This topic is mapped with CO1 and CO2 of the course

1.1 INTRODUCTION

There are four common states of matter (or phases) in

the universe, solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. The state of matter affects a
substance's properties, such as density, viscosity (how well it
flows), malleability (how easy it is to bend), and conductivity. Changes between
states of matter are often reversible.

Solids

In a solid, the positions of atoms are fixed relative to each other over a long
time. That is due to the "friction" or cohesion between molecules. This cohesion
is provided by various bonds. Only solids can be pushed on by a force without
changing shape, which means that they can be resistant to change in shape.
Solids also tend to be strong enough to hold their own shape in a container.
Solids are generally denser than liquids. Solid becoming a gas is called
sublimation.

Liquids

In a liquid, molecules are attracted to each other strongly enough to keep them
in contact, but not strongly enough to hold a particular structure. The molecules
can continually move with respect to each other. This means that liquids can
flow smoothly, but not as smoothly as gases. Liquids will tend to take the shape
of a container that they are in. Liquids are generally less dense than solids, but
denser than gases.

Gases

In a gas, the chemical bonds are not strong enough to hold atoms or molecules
together, and from this a gas is a collection of independent, unbonded molecules
which interact mainly by collision. Gases tend to take the shape of their
container, and are less dense than both solids and liquids. Gases have weaker
forces of attraction than solids and liquids. Gas becoming a solid directly is
called deposition.

Plasma

Plasma are gases that have so much energy that electrons of an atom cannot stay
in orbit around one nucleus. The atomic ions and free electrons mix around like
a hot soup.
Because the positive and negative charged particles are not stuck together,
plasma is a good conductor. For example, air is not good at conducting
electricity. However, in a bolt of lightning, the atoms in air get so much energy
that they no longer can hold on to their electrons, and become a plasma for a
brief time. Then an current is able to flow through the plasma, making the
lightning.

Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe. Both stars and
the interstellar are mostly made of plasma.

Capture.JPG

Figure 1.1 transformation between different matter[1]

Crystallography:
Crystallography, branch of science that deals with discerning the arrangement
and bonding of atoms in crystalline solids and with the geometric structure of
crystal lattices. Classically, the optical properties of crystals were of value in
mineralogy and chemistry for the identification of substances.Modern
crystallography is largely based on the analysis of the diffraction of X-rays by
crystals acting as optical gratings. Using X-ray crystallography, chemists are able
to determine the internal structures and bonding arrangements of minerals and
molecules, including the structures of large complex molecules, such as proteins
and DNA.

Types of solids:
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged
in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends
in all directions. For e.g. metals
An amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order
that is characteristic of a crystal for e.g. Glass-Ceramics.
Crystal Structure:
In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the arrangement of
atoms, ions or molecules in orderly or non-orderly manner.
Simply, the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged is
known as Crystal Structure.
The orderly arrangement is known as Crystalline solid and non-orderly
arrangement is known as Amorphous solid.
 Fig. 1.1 (a) Crystalline (b) Amorphous
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many
physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical
transparency.
*Difference b/w Crystalline and Amorphous solid.
Crystalline solid Amorphous solid
Atoms are arranged in regular manner. They don’t have regular arrangement.
They are true solid. They are pseudo solid.
Anisotropic in nature. Isotropic.
More rigid. Less rigid.
Symmetrical. Asymmetrical.
Long range order. Short range order.
Ex- Diamond, Prism, NaCl etc. Ex- Plastic, Quartz etc.

Unit Cell:
Smallest repeating unit which when repeat over and over again to give space
lattice.

Fig.1.2 Unit Cell

Lattice:
A crystal lattice is the arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms, in a crystal.
These atoms or groups of atoms are commonly referred to as points within a
crystal lattice site. So, crystal lattice is defined as the site containing a series of
points arranged in a specific pattern with high symmetry.

Fig.1.3 Crystal Structure

It is used to describe the structure of a crystal. Let’s see how a two-dimensional

lattice may look.
 Fig. 1.4 Lattice
Motif:
The structure of a crystal can be described by combining the following
elements: the lattice type, the lattice parameters, and the motif. The motif is a
list of the atoms associated with each lattice point, along with their fractional
coordinates relative to the lattice point.

Basis:
A basis is a collection of atoms in particular fixed arrangement in space. We could
have a basis of a single atom as well as a basis of a complicated but fixed
arrangement of hundreds of atoms.

Below we see a basis of two atoms inclined at a fixed angle in a plane.

Let’s now attach the above basis to each lattice point (in black) as follows.
 Fig. 1.5 Basis
We have got the actual two-dimensional crystal in real space. So, we may write
as
Crystal Structure= Lattice + Basis
Difference b/w Lattice and Basis.
A lattice is a hypothetical regular and periodic arrangement of points in space.
It is used to describe the structure of a crystal. Let's see how a two-dimensional
lattice may look. A basis is a collection of atoms in particular fixed
arrangement in space.

Types of Unit Cell:-

• Primitive Unit Cell
• Non-Primitive Unit Cell
• Primitive Unit Cell ‘P’: having lattice points only at the corners of the
unit cell.
Example- Simple cubic.
 Fig .1.6 Example of primitive unit cell
• Non-Primitive Unit Cell: The lattice points are present not only at the
corners.
Example- BCC, FCC.
Types of Crystal Lattices:

Fig. 1.7 Seven types crystal structure

 Table 1.1 shows the lattice parameter and lattice angle
Bravais Lattice:
Bravais Lattice refers to the 14 different 3-dimensional configurations into which
atoms can be arranged in crystals.

S. Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Exa

No: Systems centered centered centered mple
1 Triclinic CuS
(none) O4.5
H2O,
K2Cr2
O7
2 Monoclinic CaSO
(1diad) 4.2H2
O,
FeSO
4,
Na2S
O4
3 Orthorhombic KNO
(3 3,
perpendicular BaSO
diads) 4

4 Rhombohedra As,
l (1 triad) Sb,
Bi

5 Tetragonal TiO2,
(1 tetrad) SnO2,
NiSO
4

6 Hexagonal SiO2,
(1 hexad) Zn,
Mg,
Cd

7 Cubic Au,
(4 triads) Cu,
NaCl

Table 1.2 shows the 14 types of crystal structure

Relevant Books for this topic

https://thecrystalhealingshop.com/collections/free-downloads-and-ebooks
https://www.amazon.com/Crystal-Structure-Determination-Werner-
Massa/dp/3540206442
https://www.amazon.com/Crystal-Structure-Determination-Werner-
Massa/dp/3642058418
Relevant Web links for this topic
https://web.iit.edu/sites/web/files/departments/academic-affairs/academic-
resource-center/pdfs/Crystal_Structures.pdf
https://www.mah.se/upload/_upload/Crystal%20structures.pdf
http://srjcstaff.santarosa.edu/~yataiiya/E45/CRYSTALS%20-%20Copy.pdf
Relevant Videos for this topic

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/104/113104014/