INDUCTIVE REASONING

Example 1 : Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number

in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 ___
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 ___

Solution:

Example 2: Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out

of the following process
Consider the following procedure:
A. Pick a number.
B. Multiply the number by 10.
C. Add 8 to the product.
D. Divide the sum by 2.
E. And subtract by 4.

Solution:
Example 3 : Use the data in the table and by inductive reasoning,
answer the following questions below.

A. If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in meters) can

the tsunami be?
B. Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake magnitude is less
than 7?
Solution:
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not be always
true. In other words, a conjecture formed by using inductive
reasoning may be incorrect. To illustrate,

11x (1)(101) = 1111

11x (2)(101) = 2222
11x (3)(101) = 3333
11x (4)(101) = 4444
11x (5)(101) = 5555
11x (6)(101) = ______

Suppose n=10,

This method of disproving a statement is to give a

counterexample.

Example 4: Verify that each of the following statement is

incorrect by giving a counterexample.

I
Ftt
a. b.
Xt 2

Solution:
Example 5:

Find the counter-example to show that the conjecture is false

xty x ty
Solution:
DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Example: Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture out

of the following process
Consider the following procedure:
A. Pick a number.
B. Multiply the number by 10.
C. Add 8 to the product.
D. Divide the sum by 2.
E. And subtract by 4.
Example 7: Each four friends Donna,Sarah, Nikkie and Xhanelle
has a different pet. (Fish, cat, dog and snake). From the following
clues, determine the pet of each individual.
A. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat and younger
than her friend who owns the dog.
B. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both or the
same age and are the youngest members of their group.
C. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish.

Solution:
PROBLEM SOLVING WITH PATTERNS
Fibonacci Sequence

Suppose we want to find Using the definition, it is

tedious and time consuming to compute for
Fortunately, Jacques Binet in 1543, was able to find a formula
for the nth term of FibonacciIFEIEI
number:
FM

BINET'S FORMULA

tEI

Example 8: Use Binet's Formula and calculator to find the 20th

and 50th Fibonacci Number. 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8....

Solution:
Another famous mathematician who loves patterns is Blaise
Pascal(1623-1662).

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE

Itt
ikft.i
n
5 t
Example

xty
Xt y
E
xty
Suppose you add horizontal rows on pascal's triangle except
row 0. What pattern do you observe in sums? Can you predict
the sum in entries row 10?

i
1 32 3
 1 4 64 I
I 5 10 10 5 I
1 6 15 2015 6 1
ROW m
I
2
3
4
5
6
7

Another amazing discovery in Pascal's triangle is that when you

get the sum of the numbers using the lines as shown, the
Fibonacci sequence appears.
I 112
35
1 2 t
l 3 3 I

1
1
5
4
10 61045 I
1 6 15 2015 6 1
WEBSITE APPLICATION
Another equally famous problem involving patterns is
TOWER OF HANOI, invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The
tower of Hanoi is a puzzle consisting of three pegs and a
number of disks of distinct diameters piled as shown in the
figure.
POLYA'S PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
One of the recent mathematicians who outlined a strategy for
solving problems from virtually any discipline is George
Polya(1887-1985). In his book, How to Solve It, he writes, "A
great discovery solves a great problem but there is gain in
discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be
modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play
your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means,
you may experience the tension and enjoy triumph of discovery."

POLYA's FOUR-STEP PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY

1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution

UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

In order to solve a problem, one must first know what is being
asked, and what information or data can be extracted from what
is given.

DEVISE A PLAN
One must think of strategies to solve the problem.

CARRY OUT THE PLAN

Carry out a plan to solve the problem is basically implementing
strategy chosen in the second step until the problem is solved or
until a new course of action is suggested.

REVIEW THE SOLUTION

Question like "is your answer reasonable?" Is important in
checking the veracity of the answer to the problem.

Example 9: Apply Polya's strategy in solving the following

problem.

The GSW i basketball team won three out of their last six
games. In how many different orders could they have attained
three wins and three losses in six games?
Solution:
Understand the problem

Devise a Plan

Carry out a plan

 Review the solution

Example 10: Computing the height of a person.

Leonardo the Vinci was a famous artist during the renaissance
period. He wrote in his notebook that from the top to bottom of
the chin is sixth part of the face, it is the fifty-fourth part of the
man. Suppose the distance from the top to bottom of the chin of
the person is 1.2 inches. Using Leonardo the Vinci's
measurement, find the height of a person.
Solution:
Understand the Problem

Devise a plan

Carry out the plan

Review the solution

Some problems cannot be solved using the ordinary equations.

