Chapter 2

The Vikings (c. 790–c. 1066 ce)

HISTORY SKILLS
In this chapter you will learn to apply
the following historical skills:
• sequence historical events,
developments and periods
• use historical terms and concepts

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• identify a range of questions about
the past to inform a historical inquiry
• identify and locate relevant sources,
using ICT and other methods
• identify the origin and purpose of
primary and secondary sources

PL • locate, compare, select and use

information from a range of sources
as evidence
• draw conclusions about the
usefulness of sources
• identify and describe points of view,
attitudes and values in primary and
secondary sources
• develop texts, particularly
descriptions and explanations
that use evidence from a range of
sources that are acknowledged
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• use a range of communication forms
(oral, graphic, written) and digital
technologies.
© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and
Reporting Authority 2012
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A dragon ship aflame, part of a Viking commemoration held every year in Lerwick,
Shetland Islands, Scotland

Inquiry questions
1 Who were the Vikings and how did they live?
2 What technologies were developed by the Vikings?
3 What was the role of religion in Viking society?
2 What trade links did the Vikings develop?
5 What was the impact of the Vikings on their conquered peoples?
6 What can we learn about the Vikings by looking at the life of a significant individual?
 Introduction
Sometimes red and dramatically visible, at other times grey and hard to spot, the long
slow process of religious and cultural change runs like a thread through the Viking Age.
Robert Ferguson, The Vikings: A History, 2009

IN THIS CHAPTER we will be exploring archaeological, written and artistic evidence about the
Vikings to learn about their society. Much of the written evidence we have about the Vikings was
written by other peoples, including Arabic travellers, Christian monks and Byzantine historians.

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We must think about it critically and not take it at face value.
The Vikings’ own histories, known as sagas, tell of great deeds, adventures and heroic
bravery, but these were not actually written down by the Vikings. Instead, they were recorded
by Christian monks in the 12th and 13th centuries, long after the end of the Viking Age.
Nevertheless, these sources present a lively and interesting picture, and give us at least some
indication of what it was like to live in the Viking Age. Archaeological digs at Viking sites are

amulet
caulked
causeway
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another valuable source, presenting us with new information every day.

KEY TERMS
a charm worn to ward off evil
made watertight
an elevated road over a body of water or a
piece of land; some causeways are revealed only at low tide
See OneStopDigital for a
drag-and-drop exercise
using the key terms.
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dinars, dirhems Arab coins
drying and salting drying meat or fish in the fresh air and then covering it in salt to stop it from rotting
fjord a long, narrow inlet of the sea between high cliffs, usually formed by glaciers
Greek fire a weapon that shot a stream of fire at enemies
heathen another word for pagan
ides of January 13 January
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lawspeaker a judge
longship a long, narrow Viking warship
mild steel steel that is made from iron and carbon; ‘mild steel’ refers to steel that has been
made with a low amount of carbon, making it easier to shape
Northumbrians people of the kingdom of Northumbria in northern England
Old Norse the language of Medieval Scandinavian countries, used until the middle of the
14th century
pitch a thick, dark, sticky tar made from charcoal or tree resin, used for waterproofing
propaganda information that aims to influence the beliefs of the wider community
rapine plunder
smoking a method of preserving meat or fish by exposing it to the smoke from burning wood
tanned/tanning treating animal skins with tannin to make leather
valkyries female spirits

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 37

Viking lands before 838 ce

NORWEGIAN SEA

ARCTI
C CIRCLE
LAPLAND N

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NORTH SEA
NORWAY
Trondheim

Urnes
SWEDEN
Borgund FINLAND

DENMARK

Ribe
Oseberg
Gokstad
Kaupang

Hedeby

FRIESLAND
Tune
Skara

JUTLAND
Jelling
Roskilde
Trelleborg
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Uppsala

Birka

Gotland

Oland

BALTIC SEA
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Timeline of key dates
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862 ce 1066 ce
793 ce Vikings settle in Kiev; Edward the Confessor dies
Vikings raid begin trading with without an heir; Duke Harold
the Lindisfarne Constantinople and Godwinson crowned King
monastery in Baghdad of England; Duke William of
England Normandy invades England,
838 ce 874 ce defeats Harold Godwinson at
Vikings establish their Vikings settle Iceland the Battle of Hastings; William
first external base, in crowned King of England
Ireland; this base would 866 ce 983–86 ce
eventually become the Danish ‘Great Army’ Eric the Red explores
city of Dublin lands in England and colonises Greenland

700 CE 1100 CE

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38 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Think, 1 Draw a three-column table in your workbook.

puzzle, 2 Title the first column ‘Think’. In this column write down anything

explore 3
you know about the Vikings.
Title the second column ‘Puzzle’. In this column write down the
questions you have about the Vikings.
4 Title the third column ‘Explore’. In this column write down how
you can find answers to the questions in the ‘Puzzle’ column.

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What topics would you like to explore?
5 Discuss the answers as a class.

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Welcome, traveller! You have
chosen to take part in the
in-depth Revista Tour of
‘The Vikings’. I’m Ismet, and
I’ll be your tour guide.
Enjoy your trip.

The Vikings emerge

routes to Persia (modern-day Iran) and China.
They had sailed over almost half the known
world in their longships, travelling further north
and west than Europeans had ever been. They
founded new colonies in Ireland, Britain, France,
Iceland, Greenland, Russia and even in North
America, and established cities such as Dublin,
Novgorod and Kiev. They also practised one of
the earliest forms of democracy, through their
institution known as ‘The Thing’.
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Towards the end of the 8th century, bands of
fierce Viking warriors emerged from the icy
waters of the north and began raiding the coast
of Britain. A few decades later, they were also
raiding the coastal towns of France, Spain and
Italy, instilling terror and dread in the hearts
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of the local people. They continued their

campaign of looting and pillaging for the next
300 years. The horror of those times and the
long period of continued Viking raids created
a widespread belief that remains with us today:
that the Vikings were nothing more than cruel,
plundering barbarians.
There is, however, another story behind the
barbaric legend. Archaeologists and historians
have learned that the Vikings were also great
explorers, settlers and traders. They founded
cities, were employed as prized warriors and had
a highly developed society. By the beginning
of the 11th century, the Vikings had come to SOURCE 2.1
Carved wooden
dominate much of northern Europe. They had
Viking head
ventured deep into Russia, opening up trade

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 39

Daring and innovative, adventurous and 2 Go to OneStopDigital to visit the

skilled, the Vikings provide us with a fascinating University of Nebraska-Lincoln’s
perspective on life in the Medieval Period. They Astronomy Education site. Navigate to
leave behind many ideas, stories, laws, words the Daylight Hours Explorer.
and concepts that still resonate with us today. a Drag your cursor to spin the globe and find
Australia. Adjust the latitude setting using the
slider at the top right of the page, until the
line of latitude on the globe rests on where
Spotlight you live in Australia. Adjust the day of the year
to 21 June, the shortest day of the year in the
There are several interpretations of the word
Southern Hemisphere. Record the daylight

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‘Viking’. It may come from the Old Norse
hours on this day of the year at the latitude
word vik, meaning ‘bay’: a person called a
where you live.
‘viking’ would be someone who kept their ship
in a bay. It may also come from the Old Norse b Now find Oslo, Norway on the globe. Many
word vikingr, which means ‘pirate’ or ‘raider’. Viking settlements were located close to
modern-day Oslo. Record the daylight hours

The Viking lands:

Scandinavia
PL
Scandinavia is a region of north-western Europe.
It consists of Denmark, Norway, Finland and
Sweden. In Scandinavia, winter is very long, dark
and cold. The summer is mild and relatively brief.
In the northern parts of Scandinavia, the land is
c

Farming
on 21 December, the shortest day of the year
for the Northern Hemisphere.
How many more daylight hours are there on
the shortest day of the year where you live,
compared with Scandinavia?

