source 1 V1 50V

3. Resistors 4 R1,R2,R3,R4 40ohm,60ohm,100ohm, variable

resistance (up to 500 ohm)

4. Ground 1 GND_EARTH ------

THEORY:
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that – A resistive load, being connected to a DC network,
receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance known as
(Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network as seen from the load terminals. The
Maximum Power Transfer theorem is used to find the load resistance for which there would be the
maximum amount of power transfer from the source to the load.

The maximum power transfer theorem is applied to both the DC and AC circuit. The only difference is
that in the AC circuit the resistance is substituted by the impedance.
The maximum power transfer theorem finds their applications in communication systems which receive
low strength signal. It is also used in speaker for transferring the maximum power from an amplifier to
the speaker.

Explanation of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

A variable resistance RL is connected to a DC source network as shown in the circuit diagram in figure A
below and the figure B represents the Thevenin’s voltage VTH and Thevenin’s resistance RTH of the
source network.

The aim of the Maximum Power Transfer theorem is to determine the value of load resistance RL, such
that it receives maximum power from the DC source.

Considering figure B the value of current will be calculated by the equation shown below

𝑉2𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑉2

𝑃=
(𝑅 + 𝑅 )2 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ

power transfer from a DC source network to a resistive network is maximum when the internal
resistance of the DC source network is equal to the load resistance.

SO,
Steps for Solving Network Using Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Following steps are used to solve the problem by Maximum Power Transfer theorem Step 1 –
Remove the load resistance of the circuit.

Step 2 – Find the Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) of the source network looking through the open-circuited
load terminals.

Step 3 – As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this RTH is the load resistance of the network,
i.e., RL = RTH that allows maximum power transfer.

Step 4 – Maximum Power Transfer is calculated by the equation shown below

Simulation:

Observation table: Rth = 88.5714, Rth=89 (approx.)

S.NO. Different values of variable Maximum power Maximum power Error (%)
resistance R (in ohm) (simulated) (calculated)

1 80.142 3.5913 3.5913 0

2 85.106 3.5998 3.5998 0

3 87.234 3.6000 3.6000 0

4 89 3.6002 3.6002 0

5 90.0741 3.6000 3.6000 0

6 92.199 3.5988 3.5988 0

Result: Hence, we have successfully verified the Maximum power transfer theorem using PSpice in which we
are getting 0% error. In this simulation we have verified that the maximum amount of power transfer from the
source to the load, when load is equal to Thevenin resistance of the circuit.
Discussion and comment:
• In this simulation we are getting 0% error because all the voltage sources are ideal and
Resistors are also ideal. And there is no effect of Environmental conditions, defective
instruments and using or reading and instrument incorrectly.
• The main drawback of the maximum power transfer theorem is, it is not used in the networks
like nonlinear as well as unilateral.
• The limitation of the maximum power transfer theorem is it not applicable in power systems,
due to its 50% efficiency. So the main concern of this is efficiency.

EXPERIMENT:8
OBJECT: To study and perform the Frequency response analysis of a series RLC Circuit using PSpice.

COMPONENTS USED:

S.No. Component Notation Values

1. AC Voltage source Vamp=200*1.414 f=50Hz

(VAC) V1
 2. Resistor R1 100 ohms

3. Inductor L1 4mH

4. Capacitor C1 1uF

Theory:
A series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the inductor
becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The point
at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit, and as we are analyzing
a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a Series Resonance.

Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic circuits.
They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also in radio and
television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of the different
frequency channels. Consider the simple series RLC circuit below:

Series RLC Circuit:

OBERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. Parameter Analytic value Simulate value Error (%)

1 Resonance frequency 629.434 HZ 628.571 HZ 0.137

RESULT:
Hence, I have successfully performed the Frequency response analysis of a series RLC Circuit using
PSpice and calculated resonance frequency both practically (628.571Hz) and analytically (629.434Hz).

DISCUSSION AND COMMENTS:

• Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored energy is passed from the inductor
to the capacitor.
• Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero.
• At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance value as Z = R.
• At low frequencies the series circuit is capacitive as: XC > XL, this gives the circuit a leading
power factor.

• At high frequencies the series circuit is inductive as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit a lagging
power factor.
• The high value of current at resonance produces very high values of voltage across the
inductor and capacitor.
• Series resonance circuits are useful for constructing highly frequency selective filters.
However, its high current and very high component voltage values can cause damage to the
circuit.
 • The most prominent feature of the frequency response of a resonant circuit is a sharp
resonant peak in its amplitude characteristics.
• Because impedance is minimum and current is maximum, series resonance circuits are also
called Acceptor Circuits.

