Understanding

Power Transmission
Financing
 Since 2013, the U.S. Government’s Power Africa initiative has marshalled technical,
legal, and financial resources toward the goal of doubling access to electricity in Sub-
Saharan Africa by 2030. Through a network of public and private-sector partners, Power
Africa works alongside African governments to facilitate the development of power projects
on a scale necessary to meet the continent’s power deficit. I am particularly proud of the
leading role the U.S. private sector plays in this development effort and consider Power
Africa to represent one of the best models of collaboration between the U.S. Government
and the private sector to achieve positive commercial and policy outcomes.

One of the most important aspects of Power Africa is the free exchange of information
between public and private sector partners. As part of this effort, Power Africa has developed
a series of open-source handbooks to establish a common understanding of best practices
around successful power project development. It is my honor to present the newest addition
to the Understanding handbook series – Understanding Power Transmission Financing. In
keeping with Power Africa’s focus on accessibility, this newest entry continues a focus on
plain-language explanations of the financing structures for transmission systems. It is
intended to be a trusted resource for both seasoned professionals as well as those who are
new to these complex projects.

Power Africa’s role in supporting Africa’s transition to a more sustainable, renewable,

and cleaner energy future is key to advancing the Administration’s ambitious climate action
plan. Under the U.S. International Climate Finance Strategy, released by the Biden
Administration, transmission financing will deliver against an even bigger and more focused
set of climate finance goals. Understanding how it works and why it is important could not
be timelier. As generation capacity expands across the continent, there is an urgent need for
transmission capacity to dispatch that electricity and cross-border lines to connect
underutilized generation in one country with unmet demand in another. Transmission is a
key enabling infrastructure for renewable energy sources: investments in transmission will
contribute substantially to decarbonizing Africa’s growing energy market.

As with the previous editions, the development of this handbook, which was
coordinated by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Commercial Law Development
Program (CLDP) and the African Development Bank’s African Legal Support Facility
(ALSF), was a collaborative process involving U.S. Government agencies, African
governments, multilateral institutions, and private-sector stakeholders. It is notable that the
authors were volunteers and that they collectively contributed over 2,000 pro bono hours in
a virtual setting to produce a resource that reflects their collective wisdom on how to meet
the challenges of building transmission infrastructure. I am deeply grateful for their
contribution and for the essential role the U.S. Department of Commerce played in delivering
this resource to readers around the world.
Sincerely,

Gina
Gi M. Raimondo
i d
U.S. Secretary of Commerce
C O N T E N T S
1. INTRODUCTION

Background 9
A Guide to the Guide 14

2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Introduction 21
Corporate Finance 22
Project Finance 22
Corporate Vs Project Finance 24
Sources of Capital 25
Commercial Banks 35
Equity 35
Summary of Key Points 37

3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE

AFRICAN MARKET

Introduction 39
Public Sector-led Funding Structures 40
Features of Public Sector-led Funding Structures 48
Private Sector-led Funding Structure 49
Summary of Key Points 52

3
 4. INTRODUCTION TO PRIVATE FUNDING
STRUCTURES

Introduction 55
Key Considerations 56
Approach to Risk Allocation 58
The Role of Key Stakeholders for Privately Funded Structures 59

5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION

(IPT) PROJECTS

Introduction 63
IPT Business Models 64
Enabling Environment 67
How It Works 68
Stakeholders 73
Contractual Structure 76
Risk Allocation Matrix 77
Financing Structure 80
Other Considerations 82
Summary of Key Points 89

6. WHOLE-OF-GRID CONCESSIONS

Introduction 91
Concession Models 92
How It Works 98
Stakeholders 102
Contractual Structure 105
Risk Allocation Matrix 111

4
Financing a Whole-of-grid Concession 114
Other Considerations 115
Summary of Key Points 118

7. OTHER PRIVATE FUNDING STRUCTURES

Introduction 120
Merchant Transmission Line 120
Industrial Demand-driven Model 124
Privatisation 127
Summary of Key Points 133

8. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT AND CREDIT

ENHANCEMENT

Introduction 136
Government Support 138
Sovereign Support for Termination Payments 140
Summary of Key Points 143

9. PLANNING AND PROJECT PREPARATION

Introduction 145
Power System Planning 146
Integrated Resource Planning 147
Transmission Development Plan (TDP) 149
Route Identification 152
Transmission Project Selection 153
Project Preparation 155

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Funding for Project Preparation 158
Procurement and the Private Sector 159
Direct Negotiations 162
Summary of Key Points 163

10. LAND ACQUISITION

Introduction 165
Planning for Rights-of-way 166
Phases for Route Identification 167
Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) 168
Acquisition of Land for Rights-of-way 171
Role of the Private Sector 173
Expropriation and Eminent Domain 174
Summary of Key Points 174

11. COMMON RISKS

Introduction 177
Financial Risks 180
Technical Risk 183
Interface Risks 184
Technology Risks 185
Social and Environmental Risks 187
Political and Regulatory Risks 189
Dispute Resolution 193
Summary of Key Points 197

6
 12. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Introduction 199
Definition of an Independent Regulator 200
How Transparency Can Be Achieved 201
Functions of a Regulator 204
Market Regulations and Compliance 209
Regulatory Implications for the Private Sector 211
Summary of Key Points 214
Deep Dive into Transmission Pricing 215

13. CROSS-BORDER INTERCONNECTION PROJECTS

Introduction 225
What Are Cross-border Interconnection Projects? 225
Benefits of Cross-border Projects 227
Hurdles to the Development of Cross-border Projects 227
Varying Domestic Regulatory Frameworks 229
Private Sector Participation in Cross-border Projects 235
Summary of Key Points 238

APPENDIX

Acronyms 241
Glossary 245

7
1. Introduction
 1. INTRODUCTION

Background
The Critical Deficit of Transmission Capacity
The group of authors who donated their expertise (and time!) to this book
came together for a simple and collective intent: to address the critical
deficit of transmission capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is stated that
roughly half the population of Sub-Saharan Africa (or 600 million people)
lack reliable access to electricity. The lack of electricity access is particularly
stark at a time when the global number of persons without access to
electricity is falling.