The Viking way of life

Most Viking families lived on farms. Everyone in

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mountainous and comprises dense forests. The the family was expected to help with the running
southern parts of Scandinavia are flatter and of the farm. The seasons dictated the rhythm
more fertile, and the climate is mild—ideal for of farm life. Crops would be tended during the
farming. Most people in medieval times lived on summer and then harvested in the autumn. Sheep,
the southern coastal areas or near lakes, rivers and goats and cattle were taken to the rich mountain
narrow inlets (known as fjords), where the soil pastures in summer, where they grazed. At the
was fertile. end of autumn, the animals would be returned
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to the farm. The stronger, younger animals were

ACTIVITY kept inside the Vikings’ houses during the long
Check your understanding winter, while the weaker ones were slaughtered for
their meat. Since the Vikings had no refrigeration,
1 Which modern-day nations make up
meat had to be preserved to stop it from rotting.
Scandinavia?
The meat was preserved by drying and salting or
2 What is the difference between the northern
smoking. The skins from slaughtered cattle and
parts of Scandinavia and the southern parts of
sheep were tanned into leather for clothing and
Scandinavia?
other household goods.
3 Why did most of the people in Scandinavia live
When winter came, a thick layer of snow
in the south?
covered the ground. It was impossible to grow
Apply your knowledge crops or graze animals, so many farmers went
1 Download a blank world map from the internet. hunting for deer, wild boars, elks, bears, foxes,
Use coloured pencils or textas (or your computer) seals, walruses and whales. The meat of the
to colour Australia green and Scandinavia red. hunted animals was brought home to feed the
farmers’ families, while furs and skins were used

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40 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Animals graze in mountain

Longhouse, where
country during summer;
Animals kept cooking and weaving
other livestock graze in
at one end of is done
pens in spring–autumn
the longhouse
during winter

Fields ploughed in spring

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Blacksmith’s workshop,
where farm tools
are made

Vegetable garden, sown

Fish drying rack,

to preserve fish
for winter months

SOURCE 2.2 A Viking farm

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to make clothing and shoes. Whale bone and
walrus ivory (from walrus tusks) were made into
household goods and decorative items.
during spring and
harvested in autumn

brought food, cloth, walrus ivory, furs, honey

and pottery from outlying Viking farming
communities to sell in the towns. Foreign
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Viking women worked particularly hard on merchants brought silk, cloth, jewels, glass, wine,
farms. They milked cows and sheep, tended to pottery, spices and weapons from Arabia, China,
chickens, sowed crops in the spring and managed India and Europe to sell in Viking towns. Slaves
the vegetable gardens and fields. In the autumn, captured on Viking raids were also available for
at the end of the growing season, the women sale. The most famous Viking towns were those
would be expected to help bring in the harvest. of Hedeby in Denmark and Birka in Sweden.
When her husband was away hunting or raiding, York in England and Dublin in Ireland were
also well-known Viking towns.
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the wife was in charge of the farm or the family

business and would take up a sword to defend
her home if necessary. ACTIVITY

Source questions
View the virtual tour of a Viking age farm 1 Using source 2.2 and the text on this page, copy
at OneStopDigital. This farm consisted
and complete the table on page 41 to show
of three structures: a main building, a
blacksmith’s workshop and a storehouse. which jobs were done in each season (or all year)
on a Viking farm.
List of jobs:
tend crops sow crops
Viking towns and trade •
• move animals to
•
• graze animals
While most Vikings lived in small farming mountain pastures in pens
communities, others, such as merchants and • cooking • weave cloth
artisans/craftspeople, lived in towns. Artisans • harvest crops • dry fish
made all sorts of goods, including shoes, pottery, • move animals • make tools
jewellery, weapons and leather. Viking merchants inside house

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 41

Season Jobs Viking society

Spring The social hierarchy
Summer Like many medieval societies, Viking society was
organised into a strict social hierarchy.
Autumn
In the early Viking Period, kings ruled small
Winter kingdoms. They were expected to perform
All year religious rituals and protect their people against
invaders. During the Viking Age, kings began
2 Which season do you think would be the hardest attacking neighbouring kingdoms in an attempt

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to live through in Viking lands? Give reasons for to enlarge their own kingdoms and become
your answer. more powerful.
3 What sorts of people lived in Viking towns? Jarls, or chieftains, held large areas of land.
4 Identify five products that Vikings sold in the towns. They were wealthy and powerful and owned
5 Identify five products that Vikings could buy many slaves. They were expected to provide
warriors to fight for the king.

2
from foreign merchants.

Apply your knowledge

PL
With a small group of classmates, construct
your own model of a Viking farm in one of the
four seasons, either using craft materials to
physically construct the model, or constructing
it electronically using a software tool such as
Google SketchUp.
Ismet, your Revista Tour Guide, has
taken you to a Viking farm in 780 ce,
where you interview a Viking woman
Most Vikings were karls, or free men and
women. Karls owned their own land and ran
their own farms, with the help of one or two slaves.
Some karls worked as artisans or merchants. Karls
were expected to join jarls in raids or battles.
Thralls were at the lowest level of Viking
society—they were slaves. They had no rights and
were legally owned by other people, bought and
sold at slave markets like cattle or other goods.
A thrall’s master had control over his or her life.
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about her work. Write up the interview
in your travel blog.
3 Go to OneStopDigital to see a
scale model of the Viking town
of Birka, Sweden. Write a
200-word report explaining
how designers were able to
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build the model so that it Kings

resembled the original
Medieval Viking town.

Jarls

Karls

Thralls

SOURCE 2.3 The Viking social hierarchy

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42 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Viking government: The Thing

‘The Thing’ was a Viking assembly of free men
who met regularly in the local province or
kingdom. At The Thing, disputes over property,
crime and family honour were resolved. All free
men were allowed to vote at The Thing, but free
men would usually vote the same way as their
jarl. A lawspeaker was elected from one of the
jarl families. The lawspeaker was responsible for
making sure the decisions made at The Thing

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were carried out. Even the king had to obey
decisions made at The Thing.
If a person had been accused of a crime, he or
she had to stand trial. If the accused was found
guilty, The Thing decided their punishment.

PL
SOURCE 2.4 The Swords in the Rock monument, erected
in 1983 to commemorate the Battle of Hafrsfjord (872 ce),
when King Harald Fairhair became the first king of all Norway
They could be fined, made a slave or be declared
an outlaw. Once outlawed, they were no longer
under the protection of the law and had to flee, as
it was legal for anyone to kill an outlawed person.
The Thing was also used to end violence
between families. Family honour was very
important in Viking society, and members of a
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SOURCE 2.5 A painting of Iceland’s Althing: The Althing in Session by William Gershom Collingwood, 1899 ce

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 43

Source questions
1 What does source 2.3 show us about kingship
during the Viking Age?
2 Source 2.7 is an extract of a lawspeaker in
The Thing. Complete the five Ws from page 10
for source 2.7.

Then Thorgnyr the lawspeaker said, ‘The character of

Swedish kings is different now from what it has been
formerly … King Olaf of Sweden wants to have Norway

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for himself, which no Swedish king before him ever
desired, and as a result brings war and distress on
many a man. Now it is our will that you, King Olaf,
make peace with the Norway king, Olaf the Thick, and
marry your daughter Ingegerd to him … if you will not
do as we desire, we will now attack you, and put you to

PL
SOURCE 2.6 Thorngyr the Lawspeaker, as shown in the
1899 edition of The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway

family were duty-bound to avenge the injury or

death of their relatives. Simply insulting another
death; for we will no longer suffer law and peace to be
disturbed … Now tell us, in all haste, what you will do.’
Then the whole public approved, with clash of arms
and shouts, the lawman’s speech.