For example June 3,2017 was Saturday. What day of the week is
June 3,2020? A week is a cycle and problems of this type can be
solve using arithmetic modulo n.
Modulo n
Two integers a and b said to be congruent modulo n, being a
natural number, a ¡ b if is an integer. In this case, we write
n
a = b mod n. The number n is called modulus. The
statement is called a congruence.

Example: Finding a Day of a Week

In 2017, Venus' birthday fell on Saturday, June 3. On that day of
the week does Venus' birthday fall in 2020? Note that the year
2020 is a leap year.

Solution:
i
STATISTICAL TOOLS
Why do most students who excel in English do not do well in
Mathematics? Have you ever wondered why some of your
friends who are good in Mathematics do not have high grades in
English? Did it occur to you to find out if there exists a
relationship between academic perfomance in English and
achievement in Mathematics? In the field of Mathematics called
Statistics, the relationship between these two variables is known
as correlation.

Correlation
Correlation measures the association or
the strength of the relationship between
two variables, x and y.

Before the relationship between these two sets of data is found

out through computation, it is essential to first discuss the three
types of correlation. When a variable increases while the ther one
decreases, these variables are indirectly correlated or
negatively correlated. But when one variable increases and the
other one increases as well or one variable decreases, as well as
the other one, then the two variables are directly correlated or
positively correlated.
Example1: Suppose a ten-item test in English and a ten-item test
in Mathematics were administered to ten students. The scores of
the students are tabulated below. It must be determined if the
scores in the Mathematics quiz and the English test are
correlated or not.
Example 2: Suppose the scores of the students in those two
subjects happen to be as follows:
Example 3: Suppose the students have the following scores.

Definition
Two variables are positively correlated if the
values of the two variables both increase or
both decrease.

Two variables are negatively correlated if the

values of one variable increase while the
values of the other decrease.
 Two variables are not correlated or they
have zero correlation if the variable
neither increases nor decreases while
the other increases.

While scatter plot may be a convenient way of inspecting

correlation between two variables, it does not offer a measure of
the strength of a correlation. Fortunately, Karl Pearson invented
a formula that can give numerical value to the measure of a
correlation. This formula does not only show how greatly two
data sets are correlated but also reveals if the correlation is
direct or inverse, or if the data sets are not correlated. The
formula named after him is called Pearson product-moment
correlation.

The degree of correlation between two data sets x and y is

represented by Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient
rxy , which can have values from -1 to 1,
representing a strong positive relationship whereas -1
indicating a strong negative relationship. If the coefficient
, then there is no relationship between two variables.
rxy
Xi X yi 5
rxy

É la Ely 55
Where I is the sample mean for data set Xi
is the sample mean for data set
5 bi
Consider the data in Example 1. Organize the data as shown in
the table.

7 4.8 5 5
Englishscan
Meatyscore

y x IT Yi 5 x yi 572 xi F bi g
4 5
5 4
9 8
2 3
8 9
I 2
2 I
7 6
6 7
4 5

748 15 50
4.8 5 5
r
A Fil
rit
Eye It t
r

II

Ky
Definition
The Spearman's rank order correlation is the non
parametric version of the Pearson product moment
correlation. Spearman's correlation coefficient,( also
p
denoted r ) measures the strength and direction of
s
association between ranked variables.

Idi
I
p't n nm
where d diffof paired ranks
n no of paired data
Example: Given the scores in Mathematics and English below,
rank the scores, use Spearman's rho to compute for the
correlation coefficient.

6 di
P l n n 1

t
p

p
For a pair of nominal dichotomous set of data, the phi coefficient
is more appropriate to describe the data set than the Pearson
product-moment correlation or Spearman's rank correlation
coefficient.