While there is no adequate information on the breakdown between

generation, transmission, and distribution, historically investment in
generation has been roughly four times higher than transmission and
distribution combined. Furthermore, the distribution sector has also
attracted more investment than transmission, leaving this segment of the
African energy market as the most impacted by a lack of both public and
private investment.

The critical nature of transmission infrastructure to the overall function of

an energy market cannot be overstated. As generation expands,
transmission is needed to bring electricity to the demand centres. Additional
transmission capacity (including cross-border) can also provide access to
large power generation sources and connect them to unserved demand.
Transmission across national borders, often referred to as interconnection,
enables economies of scale that bring down the cost of power and allow for
greater efficiency in matching production with consumption.

Current estimates place the total investment requirements for the period
2014-2040 at $80-$140 billion, which equates to $3.2–$5.4 billion per year.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Of the 38 Sub-Saharan African countries, 9 have no transmission lines

above 100 kilovolts (kV). The scale of the transmission deficit is also
significant when one considers that the combined length of transmission
in the 38 Sub-Saharan African countries is about 112,196 km, less than the
length of the domestic transmission network of Brazil. The following
Figure 1.1 helps further illustrate the transmission deficit in Sub-Saharan
Africa as compared to energy markets around the world.

Figure 1.1: Transmission lines per capita (Source: World Bank, 2017:
Linking Up: Public-Private Partnerships in Power Transmission in Africa)

At a time when the world is coming together to address the threat of

climate change, it is also important to note that transmission infrastructure
is essential to the transition towards a less carbon-intensive power market.
Without it, many grid-connected utility-scale renewable energy projects

10
 1. INTRODUCTION

cannot be implemented. More importantly, developing and

maintaining highly optimised transmission systems that can manage the
intermittent nature of renewable energy helps to reduce technical losses
and avoid the need to build additional generation or storage capacity.

The critical lack of development of transmission infrastructure in Sub-

Saharan Africa, despite the increased investment in other segments of the
power value chain, naturally leads to two important questions: How did
the situation become so dire? and how can we overcome the transmission
deficit to widen the access to energy? The first question demands an
intense inquiry into economics, politics, sociology and geography that is
beyond the capacity of the authors of this handbook. The second question,
however, can be answered constructively and is the focus of this book.

The Need for Private Sector Investment

Virtually all development of transmission infrastructure in Sub-Saharan
Africa remains within the responsibility of fully or partially state-owned
utilities. One reason is that it is difficult to prioritise and justify
transmission projects when transmission costs are not clear and
transparently allocated within the sector. As a result, the utilities that
currently manage transmission infrastructure often require public
subsidies to counter operating losses that arise when costs are not properly
allocated and recouped. These subsidies usually take the form of direct
budget support from the government. The effect is that state-owned
utilities are not incentivised or able to invest in new projects.

This vicious circle of generating losses and failing to invest in new

infrastructure is not inevitable. There are numerous examples around the
world where energy markets have been able to overcome this transmission
deficit through a combination of concerted regulatory reform and
partnership with the private sector. This book presents these examples as
case studies distributed throughout the chapters. The common narrative
across the experiences from other markets is as follows: if the existing

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

market actors (government, utility, regulator) can bring clarity and

predictability to the transmission sector, the private sector can deploy its
expertise and capital to overcome the infrastructure gap.

It is important to note at the outset of this book that the primary

constraint on private investment is not the lack of the availability of capital
(see chapter 2. Financing Structures and Capital Sources). The key constraint
is, rather, the ability to access that funding through market regulations and
project structures that provide the predictable operating conditions and
revenue that are fundamental to any commercial investment. This book is
intended to outline how public officials can satisfy these expectations from
the private sector through a general description of transmission sector
regulation, planning and operation, and a detailed explanation of the
structures for private investment in the transmission sector.

Private partners, not funders

As previously noted, the existing transmission gap in Sub-Saharan Africa is
driven in large part by the inability to fund new infrastructure through
public budgets or finance public infrastructure due to a history of
operating losses. Thus, the first motivating factor for using private capital
to fund transmission infrastructure is to mobilise finance over and above
what the public sector may be able to provide. The private sector is not,
however, simply a source of capital. It is also a partner in project
management, cost control and risk mitigation. With the appropriate set of
incentives, the private sector can be an extremely efficient implementation
model for transmission projects at a low cost and on schedule. Successful
private transmission projects have been implemented in India, Latin
America, the Philippines, United Kingdom, and elsewhere. Brazil alone has
financed over 50,000 km of transmission lines through private
investments.

Inviting private investment in the transmission sector can also bring

innovation through the utilisation of state-of-the-art technologies which
are transforming the energy landscape. For example, smart grid

12
 1. INTRODUCTION

technologie introduce new capabilities and provide opportunities for more

efficiency, as well as new services (energy management, distributed
generation, internet and telecoms).

Increasing role of the private sector in transmission

While private investment is not as widespread in transmission as in power
generation, there is substantial experience worldwide. In addition to well-
functioning power markets in OECD countries (e.g., United Kingdom),
private transmission has become common in the last twenty years across
Latin America and in countries such as India, Kazakhstan, and the
Philippines. Just in the period 2000-2015, multiple projects materialised in
Latin America as summarised in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Examples of private participation in transmission infrastructure

between 2000-2015

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Similarly, India has developed more than 500 km of 400kV and 765kV
lines through private investment. Kazakhstan has a privately owned and
financed transmission system, and the Philippines privatised their existing
transmission system through a 25-year concession in 2009.

Sub-Saharan Africa was able to leverage the experience from other

markets to adopt new business models and avoid legacy infrastructure (for
example, deploying wireless data/voice systems rather than installing
landlines). In the same way, the African energy market can learn from the
recent experience in peer markets around the world to move past the
traditional focus of publicly financed transmission infrastructure and
instead foster a dynamic market place that is driven by private investment.