SOURCE 2.7 Extract from The Chronicle of the Kings of

Norway, by Snorri Sturlison, c. 1230 ce

3 What does source 2.7 reveal about the place of

women in Viking society?
Source 2.7 was written around 1230 ce by the
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person might result in an act of revenge from 4
Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturlison.
their family. Family feuds could go on for several
Sturlison claimed that he found out about this
years; some continued for generations.
story from older sagas and Norwegian poems
Meetings of The Thing were held in special
that had been passed down through the
locations across the Viking world. Each generations. Do you think this story is a reliable
region had its own name for The Thing and account of the events? Why or why not?
the location in which it was held: ‘Althing’
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(Iceland),‘Thynghowe’ (England), ‘Tingwall’ Apply your knowledge

(Scotland),’ Thingmote’ (Ireland) and ‘Tingvalla’ 1 Find out what the word ‘enthral’ means. How is
(Sweden). it similar to the Viking word ‘thrall’?
2 To which Viking class would you most and
ACTIVITY least prefer to belong? Explain your answer in
a paragraph.
Check your understanding
3 Go to OneStopDigital to find out about the
1 What were the four social classes in Viking
Viking Thing in Sherwood Forest. Write a
society?
200-word report detailing how historians
2 Draw a mind map for each of ‘Kings’, ‘Jarls’, found the site and the significance of the
‘Karls’ and ‘Thralls’. Detail the roles and site’s name, Thynghowe.
responsibilities of each social class on the
4 Ismet has taken you to a meeting of
mind maps.
Iceland’s Althing in 1000 CE. Write an entry
3 Name three punishments that could be given in your travel blog about what you saw
to a person found guilty of a crime. and heard at the meeting. Make sure you
4 What happened to a person who was include information about where it was, what was
outlawed? discussed, and the outcome of discussions.

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44 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Norse religion Odin sent out the ravens every day to fly around
the world and come back to tell him what they
The Norse gods and goddesses had seen. Odin was associated with wisdom, war,
The Vikings worshipped a number of different death, poetry, magic and hunting. Wednesday (or
gods and goddesses, whom they believed affected ‘Woden’s day’) was named after Odin.
every aspect of life. Odin’s wife was the goddess Frigg. She had the
The king of the gods was Odin (or Woden). power of prophecy, but rarely told what she had
Odin had one eye—he had sacrificed the foreseen. Frigg was a goddess associated with love
other eye in order to gain knowledge and and married women. Women called on her to
understanding. He rode a grey, eight-legged assist them in giving birth. Frigg is often depicted

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horse named Sleipnir, which could fly. Perched spinning cloth, which was a common task for
on Odin’s shoulders were two ravens, called Viking women. Her name lives on in our word
‘Huginn’ (‘thought’) and ‘Munnin’ (‘memory’). ‘Friday’ (Frigg’s day).

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SOURCE 2.9 Painting depicting Frigg (or Frigga),

Queen of the Gods, spinning yarn

Another popular Viking god was Thor. Thor

was the god of thunder, lightning, oak trees,
destruction, fertility and protection. He rode on
a chariot drawn by two enormous goats and he
carried a huge magic hammer, named Mjollnir.
According to legend, Thor will slay the serpent
Jormungand during the battle at the end of the
world (known as Ragnarok), but will die from the
serpent’s poison. Followers of Thor carried small
hammer amulets on a string or chain around their
neck, to invoke Thor’s protection. Thor’s name
SOURCE 2.8 Painting depicting Odin, King of the Gods lives on in our word ‘Thursday’ (Thor’s day).

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 45

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SOURCE 2.10 Pen and ink drawing of Thor, attempting
to slay the serpent Jormungand, from an 18th century
manuscript
SOURCE 2.11 People who could not afford to be
buried in a ship sometimes outlined their graves with stones
to form the shape of a boat. This burial site at Lindholm Hoje,
Denmark, is the largest Viking burial site in Scandinavia.
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Little is known about how the Vikings
themselves felt about their gods. Most of what
we do know about Viking religious practice is
based on the observations of others, such as
Christian missionaries and Arab merchants
(see sources 2.13 and 2.28).
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Viking burials
The Vikings were strong believers in life after
death. They buried their dead with grave goods,
trusting that the dead would need these items in
the afterlife. The wealth of a Viking determined
the types of grave goods that might be buried
with him or her after death.
A thrall’s body was placed in a simple wooden
box along with some personal items, such as a
comb or sewing tools. Karls’ bodies were placed SOURCE 2.12 A large burial ship was excavated in 1904
in large graves that were lined with wood. Their at the Oseberg farm, Norway. It is now on display at the
tools (such as axes, ploughs, weighing scales, Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway.

hammers, nails, needles, thread and cooking pots)

were buried with them, along with silver coins.
Dogs and horses were sometimes sacrificed and
buried with their karl master.

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46 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Jarl chieftains and royalty had the most 5 How did the kings encourage their subjects to
spectacular burials. Their bodies and grave goods convert to Christianity?
were placed in a longship, as if to transport them
Source questions
to the next world. The longship was then buried
1 Complete the five Ws from page 10 for
or burned. Grave goods for kings or wealthy jarls
source 2.13.
might include jewellery, chests of silver coins,
furniture, sleighs, carts, tools, sacrificed horses,
fine clothing, ornaments and other precious It is customary in Uppsala [in Sweden], to hold
objects. Slaves were often required to die with a general feast … every nine years. All must attend
their masters so that they could accompany them this festival. Kings and people all send their

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offerings to Uppsala … What is more distressing is
to the next world.
that those who have already adopted Christianity
reconvert back to [their non-Christian] religion
The arrival of Christianity through these ceremonies. The sacrifice is of this
During the 900s ce, Christian missionaries from nature: of every living thing that is male, they offer
Rome, Constantinople and other Christian nine heads to the gods … The bodies they hang in
the sacred grove that adjoins the temple. Now this

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cities in Europe began to travel into Northern
and Eastern Europe with the aim of converting
people to Christianity. Some Vikings had already
converted to Christianity before this time. Viking
traders had come into contact with Christians
on their travels, as had Vikings who settled in
Christian lands such as England, France and
Ireland. The conversions to Christianity in
Scandinavia, however, were largely promoted by
the Scandinavian kings.
In 965 ce, Harald Blue-Tooth, King of Denmark,
grove is so sacred in the eyes of the heathen that
each and every tree in it is believed divine because
of the death of the victims …

SOURCE 2.13 This passage was written by Adam

of Bremen, a Christian monk. Adam of Bremen was a
strong supporter of converting the Vikings to Christianity
and wanted to inspire Christian missionaries to go to
Scandinavia. He had been to Scandinavia in the late 1060s
as a guest of King Sweyn II of Denmark, and wrote this text
soon after:
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converted to Christianity and declared that his
entire kingdom was to be Christian. In Norway, 2 How does the author of source 2.13 feel about
King Olaf Tryggvason used threats and violence the Viking religion? Quote evidence from the text
to make the Norwegians convert to Christianity, to support your answer.
forcing them to accept baptism at spear-point. 3 a When did Adam of Bremen write about Norse
He also threatened to kill any Icelander visiting religion in Denmark?
Norway who was not a Christian. b What year did Denmark officially convert to
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King Olof Skotkonung of Sweden converted Christianity?

to Christianity in 1008 ce. He ordered his men to c What does this suggest about the king of
cut down the sacred groves and take down the Denmark’s efforts to convert the Danes to
statues of Norse gods, in an effort to stamp out Christianity?
the old religion.
Apply your knowledge
ACTIVITY 1 This Viking riddle appears in the Hervarar Saga.
Can you solve the riddle?
Check your understanding ‘Who are the two that on ten feet run?
1 How did Huginn and Munnin serve Odin? Three eyes they have, but only one tail.’
2 Why did women worship Frigg? (Answer at the bottom of page 63.)
3 Why did the Vikings bury their dead with grave 2 Ismet takes you to a Viking funeral for a
goods? karl farmer in Lindholme Hoje, Denmark,
4 Why were Vikings buried in ships (or in the stone in 970 CE. Draw the burial site in your
outlines of ships)? travel blog, showing the grave goods
you saw and the burial layout.