EXPERIMENT:9
OBJECT: To study and design the following rectifier circuits in PSpice: -
• Half wave and Full wave rectifier circuit
• Bridge rectifier circuit.

COMPONENTS USED:

S.NO. Name of Component Notation No. Of Component Values

1. Diodes D1N4002 D1,D2,D3,D4 4 ---------------

2. Sinusoidal Voltage V1,V2 2 Vrms=15V,10.6V

source

3. Resistor R1 1 2K ohms

4. Ground GND_EARTH 1 -------------

Theory:
In a single-phase rectifier, the input of the rectifier is one phase AC power. There are two major AC-DC
rectifier types: half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier

Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier:

This half-wave rectifier can have the simplest structure among all the AC-DC converters. As shown in
Figure. only one diode D is needed in the half-wave rectifier. This diode limits the current flow in one
direction. This means that only half of the AC waveform can pass through the diode, as shown in Figure.
Simulation:

Output:
Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier:
Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current which is
purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages
over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave,
the output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a
smoother output waveform.

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. A multiple
winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a common
center tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its
anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center point C producing an output during
both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown below.
Simulation:

Output:

Single-Phase Full-Wave bridge Rectifier:

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above,
is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single-phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying
diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.

The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier:

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load.

Simulation:
Output:

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more smooth DC
output voltage.
Simulation:

Output:

Result:
We have successfully studied the Rectifier circuits of both types full wave Rectifier and half wave
rectifier. We can see that full wave rectifier rectifies the sinusoidal wave completely, hence it is more
reliable.

Discussion and comments:

We have some advantage of using bridge rectifier over Centre tapped rectifier:

• The center tap transformer is eliminated.

 • The output is double that of the center-tapped full-wave rectifier for the same secondary
voltage.
• The peak inverse voltage across each diode is one-half of the center tap circuit of the diode.

We have also some disadvantages of using bridge rectifier:

• It needs four diodes.

• The circuit is not suitable when a small voltage is required to be rectified. It is because, in this
case, the two diodes are connected in series and offer double voltage drop due to their
internal resistance

EXPERIMENT:10

OBJECT: To study and perform the transient response of a series RLC Circuit and find time response
performance index parameters.

COMPONENT USED:

S.NO. Component Notation Values

1. Vpulse ---------------- V1=0v, V2=10V

TD=2ms, TD=5ns

2. Resistor R1 1K ohms

3. Inductor L1 3H

4. Capacitor C1 1uF

Theory:
In electrical engineering and mechanical engineering, a transient response is the response of a system
to a change from an equilibrium or a steady state. The transient response is not necessarily tied to
abrupt events but to any event that affects the equilibrium of the system.

Series RLC Circuit:

A RLC circuit as the name implies will consist of a Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor connected in series
or parallel. The circuit forms an Oscillator circuit which is very commonly used in Radio receivers and
televisions. It is also very commonly used as damper circuits in analog applications.
Transfer function for series RLC circuit :

1/𝐿𝐶
H(s)=𝑆2+𝑅𝑆+ 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

Delay Time: It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero
instant. It is denoted by td.
1+0.7𝛿
𝑡𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛

Rise Time: It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the overdamped systems, consider the duration from
10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by tr.
𝜋−𝜃
𝑡𝑟 = 𝜔𝑑 here 𝜔𝑑 = damped frequency

Peak Time: It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is
denoted by tp. At t= tp., the first derivate of the response is zero.
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = 𝜔𝑑

Peak Overshoot: Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the
final value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Settling time: It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the
specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by ts. The settling time for 5% tolerance band is – ts=3/δωn=3τ

The settling time for 2% tolerance band is –

ts=4/δωn=4τ Simulation:

Output:

Response for the second order underdamped system:

• Peak time=7.89ms peak overshoot 14.183 volts

• Rise time= 5.55ms

• Delay Time:4.0685ms • Settling time-27.64ms

• Observation Table:

Analytical Simulate value Error (%)

S.NO. parameters
value

1. Peak time 7.80ms 7.89ms 1.15

2. Delay time 4.0312ms 4.0685ms 0.92

3. Rise time 5.80ms 5.55ms 4.31

4. Settling time 27.02ms 27.64ms 2.29

5. Peak Overshoot 4.171 V 4.183 V 0.28

Result:
I have successfully performed the transient Response of Series RLC circuit and calculated parameter
both practically and analytically for the response of underdamped series RLC circuit.

Discussion and Comments:

From the above experiment we can conclude that:

• Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to the damping ratio
δ.
• Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are independent of the system gain. That
means even the system gain changes, the settling time ts and time constant τ will never change.