A Guide to the Guide

Who is this book for?
This handbook would benefit all stakeholders involved in the power sector
and more specifically in the development of transmission infrastructure.
The book is intentionally designed to benefit all levels of readers:

Beginner: The book provides an overview of the fundamental regulatory

structure of transmission markets, the planning and procurement of
transmission systems and the core principles of contracting and finance
that are required to attract private investment. The intent is that with this
essential background information in mind, the detailed explanation of
private investment models will be easier to understand.

Utility/Regulator: The observations and guidance in this handbook are

presented from the perspective of a public official in an utility or a
regulator. Specifically, the assumption is that such an official has already

14
 1. INTRODUCTION

recognised the need to bring private-sector investment into the market.

Further, the book assumes that the official is considering the required
adjustments to the existing regulatory framework and the specific
obligations in any partnership with a private-sector investor to develop
transmission infrastructure.

Procuring Agency/Negotiator: Perhaps the greatest value that we can

convey in this book is the collective experience of the authors in planning,
procuring and negotiating transmission projects. As a result, the book
contains significant detail on the structuring of private transmission
projects, the allocation of risks and obligations within those structures, and
related considerations around financing and regulatory compliance.

In addition to the public sector readers described above, this handbook

should also be helpful to other sector participants including the
transmission companies, transmission system operators, regulators,
investors, and financial institutions as it presents a diverse set of
considerations that those parties must address in their role in the
development of private transmission projects.

Who are the authors?

The knowledge and guidance presented in this book are not intended to
represent the opinion of any one author. As emphasised throughout this
book, the development of transmission infrastructure through a
partnership between the public and private sector requires close
collaboration between stakeholders and the application of expertise from
many disciplines. To hold to this guiding principle, the development of
this handbook also brought together a diverse group of stakeholders and
experts. Our group of authors, who each contributed their time on a pro-
bono basis, includes contributors from governments, development banks,
investment funds, project developers, universities and leading
international law firms. Equally important is that our group includes
engineers, economists, lawyers and regulators who collectively have over
200 years of experience in the energy sector. Our sincere hope is that the

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

collective wisdom and dedication of this group demonstrates how

important it is to make progress in addressing the infrastructure gap in
Sub-Saharan Africa and that our contribution will make a meaningful
impact on that effort.

How was this book developed?

The unique conditions for the preparation of this handbook are notable
since they differ from the rest of the Understanding series. As with previous
books, this handbook was produced using the Book Sprint method which
allows for the simultaneous drafting, editing, and publishing of a complete
book in a short period. For the previous handbooks in this series, our
authors were able to gather together in the same place and produce a book
in five days. Since coming together in person was not possible under
current conditions, our group of authors instead agreed to come together
virtually. In just two weeks, across seven time zones and through the
collective will of our authors (and generous patience of others in our
households), we were able to generate the same dialogue, critical thinking
and joint decision making that had made the previous books such a trusted
resource. As always, there was a surprising amount of consensus on some
topics and an unexpected level of debate on others. The outcome is a
product that reflects this diversity of opinions rather than the personal
opinion of any one author or the institution they represent.

The authors would like to thank our Book Sprint facilitator Barbara
Rühling for her ability to adapt the Book Sprint process to a virtual format
and for her patient guidance throughout the hours of staring at our
confused faces on a computer screen. The authors would also like to thank
Henrik van Leeuwen and Lennart Wolfert for turning our rushed scribbles
into beautiful and meaningful illustrations. The tireless work of Book
Sprints’ remote staff Raewyn Whyte and Christine Davis (proofreaders),
and Agathe Baëz (book design), should also be recognised. It is also
important to recognise the considerable planning and development that
went into the conceptualisation of this handbook before the drafting
process. In particular, our deepest appreciation goes to Elizabeth Clinch

16
 1. INTRODUCTION

(International Program Specialist, CLDP) for the original research at the

outset of the concept development and for her tireless work to bring our
group together in a virtual space. The authors would also like to recognise
the following individuals and institutions that helped focus dialogue to
build a consensus around the need for a handbook focused on transmission
financing: Jennifer Baldwin (Power Africa); Megan Taylor (Power Africa);
and Kenyon Weaver (Commercial Law Development Program). The
authors would also like to thank the generous funding and logistics
support from the United States Agency for International Development’s
Power Africa programme and the African Legal Support Facility.

How may I use this book?

To continue the tradition of open-source knowledge sharing that is at the
core of the Understanding series, both as a standalone reference guide and as
a jumping-off point for further discussion and scholarship, the book is
published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY NO SA). In selecting this
publication license, the authors welcome anyone to copy, excerpt, rework,
translate and/or re-use the text for any non-commercial purpose without
seeking permission from the authors, so long as the resulting work is also
issued under a Creative Commons License. The handbook is initially
published in English with translated editions soon to follow. The
handbook is available in electronic format at
http://cldp.doc.gov/Understanding as well as in print format. Many of the
contributing authors are also committed to working within their
institutions to adapt this handbook for use as the basis for training courses
and technical assistance initiatives.

How does this book relate to the Understanding Series?

This handbook is the fifth in the Understanding series published by Power
Africa. The first handbook, Understanding Power Purchase Agreements,
focused on the legal and financial considerations in a Power Purchase
Agreement (the PPA handbook is now in its Second Edition). The second

17
 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

handbook, Understanding Power Project Financing, focused on the financing

structures and mechanisms that can be employed to finance private
independent power projects. The third handbook, Understanding Natural
Gas and LNG Options, was developed by the US Department of Energy and
is an in-depth guide on upstream and downstream development of natural
gas. The fourth handbook, Understanding Power Project
Procurement provided an overview of the mechanisms and strategy behind
successfully procuring privately-owned power projects.