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 47

Significant developments Raids and wars were violent, bloody affairs.

Approximately 50 per cent of Viking men died
and cultural achievements of before they reached the age of 30, mainly due
to injuries received during raids and wars. For
the Vikings most Vikings, the benefit of going to war was the
chance to loot villages and become wealthier.
Viking warriors
Shield-maidens
Viking men believed that to be a warrior was
a noble duty and that to die in battle was the
greatest glory. It was thought that those who

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died in battle would be claimed by the valkyries,
who would take the warriors’ souls to Valholl
(also known as Valhalla). Once in Valholl, the
warriors’ souls would spend their nights feasting
and drinking and their days practising fighting

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in preparation for Ragnarok, the Final Battle at
the End of the World.
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SOURCE 2.15 Illustration of Lathgertha, a Danish Viking

shield-maiden, 1913 ce

Shield-maidens were Viking women who had

chosen to fight as warriors. It would seem
that not many women made this choice, but
shield-maidens do feature in some of the sagas,
including the Hervarar Saga and the Gesta
Danorum (Deeds of the Danes). There is also at
least one historical account of women fighting
as warriors: that of the Byzantine historian
SOURCE 2.14 A picture stone from the 9th century, John Skylitzes, who recorded that Viking women
showing Viking warriors in the top panel and a Viking ship fought in a battle in 971 ce.
at the bottom

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48 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Viking weapons and armour The Vikings valued their weapons so much
that they gave names to them. Swords were called
All free Viking men were expected to carry
names such as Fótbítr (‘foot-biter’), Leggbítr
weapons, but weapons were expensive items. Iron
(leg-biter) and Sætarspillir (‘peace-breaker’).
weapons were difficult and time-consuming to
Body armour was also worn by the Vikings.
make—especially swords, which had to be made
Wealthy jarls wore chain-mail shirts, or byrnies,
by highly skilled swordsmiths. Most Vikings were
while most other men relied on padded leather
armed with a large, round, wooden shield and an
jackets. Jarls also wore metal helmets with
axe or spear.
a long nose band to help protect their faces.
Spears were made of a long wooden shaft of
These helmets did not have horns—which

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two or three metres capped with an iron blade.
would have been very impractical to wear
Skilled Viking warriors were known to be able
in a battle! The idea that all Viking warriors
to throw spears many metres and also to catch
wore helmets and that the helmets featured
spears aimed at them by the enemy. Axes, another
horns is an invention of the 19th century, when
favourite weapon, had thick, rounded blades. Axes
Swedish patriots were trying to romanticise
were usually lighter than swords and could break
Scandinavia’s past.

PL
through chain mail armour and metal helmets.
Swords were the most prized weapon. Only
jarls and wealthy karls had swords. The swords
had double-edged blades of almost a metre in
length. Early Viking swords were made of pieces
of iron and mild steel, welded together to form
a long bar. The bar was then stretched out to
the required length by much hammering, and
then it was twisted. Finally, the bar was shaped
into the finished blade. These swords were not
very strong, but were nonetheless effective in
SOURCE 2.17 A photograph of a man dressed as
a Viking warrior at a modern-day Viking festival in
Reykjavik, Iceland, c. 2007 ce
M
Viking battles.

Go to OneStopDigital to see how Viking

swords and other weapons were made.
SA

SOURCE 2.16 The weapons of wealthy Vikings were

ornately decorated, with twisted wire and copper or silver
decorations on the sword hilts. These weapons were
found in Sweden.

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 49

3 Visit the OneStopDigital site to

Spotlight research the story of the shield-
maiden Hervor, in the Hervarar Saga.
Berserkers were the Vikings’ ‘shock troops’. Create a cartoon strip, graphic novel
They wore bearskins and covered their shields or story board to tell her story. Start at
and swords with blood. chapter 5, ‘Hervor Got the Sword Tyrfing’.
Then, after working
themselves into a frenzy Viking ships
and biting hard on their
shields, they charged The Vikings were widely recognised as the most
into battle, terrifying the skilled shipbuilders of their day. Ships were vital

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enemy. The English word to the Viking way of life. Fishing boats and canoes
‘berserk’ comes from sailed in the waters around farmsteads and towns.
the Old Norse berserkr, Merchants used wide, deep ships called knarrs,
meaning ‘bear-skin while Viking warriors travelled in the famed
wearer’. Viking longships to raid foreign lands.

SOURCE 2.18 Berserker

chess piece made of
walrus ivory, found at
Lewis, Scotland

ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

PL Ship technology
From about 700 ce, the Vikings began to develop
a new, innovative long ship design. Instead
of building a ship’s hull on a framework, the
Vikings built their ships’ hulls onto a keel.
The keel is the ‘backbone’ of a ship, running
lengthwise along the bottom of the ship. The
Vikings chose a long straight tree trunk from
which to form a T-shaped keel. All other parts
of the ship were built onto the keel.
M
The Vikings split oak tree trunks into long
1 How did Vikings feel about being warriors? planks (or strakes), about 1.5 centimetres thick.
2 What did Vikings believe would happen to Instead of saws, they used their axes to chip the
warriors when they died in battle? planks into exactly the shape they wanted. They
3 What was an advantage of using an axe in battle? painted the strakes with pitch to make them
waterproof, and nailed two strakes to either side
Source questions
of the keel using iron rivets. Next, they fastened
1 a From your reading of the text and your
SA

more strakes to the first two, one overlapping

observation, is the figure in source 2.17 likely
the next. When this stage was complete, the
to be dressed as a wealthy Viking or a poor
strake joints were caulked with wool or old
Viking? Use evidence in the text to support
your answer.
clothes. Then the Viking boat builders attached
floor timbers to the keel using wooden rivets
b What would you change about the Viking’s
called ‘treenails’. Last, they secured a large mast
outfit or accessories (shown in source 2.17)
to make his costume more historically
to the keel. The longship’s extended prow and
accurate? Explain your choice. stern (front and back) were often carved with a
dragon’s head and tail.
Apply your knowledge The construction of the ship on a keel, rather
1 Create a flow chart to explain how Viking swords than on a framework, meant that the Vikings
were constructed. could build their longships shallow and wide.
2 Most Viking women spent their days weaving Shallow, wide longships were better able than
cloth, cooking food, managing their farm deeper, shorter ships to take the force of waves
or caring for children. Explain why a Viking in the open sea and were also capable of sailing
woman might want to become a shield-maiden in shallow waters, right up to the shoreline.
(200 words).