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Catb ctd late lbtd

p
i

ve
The point-biserial correlation is a correlation that measures the
strength of association between a continuous-level variable
m(ratio or interval data) and a binary variable. Binary variables
are variables of nominal scale having only two possible values.
They are also called dichotomous variables. Given two variable
sets, in which d is the continuous variable and y are dichotomous
variable, the formula of point biserial correlation coefficient is:

where
Px FIFE
is the mean x when y=1 or those labeled with 1
is the mean x when y=2 or those labeled with 2
the number of samples labeled 1 in y

a the number of samples labeled 2 in y

total number of samples
h
standard deviation of all x values
SD OSX

Remark
The point biserial correlation coefficient measures the
relationship between a real dichotomous and interval sets
of data.
Example:Four girls (1) and five boys (2) of grade 12 took a 20-
item Mathematics achievement test. The results are given below.
Compute the correlation coefficient of the girls scores and the
boys' scores in the set of data.

sx Z x XT
n 1

Sx

pxy
f
pie http
If x and y are both interval data, the Pearson product-moment
correlation will suffice. For two data sets that are both ordinal,
the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient will be appropriate.
The phi correlation coefficient is suited for checking the
correlated behavior of data that are both real nominal
dichotomous. However, if one real nominal dichotomous and one
interval data are involved, the point-biserial formula should be
employed.
TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
Many decisions in business, in education, and even in personal
circumstances are based on information that is collected from
the real world. For instance, you are deciding to put up a
business selling cars. Your first course before spending money
on business is to know which cars sells the most these days.
Before you open a business of selling Toyota, Mitsubishi,
Hyundai, Honda, Nissan, or Suzuki, you need to gather
information which among these get the most number of sales.
How many existing distributors of these care are out there? Do
you want to compete? To answer these questions you need to
gather data. What type of data? And where will you get them?
You simply need to do a survey. This does not cover the whole
population of the Philippines but only a portion of that
population. That part of the population is called sample n.

Definitions
Population is the total number of people, animals, other living or
non-living things under considerations. A population has to be
well-defined so you know exactly what belongs and what does
not belong to it.
Sample is the portion or part of population.

There are several types of data, artificial nominal, the real

nominal, the ordinal, the interval and ratio data.
 Problem: In blended learning, about half of a group of students
are taking classes that combine online media and traditional
classroom style of learning while the other half are only
attending lectures in the classroom. Consequently, the online
group will receive quizzes online and those in the classroom will
have quizzes in the classroom. Suppose a professor wants to
find out if blending learning is more effective than traditional
classroom setting. The professor then conducts a research using
experimental design. He or she will experiment on two sections
of students studying a basic statistics course. He or she will
administer a pretest or a posttest, and then will compare the
means of two test by using t-test. How will this research
methodology work?

The first step in investigating a problem using an experimental

design is formulating a hypothesis. There are two ways of stating
the hypothesis.
Null hypothesis, often denoted by H is a
O
statement of what is being investigated. It is
usually written in the negative form such as
"Characteristic X has no significant effect" or
"There is no significant difference between the
two variables under study" or "X has no
significant relation to Y". The test of significance
is designed to assess the strength of the
evidence against null hypothesis.
 Alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that is
contrary to null hypothesis. It is the null
hypothesis without
the word "no".

To find out if blending learning is more effective than classes

purely given on classroom, the null hypothesis may be stated as
follows,
Null hypothesis, Hy : There is no significant difference in the
mean scores of the achievement tests in basic statistics of those
two who were taught using blended learning and thoses who
were taught using purely traditional classroom methods.
Alternative Hypothesis, HI : There is a significant difference
between the scores of those who taught with blended learning
and the scores of those who were not.

To test the hypothesis Ho , use the t-test. Consider for example

the hypothetical data below for a 20 item achievement test in
statistics administered to the two group of students.
To test if there is a significant difference between the two set of
scores, we will use the t-test formula for independent samples.

55
DISHA 1115,1 1

IF Myth 2
is the mean of x values
heth
x
y is the mean of y values
Nx is the number of x values or samples in group x
Ny is the number of x values or samples in group y
Sx is the standard deviation of x values
is the standard deviation of y values
Sy
5 12.8
5 13.4
Nx 10
Ny 10
It
Sx Eff
Icy 512
Sy
y

MY EH.tl Ti
t
What does t=0.1155 mean?
Using the critical values below for the two tailed = 0.05 with
degree of freedom equal to 18, the critical value is t=2.101. This
critical value is higher than the computed value t=0.1155. Hence,
it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the
scores of the students taught using the blended learning
program and the scores of those who are not.

f4É
Sx

SejYtsixt s

4to 1st
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s 7 9 51415577.55
Regression sericea
Regression analysis is a powerful statistical method that allows
you to examine the relationship between two or more variables
of interest. While there are many types of regression analysis,
at their core they all examine the influence of one or more
independent variables on a dependent variable.

y mxtb
where

me
n Exigi
it Ex Yi

nÉxi Ix
b J MI
Example: Using the table below determine the linear regression
equation.
Exit
yi

yi
b

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