Figure 1.3: Cover page of the "Understanding" series

(some are also available in Amharic and French)

18
 1. INTRODUCTION

The Authors

Reason Abajuo Samson O. Masebinu

Legal Counsel Development Assistance Specialist:
African Legal Support Facility Energy Finance
(Côte D'Ivoire) USAID/Power Africa (South Africa)

Mohamed Rali Badissy Subha Nagarajan

Professor of Law Managing Director
Penn State Dickinson Law (USA) Global Capital Advisory (USA)

Christopher Flavin Gadi Taj Ndahumba

Business Development Director Head of Power Sector
Gridworks (UK) African Legal Support Facility
(Côte D'Ivoire)

Jay Govender Kaushik Ray

Projects and Energy Sector Head Partner
Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr Inc. Trinity International LLP (UK)
(South Africa)

Ryan Ketchum Stratos Tavoulareas

Partner Energy Advisor and Visiting Scholar
Hunton Andrews Kurth LLP (UK) George Washington University (USA)

Julius Kwame Kpekpena Omar Vajeth

Chief Operating Officer Principal Corporate Relations Officer
Millennium Development Authority African Development Bank
(Ghana) (South Africa)

Mohammed Loraoui
Attorney Advisor (International)
U.S. Department of Commerce (USA)

19
2. Financing
Structures and
Capital Sources
 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Introduction
The business models used to finance transmission infrastructure are
heavily impacted by sources of funding for the sector. Before introducing
the different business models, it is necessary to understand the various
external funding options and their criteria, which this chapter explores.

In the next chapter 3. Common Funding Structures in the African Market, we

discuss the status quo of transmission infrastructure financing in the
African continent — the public sector structures generally used to finance
these types of projects at present. We then look to business models
involving the private sector in chapters 4. Introduction to Private Funding
Structures, 5. Independent Power Transmission (IPT) Projects, 6. Whole-of-grid
concessions, and 7. Other Private Funding Structures.

Transmission projects will go through a detailed planning phase before a

source of financing and a business model are selected. Chapter 9. Planning
and Project Preparation explains this process.

The risks highlighted in chapter 11. Common Risks must also be considered
as these will impact sources of funding as well as business models. The
funding decision will have implications for the introduction of the private
sector or continued reliance on public sector funding, and together these
will inform the business model selected.

Below we set out the broad principles of financing that have been or could
be applied to the funding of existing and future transmission infrastructure
projects.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Corporate Finance
Many businesses, especially large businesses in capital intensive industries,
raise debt funding on the strength of their balance sheets, the stability of
their revenues, and their ability to service their debts. They do not grant
security over any part of their assets to lenders or bondholders, and they
agree with each lender that they will not grant security over their assets to
any other or future lenders. This type of financing — financing that does
not involve the grant of security over a company’s assets — is referred to as
corporate finance.

When considering corporate finance in the context of funding

transmission infrastructure, the relevant entity procuring funding has
historically been the national transmission company of the country. The
financial health and liquidity of this entity’s balance sheet (assets and cash
flows) will determine its borrowing capacity (which can be enhanced with
government support). If the credit of the national transmission company
does not allow it to raise debt, additional support from the government’s
balance sheet will be required to secure external debt.

Project Finance
In a project finance context, the funding is secured against the viability of a
specific project. In this option, a project company is created for financing,
constructing and potentially operating the transmission assets and is
financed with a mix of equity and debt. In typical project finance funding
structures, the project company also retains ownership of the transmission

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

asset. A lender considers the revenue generated by the transmission project

as the primary, and often singular, source of loan repayment. The
projected cash flows after meeting operating expenses must be sufficient to
service debt in terms of capital repayment and interest. The cash flows
available after debt service should also provide a reasonable return on
equity.

The predictability, sufficiency and certainty of cash flows will determine

the project company’s borrowing capacity to finance the project. If the
project underperforms and the borrower defaults on the loan as a result,
the lender will have the right to enforce its security on the project
company’s assets. If liquidating the project company’s assets is insufficient
to recover the balance of loan owed due to default, the lender will have no
recourse to the owner(s) of the project company for further compensation:
the sponsor's liability is limited to the investment it has made via its equity
contributions. Therefore, the key to project finance is the underlying
revenue stream generated by the asset in question (e.g., annuity, use of
system or wheeling charges for a transmission infrastructure project).

If the transmission asset is not linked to a dedicated generation facility or a

large industrial consumer, and there is uncertainty as to how well-utilised
the transmission infrastructure will be, lenders will expect a payment
regime similar to a fixed capacity payment or fixed availability payment.
Such payments are not vulnerable to changes in the amount of power
flows on the transmission line.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Corporate Vs Project
Finance
Balance sheet flexibility
In the context of transmission infrastructure, an entity’s borrowing
capacity via corporate finance is limited by its existing balance sheet,
including how much existing debt it has (and the state of its revenues and
assets). Any existing balance sheet constraints will limit the borrowing
capacity of transmission utilities to fund transmission infrastructure using
corporate finance structures. The state utility may have the opportunity to
borrow further with government support. Project finance structures,
however, do not look at the transmission company’s borrowing capacity
because the debt capital raised is treated as off-balance-sheet financing.

Cost of funds
Under corporate finance, since repayment is divorced from a transmission
asset’s underlying economic value or performance, repayment risk will be a
function of a borrower’s existing level of leverage compared to the
financial or market value of its total assets to determine its liquidity. A
healthy balance sheet will attract a lower cost of financing (more efficient
pricing). As the credit quality of an entity decreases, the cost of funding
increases due to higher risk perception.

Under the project finance option, since repayment is secured via project
revenue, lenders will focus on mitigating all risks to those cash flows.
Project finance transactions tend to be highly structured and complex, with
emphasis placed on appropriate contractual allocation of risks that impact
the underlying revenue stream. This adds to the time and cost of pulling
together the number of stakeholders and related documentation. The

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

pricing of the project is influenced by the perceived risk of the cash flows,
the credit quality of the source of those cash flows, and if needed, the
enhancement of these cash flows.