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50 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

The keel construction also made the Viking A pole on the deck of the ship connected
ships very light and easy to carry overland if the to one of the lower corners of the sail. The
need arose. As such, the longship was to prove Vikings could steer their ship according to
extremely useful for raiding coastal and riverside the direction of the wind by moving the pole,
towns and villages. which would, in turn, shift the sail. The sail
Another important addition to Viking and the pole allowed the Vikings to sail close
ships at this time was the sail. Sails had been to the wind. If the winds were not blowing in
used on the boats of the Ancient Celts since their desired direction, the Vikings could lower
300 ce, but did not start to appear on Viking the sail and row their ship. The combination
ships until c. 700 ce. The sail was made from of sailing and rowing allowed the Vikings to

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wool and woven by women using a loom. Sails quickly come into shore, loot and plunder a
were square, and measured to approximately town, and then make a fast getaway.
90 square metres in size. When completed, the
sail was coated with animal fat to protect it from
the salty air and water.

thwart

caulking
oarlock

PL strakes

beam
gunwhale

knee
M
rib
treenail iron rivet

keel

SOURCE 2.19 Cross-section of a Viking ship

SA

Go to OneStopDigital to
visit Denmark’s Viking
Ship Museum. Choose
one of the Skuldelev
ships and find out what
it was made from, what
sort of ship it was, how
long and how wide it was,
who may have owned it
and the size of the crew.

SOURCE 2.20 Close-up of overlapping strakes, known as clinker construction

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 51

spar

prow decorated
with dragon head
sail

mast

ropes

E
sea chests

provisions mast block

stern

PL keel

steering oar

SOURCE 2.21 A diagram of a Viking ship

shields
oars
M
ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

1 Match each word with its meaning.
Strakes Body of the ship
Treenails Side planks
Keel Front of the ship
SA

Prow Backbone of the ship

Stern Wooden rivets
Hull Back of the ship
2 Name two important elements that were
incorporated into Viking ships after 700 ce.
3 Why was it important to caulk the strake joints?

Ship decoration
The Vikings were very superstitious, and
believed that the sea was inhabited by
dreadful monsters. They carved a dragon
head onto the prow of their ship in order SOURCE 2.22 Oseberg ship
to frighten off sea monsters. This also dragon head, made c. 800 ce,
made the ship look very fearsome excavated in 1904–05  ce
to others.

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52 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

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PL SOURCE 2.24 Dragon head as pictured in an
Anglo-Saxon manuscript, c. 900 ce

‘Observation’ means to describe what you see.

‘Analysis’ asks you to make a suggestion of the
purpose of each source.
M
2 Reliability is a measure of how much a historian
can trust a source. For example, an actual Viking
axe excavated from an archaeological site is a
more reliable source for a historian studying the
construction of Viking axes than a drawing of an
axe or a modern copy of a Viking axe, because
SOURCE 2.23 Replica dragon head made in Iceland, the historian can see the actual materials
SA

2004 ce and construction methods Vikings used.

Copy and complete the following table to
explain the reliability of the three sources (very
ACTIVITY reliable, mainly reliable, least reliable) for a
historian studying Viking ship dragon heads.
Source questions
1 Copy and complete the following Artefact
Analysis Table for sources 2.22–2.24. Source Source Source
2.22 2.23 2.24

Source Source Source Reliability

2.22 2.23 2.24
Reason
Observation

Analysis
3 Do you think that the source you regarded to
be least reliable is still useful? Explain.

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 53

Apply your knowledge of Novgorod. From Novgorod, Viking merchants

1 Identify two advantages that the Viking ships could sail down to the trade ports of Bulgar and
had over other ships. Itil, where they sold furs, falcons and beeswax.
2 Draw your own dragon head for a Viking ship. Beyond Itil lay the Caspian Sea, and across the
3 Your Revista Tour includes a voyage Caspian Sea was the trade route to Baghdad. At
across the ocean from Denmark to Baghdad, the Vikings could obtain Chinese silk
Scotland on a Viking ship in 870 ce. and Indian spices, among other exotic goods.
Write about your voyage in your travel The Vikings founded the town of Kiev on
blog. Remember to include the correct names the Dnieper River. The Dnieper River flowed
for the parts of the ship in your account. What into the Black Sea, and across the Black Sea was

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will you do when you reach your destination? Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine
Trade or raid? Empire and the most magnificent city in Europe.
4 Go to your OneStopDigital resources The Vikings called Constantinople ‘Miklagard’,
and access the Hands On Actitivity which means ‘the great city’. The Vikings made a
from BBC. Make a Viking longship, number of sea-raids on Constantinople, but were
design a longship figurehead and make ultimately defeated by the Byzantine navy, which
a Viking helmet.

Trade links
From the middle of the 8th century, the Vikings
PL
were sailing their ships across the Baltic Sea and
into the Volga River. The Vikings began to set up
trading towns along the Volga, including the town
blasted their ships with Greek fire. Finally, the
Vikings decided to stop raiding Constantinople
and set up trade contacts with the city. Many
luxury goods from Europe, Arabia, China and
India were traded at Constantinople.
In those days, the area we now call Russia
was populated by people known as the ‘Slavs’.
M
SW ED EN L a k e L a d oga The Vikings’ routes east

Bi rk a
Rivers
Novgorod Bulgar

E N
A

S
Vo l g a R i v

C
L TI
BA
Dni

er
ep
er

R
SA

iv
er
Ki ev
Itil
CA
SP
IA
N
SE
A

BLACK S EA

Constantinople

Baghdad

MED
ITERR
ANEAN SEA

SOURCE 2.25 The Vikings’ routes east

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54 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

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SOURCE 2.26 Byzantine ship using Greek fire

PL
The Vikings captured many of the Slavs and
sold them as slaves to Arab traders at Novgorod
and Kiev. The word ‘slave’ is derived from ‘Slav’,
because so many Slavs were sold into slavery
by conquering peoples, such as the Vikings.
The Slavs called the Vikings ‘the Rus’, and it is
from this that we get the modern name of the
country Russia.
1

3
ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

Why do you think the Vikings founded their trade
towns on rivers?
How did the Vikings reach Baghdad from
Sweden?
Why did the Vikings stop their raids on
Constantinople?

Source questions
M
Spotlight Use source 2.28 to answer these questions.

The Vikings were such formidable warriors that

they were employed by the Byzantine emperors When their ships come to this mooring place, [the
as their personal bodyguard force, known as the Rus] go ashore with bread, meat, onions, milk and
Varangian Guard. intoxicating drink and take themselves to a long
upright piece of wood that has a face like a man’s and is
surrounded by little figures … The Rus bows low before
SA

the big carving and says, ‘I have come from a faraway

land and have brought many goods to trade … I have
brought you these gifts … I wish that you would send
me a merchant with many dinars and dirhems, who
will buy from me whatever I wish and will not dispute
anything I say.’

SOURCE 2.28 Extract from Ibn Fadlan’s Risala, c. 921 ce.

Ibn Fadlan was a chronicler from Persia. He visited the King
of the Bulgars in central Russia in 921 ce and encountered
many Viking (Rus) merchants on his travels.

1 Complete the five Ws.

SOURCE 2.27 Medieval artist’s depiction of the Danish
Vikings invading England, from a mid-10th-century 2 What does Ibn Fadlan’s account reveal about
manuscript the Viking (Rus) religion in the 10th century?