Business model considerations

Transmission networks require ongoing investment. Ongoing investment
requires continuous capital injections in the business in the form of new
projects or upgrades of existing assets. As a general rule, state-owned
transmission utilities, whole-of-grid concessionaires, or privatised utilities
will typically find it more practical to raise debt financing using corporate
financing techniques. In contrast, a project company established to
implement an independent power transmission (IPT) project will use
project finance to allow for higher debt to equity ratios, longer tenor, and
limited recourse for the shareholders in the project company. Given these
factors, IPTs are likely to be financed using project finance techniques.

Sources of Capital
The sources of capital for a transmission project will depend upon the
outcome of the planning, risks related to the project, and a government’s
and state utility’s balance sheets and the ability to raise finance. In chapter 3.
Common Funding Structures in the African Market, the existing model of
government balance sheet financing for these assets is discussed in more
detail, and in later chapters, we discuss some private sector finance models.
Below, we set out the typical capital sources — government budgetary
allocation, debt, and equity — and indicative terms used in most funding
models.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Government budgetary allocation

In the context of its annual budget, a government may choose to allocate a
certain amount of the fiscal budget to the development of the country’s
transmission infrastructure. When an allocation is made, the specific
method of application of these funds is likely to vary from one government
to another depending on the country’s laws and conventions for public
procurement of infrastructure. In some jurisdictions, the funds will be
managed and applied directly by the Ministry of Energy (or equivalent); in
others, they may be channelled via a department of public works or the
state-owned entity licensed to construct and maintain transmission
infrastructure. Nonetheless, the source of these funds will invariably come
directly from the government’s accounts or “balance sheet” as shown
below, and thus the government’s ability to finance transmission
infrastructure through a budgetary allocation will depend on the country’s
priorities and fiscal constraints. Ultimately, the decision as to whether to
use this model will depend on the government’s balance sheet (i.e.
availability of cash) and its expenditure priorities (based on its current
policies) given a country’s wider infrastructure investment needs.

26
 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Figure 2.1: National budget approach to funding infrastructure project

In practice, financing transmission infrastructure through budgetary

allocations is difficult and has become increasingly rare. The size of the
investment puts significant pressure on a government’s budget and its
available cash. The allocation can be structured in a way as to accumulate
yearly until reaching the required amount, but depending on the size of the
investment, the desired amount may take many years to be collected.
Furthermore, in addition to slowing down the development of the power
grid, this approach requires significant fiscal discipline as the government
needs to set aside the funds each year and resist the temptation to use them
when a crisis or economic downturn arises.

Debt
Transmission infrastructure necessitates long-term funding, given the
relatively high capital expenditure required for identification, development

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

and construction. Given constraints in local commercial banking markets,

public financial institutions are an important source of debt financing for
transmission infrastructure.

The stakeholders and financial products described below cover both public
and private sector debt financings — their application in real-world
scenarios is dealt with in later chapters.

Concessional funding for balance sheet financing

Multilateral development banks (MDBs) and donor-backed funds can lend
directly to governments on concessional or grant terms for identified
projects which follow the MDB procurement guidelines, and can also be
lenders for the financing of independent power transmission projects in
the private sector.

Examples of MDBs, which provide concessional finance, include the

African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, and the World
Bank Group. Concessional in this context means that the terms of the loan
are likely to include low or subsidised interest rates, extended grace
periods, and long amortisation schedules that can extend beyond 30 years.
Typically these loans are provided to the government via the Ministry of
Finance, and on-lent to the transmission utility. These loans are accounted
for on the government’s balance sheet, typically as both an asset and a
liability. The transmission company will own the asset, but repayment, if
required, will be secured from the government's balance sheet. MDB and
donor concessional money may be used to settle contractor invoices
directly, but the government remains the obligor.

Transmission projects funded through MDB concessional funds can in

some instances take longer to secure the funding and the necessary
contractors. This is often the case where the government or the utility
does not have the necessary capacity to manage the high degree of
coordination, planning, and adherence to MDB procurement guidelines
for such projects. In addition, MDBs have country and sector limits (often
called “funding envelopes”) that are available to countries for this type of

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

financing support which get revised based on the country’s capacity for
debt and the requirements of the ministries. When the funding envelopes
may be nearing their limits, countries will have to prioritise the
infrastructure projects they want to support. Bilateral donor agencies can
be another source of grant or heavily subsidised financing which can
provide sector viability gap funding or support to an individual
transaction.

Figure 2.2: Relationship between parties in a concessional funding

for balance sheet financing

Private sector MDB funding

The same MDBs have “private sector windows”, i.e., funding available for private
sector projects, such as IPTs. These are loans granted on commercial terms rather
than concessional terms, and for tenors up to 18-20 years. Importantly, private
sector MDB loans are not captured on the government’s balance sheet, unless a
government guarantee or financial backstop helps secure repayment. The
structures under which MDBs participate in IPTs are set out further in chapter 5.
Independent Power Transmission (IPT) Projects.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Export Credit Agencies (ECA)

Export Credit Agencies (ECA) are institutions that are publicly owned financing
agencies that help finance national exports by providing direct loans, guarantees,
or insurance to overseas buyers, including entities such as transmission
companies. ECA finance can be used in the public sector, in government
balance sheet financing, and project finance involving IPT structures.

Examples of active ECAs in Sub-Saharan Africa include the Export Credit

Insurance Corporation of South Africa, US Export-Import Bank, UK
Export Finance, BPIfrance, SERV from Switzerland, Euler Hermes from
Germany, and the Export-Import Bank of China. Some of these agencies
can provide local currency solutions in certain jurisdictions, but for the
most part, provide USD and Euro denominated loans.

To ensure financing discipline and promotion of fair and transparent trade

practices, financial terms and conditions follow guidelines set by the
OECD, called the OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export
Credits guidelines. Eligible financing is typically up to 85% of the relevant
export contract, with some allowances to cover a portion of local on-shore
costs, but the expectation is that the government (or borrower) covers the
15% balance, usually in the form of a down payment in cash. Financing
terms include longer tenors than commercial banks can competitively
price or sometimes provide to borrowers in certain jurisdictions (up to 12
years for corporate finance and 14 years for project finance loans), but the
cost of funds is generally more expensive than concessional borrowing.
For transmission infrastructure associated with a renewable energy
generation project, the OECD Arrangement allows project finance loans
up to 18 years, on an exceptional basis.

In the context of transmission infrastructure, ECAs can provide (1)

corporate finance loans, underwriting the sovereign’s capacity to repay the
loan, lending directly to Ministries of Finance, which helps to reduce the
cost of financing, and (2) project or corporate finance loans to IPT special
purpose vehicles (SPVs) or private companies, respectively.

30
 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Depending on the ECA, they can either lend directly or insure/guarantee

(between 95-100%) a commercial bank that will provide funding, which will
be reflected in the commercial bank’s lower cost of funds to the project.

Figure 2.3: Relationship between parties in an Export Credit

Agency funding structure

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Development Financial Institutions (DFIs)

Development Financial Institutions (DFIs) which include MDBs, are
usually majority-owned by national governments and source their capital
from national or international development funds, or benefit from
government guarantees. This ensures their creditworthiness, which
enables them to raise large amounts of capital from international capital
markets and provide financing on very competitive terms. DFIs can
provide up to 15 to 20 years, long tenor competitive commercial lending to
projects with some degree of private ownership. Some examples of DFIs
active in Sub-Saharan Africa include the Development Bank of South
Africa, Development Finance Corporation from the US, the CDC group
from the UK, Proparco from France, and FMO from the Netherlands.

Some DFIs can provide loans to state-owned utilities which demonstrate

independent governance, depending on that utility’s balance sheet and
ownership of assets. All DFIs can provide commercial project finance debt
to a project company, which can be used in IPT transactions. The diagram
below shows a DFI-funded project finance structure.

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Figure 2.4: Relationship between parties in a Development Financial

Institution funding structure

In addition to lending, some DFIs such as the AfDB and the WBG can
offer a guarantee and insurance products to help credit enhance a project
structure by covering off certain credit or political risks. Guarantees
include partial credit guarantees (PCGs) and partial risk guarantees (PRGs)
to cover commercial lenders and investors against the risk of a possible
government failure to meet contractual obligations to a project. Please see
the Understanding Power Project Financing handbook, section 7.2 for an in-
depth discussion of PCGs and PRGs.

Some DFIs provide political risk insurance (PRI) to mitigate and manage
risks arising from the adverse action, or inactions, of governments that go
against contractual obligations. PRI can also be used to backstop

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

termination support under a government guarantee or other forms of

government undertakings if the government is unable to pay as per its
contractual obligation.

Green/climate-backed financing
There are many clean technologies and climate change donor-backed funds which
can provide grant funding to support grid modernisation and transmission lines, if
the infrastructure can be linked to projects and initiatives which promote and
advance sustainable development and encourage the development of a more
sustainable economy, for example, renewable energy generation. Given the
emphasis that many countries are placing on decarbonisation to support countries
on their journey to a green energy transition, it is expected that the EU and other
publicly backed institutions will make more grants or highly concessional finance
available to support these activities.

The advantage of these resources is that they provide subsidised financing, which,
when combined with more commercial sources of funds, can help blend the cost of
capital to reduce financing costs for transmission infrastructure.

Transmission is the enabling infrastructure for renewables, and, as such, it should

be credited with greenhouse gas reductions and be eligible for green financing. In
addition, the strength of the existing transmission and grid networks will determine
how much greenfield renewable energy generation a country can support. Many
emerging countries with mandates to significantly scale up renewable energy
generation will need to simultaneously invest in upgrading and expanding their
transmission network to support greater renewable energy penetration. While this
is still an evolving field, greenhouse gas reduction calculation methodologies have
been considered by numerous organisations and both governments and developers
should monitor progress to identify potentially attractive financing options.

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Commercial Banks
In addition to DFIs, commercial banks provide debt financing to
transmission infrastructure projects. Commercial banks are privately
owned banks that participate and provide funding to a range of projects,
including transmission projects. Commercial banks more typically lend to
projects that have creditworthy cash flows or cash flows that are enhanced
with cover via DFIs or ECAs.

Typically, commercial banks are financial institutions that are regulated by

central banks and other international banking regulations which impact
the level of liquidity, risk thresholds and pricing.

Blended finance
Providing hybrid private sector/donor funding for IPTs, for example, can
significantly boost the availability of funding to the sector. The provision of grant
funding for a project is unlikely to impact returns for investors positively or
negatively since funding models for this asset class are typically fixed or capped.
The impact of such funding would be to increase the number of projects which can
be undertaken.

Equity
In IPT and other project finance structures, lenders generally require
project owners to invest an amount of equity in exchange for shares in the
project company, usually for at least 20-30% of the total project cost. This
form of long-term capital earns dividends over the life of the project which
are paid from the remainder of cash flows after operating expenses and
debt service obligations have been met. The capital structure and cash
waterfall are intentionally aligned so that equity owners are incentivised to

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

ensure that the transmission assets are constructed and perform as

contractually specified, to generate and collect the forecasted revenue.
Equity providers for transmission infrastructure include:
Developers/Contractors: This includes developers or engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC)/original equipment manufacturer
(OEMs), who develop, build, and/or operate transmission assets and are
interested in providing equity and/or subordinated debt in an
underlying project if the long term economics are sufficiently attractive.
Infrastructure funds: There are many infrastructure funds or DFI-
funded investment vehicles with a mandate to invest in the energy
sector, which can include transmission infrastructure.
Development Finance Institutions: A few DFIs can provide equity
funding for various types of power projects so long as the long term
economics are sufficiently attractive.
Industrial sponsors: This includes sponsors who invest in the
construction of dedicated-use transmission infrastructure to support
their core business or power generation plants, such as mining
companies.