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 55

3 What does the source indicate about the 2 Monasteries were poorly defended and were
merchants with whom the Rus were trading? located in isolated areas. The Vikings preferred
Give a reason for your answer. easy raiding campaigns, where they could
Apply your knowledge land, raid and depart quickly, with minimal
loss of their own lives.
1 Why was it worthwhile for the Vikings to trade
goods at Constantinople and Baghdad?
The raid on Lindisfarne
2 The remains of a peacock were found among
the grave goods of the royal burial ship found The raid on the Lindisfarne monastery in
at Gokstad farm in Norway. Peacocks are 793 ce is seen as the beginning of the Viking Age.
native to India. As a class, discuss how and why The Lindisfarne monastery lies off the north-east

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a peacock might have been buried in a royal coast of England, on a flat peninsula that can
burial ship in Norway during the 9th century. only be reached by a causeway at low tide.
At high tide, the peninsula becomes an island
Viking conquests (called the Holy Island) and is cut off from the
mainland by the sea. The coastline is dominated

PL
There is much disagreement among historians as
to why the Vikings began raiding. It is currently
believed that the Vikings were looking for silver
and that jarl chieftains may have wanted to find
wealth and new lands to challenge the growing
power of Scandinavian kings.
Viking raids increased throughout the late
8th and early 9th centuries. These raids were
carried out by small fleets of no more than
three ships during the summer months when
the seas were calm and the winds favourable.
by low sandbanks, which provided an easy
landing place for Viking longships in the
8th century.
M
Archaeological evidence suggests that Viking
ships of this early period carried between
25 and 70 people, so the raids would have been
conducted by anywhere between 25 warriors
(in the case of one small ship) and 200 warriors
(in the case of three large ships).
The fact that Vikings conducted their raids
SA

independently and in small groups made them

impossible to stop—no-one could predict when
or where they would strike next. They could reach
the coast unnoticed, conduct their looting quickly
and return to their ships before cities could rally
their troops or before people from others towns
arrived to help to fight off the invaders.
The main targets for Viking raids during the
late 8th and early 9th centuries were monasteries
that were situated on the coasts and river-ways
of England, Scotland, Ireland and France. There
were two main reasons for this:
1 Monasteries contained much wealth in the SOURCE 2.29 The first page from the gospel of
form of silver coins, jewellery and precious St Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels. The book is
objects made of metal—exactly the types of regarded as the finest example of the Anglo-Saxon religious
treasures favoured by the Vikings. art style of its day.

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56 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Go to OneStopDigital to
to play a Viking Quest
game to build a ship, loot
a monastery and claim
your prize.

E
SOURCE 2.30
The Lindisfarne Stone, depicting
the Viking raiders of 793 ce

In the raid on Lindisfarne the Vikings a Complete the five Ws.

PL
plundered the monastery of its silver. They
carried off the young boys who were studying to
become monks and sold them into slavery at the
Viking slave markets. The Vikings also removed
the bejewelled leather binding of the monastery’s
most precious book, a Bible known as the
Lindisfarne Gospels; fortunately, they left the rest
of the book behind.

ACTIVITY
1

2
b

c
What events described in the source probably
did not happen? Why has the author included
them in his report?
Give two reasons why the author calls the
Vikings ‘heathen’ men.

Apply your knowledge

What did the Vikings do to the Lindisfarne
Gospel? Why do you think they left the inside
pages behind?
Our main sources on the Vikings are accounts
M
Check your understanding of raids on monasteries, left by Christian monks.
1 Give two reasons why the Vikings targeted There are very few written accounts of other
monasteries. aspects of Viking life. How has this affected
historians’ views of the Vikings?
2 Why was Lindisfarne monastery an easy place
for the Vikings to reach? 3 Ismet takes you to Lindisfarne in
793 CE. Describe in your travel blog
3 Why was it so hard to stop the Viking raiders?
what you see and hear during the raid
SA

Source questions on the Lindisfarne monastery. Describe how

1 Analyse source 2.30 using the How to analyse an you manage to survive the attack and save a
image criteria on page 23. precious artefact.

2 Use source 2.31 to answer these questions. 4 Write a newspaper article for the Viking Herald
describing the Lindisfarne raid from the Vikings’
perspective.

793 ce: This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians,
terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing
through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These
tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth
day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men
made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island, by rapine and slaughter.

SOURCE 2.31 One of the main sources for the history of Medieval England is the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written by monks to record the events of each year

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 57

England under the Vikings ‘Hairy Breeches’). According to Ragnar’s Saga, King
Ælla had Ragnar thrown into a pit of poisonous
The Anglo-Saxons in England had suffered snakes, where he died, painfully.
numerous Viking raids during the late 8th and A swift and terrible revenge followed.
early 9th centuries. The surprise raids, conducted A huge Viking fleet left Denmark and headed
by no more than three Viking longships at a time, for England. The fleet was led by three sons of
had focussed on coastal monasteries and towns Ragnar Lodbrok who wanted to avenge their
during the spring and summer. By the 840s ce, father’s death: Halfdan, Ivar the Boneless and
however, the nature of Viking attacks began to Guthrum. They landed in Northumbria and the
change. More and more raids were conducted thousands of warriors, known as the Great Army,

E
than ever before by fleets of more than 300 ships. began looting and murdering the people. By 874 ce,
the Great Army had conquered the kingdoms of
The Great Army Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia. Only the
As the Viking raids intensified, the Anglo-Saxons king of Wessex, known as Alfred the Great, was
tried desperately to fight back. In 865 ce, King Ælla able to turn the Vikings back.
of Northumbria managed to capture the great
Viking leader Ragnar Lodbrok (also known as

Hebrides
Viking settlements
Viking raids with date
Viking Territory

150 km

100 mm
PL
Orkney Is
c. 800
Shetland Is
c.700

NORTH SEA
The Danelaw
King Alfred signed a treaty with the leaders
of the Great Army that gave a large portion of
England to the Danes. This area was known as
the Danelaw. The Danelaw was a prosperous and
flourishing kingdom, at least for a while. Indeed,
its wealth meant that it was subject to attack from
Viking raiders from other parts of Scandinavia!
M
N

Lindisfarne
793

NORTHUMBRIA
SA

Carlisle 794
Whithorn
Durham
Heversham
Isle of York
IRELAND Man
867
Dublin York
836 841

Nottingham Lincoln
c.800
MERCI A Elmham
Wexford Stamford DANELAW
Hereford Norwich
Worcester
Pembroke EAST
ANGLIA 834
855
London
WESSEX
WESSEX Canterbury
Exeter London
to Winchester
Normandy
840

SOURCE 2.32 Viking raids and settlements in Britain

and Ireland (700–867 ce) SOURCE 2.33 The Danelaw (886 ce)

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58 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

By 954 ce, however, the English had managed Second, he claimed that Edward had once
to drive out the Danelaw’s King Erik Bloodaxe, promised to give him the crown. Third, William
marking the end of the Danelaw. stated that Harold Godwinson had pledged
to support William’s claim, after William had
The Viking kings rescued him when he was shipwrecked in 1064 ce.
The end of the Danelaw, however, did not mean In return, Harold had sworn an oath of loyalty to
the last of the Vikings in England. In 1013 ce, William.William set sail from France to England.
King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark launched He set up his camp at Hastings.
another invasion of England and conquered the After defeating Hardrada, Harold Godwinson
entire country, becoming King of England. The marched his army south to Hastings to meet

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reign of King Sweyn was followed by that of his William. A terrible battle was fought, lasting the
son King Canute in 1016 ce, and then by Canute’s entire day. By sunset, Harold Godwinson was
sons Harald (1035–1040 ce) and Harthacanute dead and William had won. William was crowned
(1040–1042 ce). Harthacanute died without an King of England on Christmas Day 1066 ce.
heir, so an English prince, Edward the Confessor, The Bayeux Tapestry
was crowned king.