In some instances, state-owned transmission companies or energy utilities

also invest capital (or some other form of consideration) into a project
company and acquire equity interest.

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 2. FINANCING STRUCTURES AND CAPITAL SOURCES

Summary of Key Points

Corporate Finance is a way for an entity to secure an external debt by
leveraging its balance sheet. The financial health and liquidity of the
entity’s balance sheet will determine its borrowing capacity.
Project Finance allows an entity to raise external finance on a non-
recourse basis where loan repayment is secured by cash flows generated
by a project company’s assets.
Key considerations between raising debt via corporate or project
finance structures include (1) creditworthiness of the obligor, which
will determine the cost of funding and whether additional payment
security is required, and (2) business model procurement strategy.
The most traditional source of capital to fund transmission
infrastructure has been the government’s balance sheet.
Sources of external funding to support government borrowing include
bilateral donors, MDBs, and ECAs.
External funding for IPTs and whole-of-grid concessions include DFIs
and ECAs, along with commercial banks, generally with some form of
credit enhancement from DFI or ECA guarantee or insurance product.
Green/Climate-backed financing can provide meaningful blended
finance and viability gap funding for grid modernisation, critical for
emerging markets who need to strengthen their transmission and grid
networks to support greater renewable energy penetration.
There are providers of equity in the power generation space who could
provide equity in IPTs assuming the economics and returns of the
project are sufficiently attractive.
External funding sources and their criteria can impact the business model
a government chooses in procuring new transmission infrastructure.

37
3. Common Funding
Structures in the
African Market
 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to set out, in a non-exhaustive fashion, some
of the common methods of funding transmission infrastructure that are
currently used on the African continent and to highlight some of their
features.

Most of these funding methods are public-sector led. However, they are
akin to corporate finance structures as the financing is based on the
strength of the government or state-owned utility balance sheets and not
on the viability of the cash flows from the transmission projects
specifically. These methods include government borrowing/ECA
financing and state-owned utility borrowing. Of these methods,
government borrowing and ECA solutions (which also require a
government guarantee) are by far the most common funding structures
utilised.

The most common private sector-led funding method used for

transmission projects on the continent is the wrapping up of the financing
of the transmission project into a related IPP project. This method,
discussed in this chapter as the generation-linked transmission model, is
the closest to project financing for transmission projects on the continent.
As will be discussed in detail in this chapter, the cost of the transmission
project is included as part of the construction costs of the IPP project. Since
the IPP project is funded using a project financing structure, the costs of
the transmission project are typically recouped from the cash flows of the
IPP project.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Public Sector-led Funding

Structures
Government borrowing
From one country to another, the names of ministries are likely to vary
and their functions can be separated differently among fewer or more
ministries (e.g., the functions of the Ministry of Finance in one country
may be shared between the Ministry of Economic Planning and the
Ministry of Finance in some other countries). For this chapter, the
Ministry of Finance (MoF) refers to the ministry (or ministries)
responsible for raising and collecting both foreign and domestic revenues,
managing the budget process and cash resources, setting fiscal policies and
forecasting government revenues. The MoF is also responsible for
borrowing on behalf of the government and managing the purse strings,
which sometimes requires limiting the spending by which ministries try to
deliver on their respective policy goals.

In a funding structure using government borrowing, the MoF effectively

serves as the borrower on behalf of the government. The borrowed funds
will be used for the procurement of the transmission infrastructure and the
government accounts will reflect a new debt. Once the funds are
borrowed, the government can choose to either procure the transmission
line itself or, in turn, lend the borrowed funds to the transmission utility
which will procure the transmission infrastructure and repay the
government from its revenue (diagram below). Even for the latter
scenario, the government remains responsible for the entirety of the debt
and will have to pay its lenders even if the transmission utility fails to repay
the government.

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

Figure 3.1: Simplified model of government funding of infrastructure project

with borrowed funds

On the African continent, the government is most likely to access

financing for transmission infrastructure via concessional borrowing or
ECA financing. The borrowed funds are used to procure and pay an EPC
contractor to construct the specified transmission infrastructure. As
explained in the funding chapter 2. Financing Structures and Capital Sources,
MDBs and ECAs can lend to a government via the Ministry of Finance to
fund capital expenditure costs. The Lake Turkana Transmission Line case
study described below illustrates the use of concessional borrowing and
ECA financing for the construction of a transmission line.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Case Study — The Loiyangalani–Suswa High Voltage Power Line

(“Lake Turkana Transmission Line”)

Figure 3.2: Schematic of the Lake Turkana Wind Project Transmission Line

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

The Lake Turkana Transmission Line starts at the 310 MW Lake Turkana Wind
Power plant in Marsabit County, Kenya, and runs south for approximately 428 km
to the KETRACO substation in Suswa, Narok county, approximately 100 km west of
Nairobi. In 2010, the Spanish government offered to finance the construction of the
double circuit line. This included a concessional loan (for 30 years, with a low
interest rate) of €55m and a commercial credit in an equal amount offered by the
Spanish ECA (with commercial lending sitting behind it).

Figure 3.3: The original relationship among parties in the Lake Turkana
Transmission line project at the time of commissioning of the line

The Kenya Electricity Transmission Company (KETRACO), created in 2008, agreed

to partly fund the line and substation by way of a tolling agreement with Kenya
Power. With a large dedicated generation project attached, the potential for future
generation projects alongside the transmission line corridor (an area with
geothermal power potential) and the possibility for the line to interconnect with
the Kenya-Ethiopia interconnector, the economic case for the project was clear.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Interface risk and cost overrun

The initial Spanish EPC contractor who was awarded the contract to construct the
transmission line faced many implementation challenges, including a protracted
wayleave and land acquisition process for which KETRACO was responsible, which
delayed construction works. The initial Spanish EPC contractor subsequently filed
for bankruptcy. The transmission line was eventually completed by a consortium of
Chinese firms and officially commissioned in July 2019, behind schedule with a
$96M cost over run ultimately financed from the government's balance sheet. The
Lake Turkana Power Plant had already been commissioned in September 2018,
earning deemed energy payments while waiting for the power plant’s connection to
the grid to deliver energy to the wider Kenyan grid via the newly constructed line.