PL
In 1066 ce, Edward the Confessor died without
an heir and three men claimed the throne of
England: King Harald Hardrada of Norway;
Harold Godwinson, Earl of Essex; and William,
Duke of Normandy (in France). The Witan
decided to give the crown to Harold Godwinson.
In response, Harald Hardrada invaded England
with a fleet of 300 ships. King Harold Godwinson
took the English army north to meet Hardrada,
and Godwinson killed Hardrada in battle.
The Bayeux Tapestry is a long piece of embroidered
cloth, about 70 metres long and 0.5 metres wide. It
was made by English embroiderers on the orders
of the Normans. It shows the events leading up to
the Norman invasion of England in 1066 ce and the
subsequent Battle of Hastings from the Norman
point of view. As such, the Bayeux Tapestry is a
wonderful piece of Norman propaganda, designed
to settle William of Normandy’s claim to the
crown. It is also a useful source for learning about
M
life in the 11th century, showing details such as
Meanwhile, William, Duke of Normandy also
clothing, weapons, ships, tools and tableware.
prepared to invade and claim the English crown.
William had three main arguments as to why he
should be King of England.
First, he was related to Edward the Confessor’s
mother, Queen Emma.
SA

Go to OneStopDigital to watch a
video about the Bayeux Tapestry.

SOURCE 2.34 A statue of William, Duke of Normandy,

located in Falaise, Normandy, France

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 59

Archaeological discoveries of Vikings

in England
Archaeological excavations of Viking settlements
have unearthed a wealth of information about
Viking society. A number of fascinating items have
been found, including tools, musical instruments,
seeds, building materials, games, clothing and
even fossilised faeces. These discoveries have
enabled historians to understand how the Vikings

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built their houses, what resources the Vikings
SOURCE 2.35 In a scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, had, how their tools and household items were
Harold Godwinson swears an oath of loyalty to William made, what the climate was like at the time—and,
of Normandy by placing his hands on boxes containing of course, what they ate!
holy relics

Jorvik (York)

4
ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

Great Army invade England?

PL
Name two ways that Viking raids against England
changed after the 840s.
Why, according to Ragnar’s Saga, did the

What was the effect of the treaty between Alfred

and the Danes?
Draw a line graph showing the succession of
English kings from 1013 ce to 1066 ce.
The modern-day English city of York, originally
founded by the Romans in 71 ce, was captured
by the Vikings in 866 ce and became the
capital of the Danelaw. The Vikings knew it as
Jorvik. Under Viking rule, Jorvik functioned
as a major river port, and was part of the
extensive Viking trade network throughout
Northern Europe.
York’s Viking past remained lost to the ages
for many centuries. Occasionally people would
M
5 Why did Edward the Confessor inherit the crown find Viking artefacts by mistake, but it was not
from the Viking kings in 1042 ce? until 1972 that archaeologists began digging
6 Who was Harald Hardrada and what was his role small trenches in the town near Coppergate to
in the dispute over the English crown in 1066 ce? conduct a proper archaeological excavation. They
made many exciting discoveries. Before long, the
Source questions dig was extended to cover 1000 square metres,
Use source 2.35 to answer these questions. enabling the archaeologists to dig their way
SA

1 Analyse the source using the How to analyse an through 2000 years of York’s history. Over the
image criteria on page 23. next six years, the site produced more than
2 What do you think the word ‘sacramentum’ 40 000 historical objects.
might mean? While York’s history as a city stretches back
to Roman times, the most interesting finds have
Apply your knowledge
been those related to the Viking Age. Many of
1 Draw a scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, from these finds helped historians develop the Jorvik
King Harold Godwinson’s perspective.
Viking Centre in York. The museum contains
2 Ismet takes you to Hastings in 1066 ce. dioramas showing Viking people at home and
Describe the battle scene between at work, using the tools and objects found at the
Harold Godwinson and William
archaeological site.
of Normandy in your travel blog.
Remember to include details about the weapons
the soldiers used, the armour worn by some of Go to OneStopDigital to explore
the soldiers and the sounds you heard. the Jorvik Viking Centre.

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60 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Go to OneStopDigtal
to research the
Viking artefacts
found at York.
Note that the first two
artefacts are from the

E
Roman Period and the
last four are from times
after the Viking Age, but
the remaining 10 (in the
middle) are from the
Viking Age.

1
2

3
ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

PL
SOURCE 2.36 A scene from the Jorvik Viking Centre

Why did archaeologists start excavations at York?

What sorts of Viking artefacts have been found
at York?
From your reading of the text and your observation
of sources 2.36 and 2.37, what information is the
2 Consider sources 2.37 and 2.38. How is the Jorvik
Viking Centre different from other museums?
M
museum trying to give visitors about the Vikings?

Source questions
1 Look at source 2.36. What aspect of the Viking
Age is on display at the museum? How would
this change people’s perceptions of the Vikings SOURCE 2.38 Students participating in the annual
as ‘cruel, plundering barbarians’? Jorvik Viking Centre Festival
SA

The new-look centre includes: 3 What age groups would most enjoy a museum
—A brand new glass-floored gallery incorporating such as the Jorvik Viking Centre? Give reasons
an underfoot recreation of the original Coppergate for your answer.
excavation, enabling visitors to see exactly how the Apply your knowledge
Viking Age remains were discovered
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
—Displays of never-before-seen objects discovered
during the Coppergate excavation that give new and building the Jorvik Viking Centre display so that
fascinating insights into Viking Age life it includes the actual archaeological site?
—Seven new state of the art animatronics that will 2 What types of displays would you like to see in a
interact with visitors in Old Norse Viking museum?
—A new Viking Age house and yard, based on 3 Ismet takes you to the York excavation
evidence of an amber worker’s house discovered during site in 1974, and you participate in the
the Coppergate excavation. dig. You uncover two artefacts. Write in
your travel blog about the artefacts you uncover,
SOURCE 2.37 Extract from the Jorvik Viking Centre and explain what they can tell you about Viking
website. The centre reopened in 2010 ce after a period society. You might like to include images of
of refurbishment your artefacts.

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 61

Viking exploration and

expansion
By 1066 ce, the Vikings had spread far beyond
their Scandinavian homeland. Their lands
included Iceland and parts of Britain, Ireland,
Scotland, France, Russia, Italy, Sicily, Greenland
and North America.

Erik the Red

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One of the most famous Viking explorers
was Erik Thorvaldsson (or ‘Erik the Red’), an
Icelander. The sagas claim that Erik the Red’s
family had been outlawed in Norway and had
fled to the Viking colony in Iceland to escape
punishment.

The Greenland colony

PL
In 982 ce, Erik set sail from Iceland in an attempt
to find the land that a Norwegian, Gunnbjorn
Ulfsson, had claimed to have seen almost

Greenland
SOURCE 2.39 Image of Erik the Red from a 17th-century
manuscript
M
N OR WEGI AN
S EA

N
SA

ATLANTI C
O CE AN Norway

Sweden
NORTH Rus
S E A Denmark
States
England
Ireland

L’Anse-aux-Meadows Normandy
France
Newfoundland
BLACK S E A
Ita

Viking settlement Byza

ly

ntin
8th century e E
m pi
9th century Sicily re
10th century ME
DITE
RRAN
EAN SEA
11th century

SOURCE 2.40 Viking settlements, 8th–11th centuries ce

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62 HISTORY 8: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

Twenty-five ships set off for Greenland. Only

14 ships would arrive, however; the rest turned back
or were lost at sea. Erik and the surviving colonists
founded a colony known as the Eastern Settlement
on the south-west coast. Later, another colony called
the Western Settlement was founded 320 kilometres
north-west of Erik’s colony.
In spite of the difficult beginnings, the
settlement managed to survive. Erik had
settled Greenland during the Medieval Warm

E
Period (950–1250 ce), so the climate was milder
than it is today. The colonists were able to grow
crops such as barley, and farm sheep and cattle.
They also hunted seals, walrus and whales at sea,
and polar bears and arctic foxes on land.
Erik enjoyed a position of high status in

SOURCE 2.41 The remains of Erik the Red’s farm,

Brattahlid, located in the Eastern Settlement

100 years earlier when fierce winds had driven

his ship westward across the ocean. Sure enough,
Erik found the land.
After three years of exploring the new land,
Erik returned to Iceland. He had decided to set
PL Greenland. He held the title of ‘paramount jarl’
of Greenland and became very wealthy.

The end of the Greenland colony

At its peak in the early 12th century, there were
300 small farms, a cathedral and 16 churches on
Greenland. However, Greenland lacked many
important resources, such as metals, timber
and some grains. These had to be imported
from Scandinavia or Europe. By the 1350s ce, the
M
up a colony on the new land, which he called climate in the Northern Hemisphere had cooled
‘Greenland’ in the hope that people from Iceland again, leading to an increase in sea-ice. This
would be inspired to go there. Many Icelanders made sea travel between Greenland and Europe
were soon convinced that Greenland was a place difficult and ships from Norway and Europe
of opportunity. eventually stopped visiting Greenland for trade.
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+0.4°

+0.2°
Temperature change (°C)

Little Ice Age

0°

Medieval
-0.2° Warm Period

-0.4°

1000 1500 1900

Year (CE)

SOURCE 2.42 Temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period, 950–1250 ce

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 CHAPTER 2 THE VIKINGS (c. 790 –c. 1066 ce) 63

Another problem caused by the climate change

was the shorter growing season and longer winter,
Legacies of the Viking Age
leading to a smaller amount of crops that could be The Viking Age has left behind many interesting
grown and a shorter time that animals could be legacies that continue to influence our society
grazed in the open. and culture today.
The increasing cold also forced the Inuit Democracy was an important ideal of the
people of Northern Canada and Northern Viking Age, as exercised through The Thing, at
Greenland to migrate south in search of a which all free men could vote. Today, the word
warmer climate. The Inuit and the Norse began ‘Thing’ (or ‘Ting’) is present in the names of the
to regularly encounter one another, leading to national parliaments in Iceland (the Althing),

E
violence and an increased struggle for food. Denmark (the Folketing) and Norway (the
Decreasing food supplies and competition Storting).
from the Inuits had a devastating effect on the Old Norse sagas and stories have had
Greenland colony. By the 1400s ce it had become a strong influence on writers, artists and
impossible to continue the colony in Greenland, musicians over the last 700 years. In recent
and it was abandoned. The remaining people times, JRR Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy
returned to Iceland.

ACTIVITY

Check your understanding

1
PL
What explains past climate change
1000 years ago? Go to OneStopDigital
to listen to a podcast to find out.

Download a blank world map from the internet.

and JK Rowling’s Harry Potter series have drawn
heavily on stories, images and ideas contained in
the Viking sagas.
The image of Vikings as brutal, violent
raiders, as popularised by manuscripts such
as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, have also left
a mark on our culture. The American cartoon
strip Hagar the Horrible is based on the idea
that Vikings are supposed to be ‘horrible’
and ‘violent’ (though Hagar is generally lazy
M
Use coloured pencils or textas (or your computer) and greedy—and is erroneously wearing
to colour Scandinavia red and all the Vikings’ a horned helmet!). The Canberra Raiders
other lands yellow. Label each country. rugby league team adopted the Viking raider
2 How did Eric the Red inspire people to go to as their mascot, and portray him as a tough,
Greenland? marauding warrior (also wearing a horned
3 How did the Medieval Warm Period enable helmet).
settlement on Greenland? Another important and enduring remnant of
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the Viking Age concerns the English language. It

Source question was the Vikings’ Old Norse language that gave
1 Using source 2.42 and the text, draw a mind us English words such as ‘sister’, ‘cake’, ‘smile’,
map to explain why the Greenland colony failed. ‘happy’, ‘law’, ‘sky’, ‘freckle’ and ‘skill’. Many of the
Apply your knowledge place names in England (and in countries where
Britons came to live, such as Australia) also come
1 Make a poster to encourage people from Iceland
to move to Greenland in the 10th century.
from Old Norse. The ending ‘–by’ means town
or farm in Old Norse—giving us ‘Somersby’ in
2 With a classmate, write a dialogue between a TV
New South Wales. The ending ‘–thorpe’ means
interviewer and Erik the Red. Perform the interview
for the class. You might like to film it, too.
village—giving us the ‘Althorpe Islands’ in
South Australia and ‘Linthorpe’ in Queensland.
3 Class discussion: How were the climate issues
Another ending is ‘–dale’, meaning valley, seen
facing the Greenlanders similar to those we face
today as a result of global warming?
in the names of towns such as ‘Eskdale’ in
Victoria and ‘Westdale’ in New South Wales and
4 Insert a timeline from the Dipity website
Western Australia.
for all Viking tour stops in your travel
blog.
Answer to the riddle in Apply your knowledge question 1,
page 42: Odin and his horse Sleipnir
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64 HISTORY 8 AC: THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN WORLD

History challenges
Create a museum Make Viking clothes
1 Create a class museum for the Viking Age. Make an item of Viking clothing. Go to
You can do one of the following: the websites listed on OneStopDigital for
• create 3-D models of artefacts basic patterns.
• create a virtual museum using photos of Write an essay
objects from the internet.
‘The Vikings were little more than nasty, brutish and

E
All of your artefacts must be correctly labelled violent maurauders.’ Discuss. (350 words)
with information stating:
Think carefully about the key word ‘discuss’.
a what the object is You will need to argue whether you agree or
b where it was found disagree with the statement and present evidence
c its approximate age for your argument.
d what it was used for.

Write a report

PL
Go to OneStopDigital and find out about
the Oseberg ship burial. Write a 500-
word report detailing how archaeologists
found the site, how artefacts found at the
site were restored, how the ship was moved to the
museum and why there is concern about moving
the ship to a new museum.

Make a Viking longship

Propose a new stop for Revista Tours
Propose a new tour stop for the Revista
Tours Vikings In-Depth Study Tour.
1

2
Choose from:
•
•
•
the monastery of Iona (802 ce and 806 ce)
the Dublin Slave Market (11th century)
Gokstad, Norway (1880 ce).
You will need to explain:
• where your tour stop is located (draw a map)
what is significant about this tour stop
M
•
Make your own model of a Viking longship
out of wood or modelling clay. You could • what a visit to this place can tell us about
get some ideas from OneStopDigital. Viking life in the Medieval Period.
3 Present your proposal as a written report
Make a film (300 words) or a PowerPoint presentation with
With the help of your classmates, make a short film appropriate images (10 slides). Remember to
that tells the story of one of the Norse gods. Before be persuasive and to support your arguments
you begin this activity, decide on a role for each with evidence. Add to your blog.
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person in your group. You will need a researcher,

a script-writer, a director, a photographer, a props
manager, a set designer and actors. When you
write the script for your film, think about the stage
directions for each actor, and consider what you will
use as a backdrop, what props you will need and
what costumes you might wear.

Make a game
Hnefatafl is a Viking game. Research the game:
find out the rules and explain them to your
classmates. Then make your own game of
Hnefatafl and play it!

See OneStopDigital for multiple-choice questions

and an interactive crossword for this chapter.

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