Given the Lake Turkana Wind Power project was an IPP and fully developed by the
private sector, it raised an interesting discussion of “project on project” risk, with
the two projects entirely interdependent but financed by separate means, and the
former through commercial sources with the latter via sovereign borrowing. The
risk allocation between the various stakeholders was heavily negotiated, with the
Government of Kenya (GoK) bearing the responsibility for the timely delivery of the
transmission line. The AfDB provided a €20 million PRG to backstop GoK’s
completion risk on the transmission line, providing comfort to the Lake Turkana
Wind Power lenders that deemed energy payment obligations would be met in the
event the transmission line commissioning was delayed.

The Lake Turkana cost overruns highlight the magnitude of the interface risk for
interdependent projects. For this reason, transmission lines are often wrapped in
the financing and scope of a generation project. Further in this chapter, we discuss
generation-linked transmission projects for which it was decided to finance and
construct the transmission asset via the same project to significantly reduce the
interface risk.

Government debt sustainability

The financing of transmission infrastructure from government borrowing
is an attractive method of funding as it can produce favourable terms (e.g.,
low-interest rate, long repayment period, etc.) provided the government
can afford the debt. This type of loan is not extended based on the

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

transmission utility's ability to secure the necessary income to repay the

loan but on the government’s fiscal ability to collect sufficient revenue to
service and repay the debt. It, therefore, provides more flexibility and
allows the government to rely on its full fiscal revenue for the
development of the power sector.

Nonetheless, this method of funding requires careful management of the

impact of the borrowing on the country’s debt sustainability efforts. Hence,
the transmission project will have to compete with other projects as it will
ultimately affect the country’s ability to borrow for other sectors of its
economy. Moreover, the government will have to ensure that the
transmission infrastructure will ultimately improve the viability of the
sector as a series of uneconomical transmission financing can easily drain
the government’s finances and have long-lasting repercussions on the
overall economy. Furthermore, government balance sheet funding may be
restricted by other international geopolitical factors as most government
borrowing in SSA is provided by other governments, government agencies
and MDBs.

State-owned utility borrowing

Countries with energy sectors that can independently recover their
investment and operating costs have state-owned utilities that require
minimal government subsidies or interventions to stay financially solvent.
There are only a handful of state-owned power utilities in SSA that are
sufficiently creditworthy to allow them to borrow from external sources.
The repayment of the loan is not necessarily linked to the performance of
the underlying asset that has been constructed but secured against other
sources of income or revenue generated by the state-owned utility. The
state-owned utility borrowing can be from ECAs and DFIs or the capital
market.

An ECA and some DFIs can lend directly to the state-owned utility to fund
the capital expenditure (CAPEX) requirements of a specified transmission
infrastructure project, securing repayment against the utility’s balance
sheet. Whereas the DFI will be agnostic on sourcing, as described above,

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

the ECA will finance and disburse against invoices for a specified EPC
scope of work which shows equipment and services from the ECA
country.

Further, a creditworthy power utility responsible for transmission assets

may choose to raise a corporate bond from capital markets for general-
purpose borrowing, and then use a portion of those proceeds for
investment in new, or the rehabilitation of existing, transmission
infrastructure. An example of state-owned utility capital market
borrowing is provided in the following case study.

Case Study — Caprivi Link InterConnector

NamPower, Namibia’s national power utility, is responsible for generation,
transmission and energy trading, reporting up to the Ministry of Mines and Energy.
Its favourable and independent financial credit rating has allowed it to raise
financing from the capital markets for its long-term projects.

In 2007, NamPower successfully dual-listed a $3B Namibian dollar-denominated

long-term debt issue on both the Namibian and South African stock exchanges to
fund the Caprivi Link Interconnector connecting Namibia to the Zambian and
Zimbabwean electricity networks by 2009. Notable features at the time included a
300MW bipolar scheme, upgradeable to 600MW, and comprising a 951 km 350kV
high voltage direct current (HVDC) bipolar line, along with numerous substations.
This represented the first cross-border debt-raising transaction completed in
Southern African capital markets, to finance a cross-border interconnection in line
with the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) with the objective to interconnect all
Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries.

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3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

Figure 3.4: Corporate borrowing from ECAs or DFIs

a case of Caprivi Link project

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

Features of Public Sector-

led Funding Structures
Ownership and control
Government-supported financing is the most common approach to
financing transmission infrastructure projects in Africa. Government
balance sheet financing supports infrastructure ownership and controls
being retained by the government and/or the relevant transmission utility,
thereby increasing the asset base of, and sources of revenue, for the
country. In addition, the government or the transmission utility remains in
full control of the technical designs, timelines and process in the
development of the transmission infrastructure.

Where the transmission utility maintains ownership of the transmission

infrastructure, it also bears the risk and responsibility for the proper
management and maintenance of the infrastructure. This extends to:
Proper planning and management of outages
Regular and prudent maintenance
Minimising losses due to theft or disrepair
Swift reaction to repairs, defects, and emergencies
Matters relating to security and insurance

This often results in significant reserves being required to meet the costs of
such obligations.

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

Balance sheet impact

Public sector-led funding structures will affect the balance sheets of both
the government and the utility. Such funding structures also affect the
extent of the government’s debt sustainability. Hence, these structures
require significant fiscal discipline.

Private Sector-led Funding

Structure
Generation-linked transmission projects
There are examples of transmission infrastructure that is built by an IPP
developer as part of a generation project. Generation power projects tend
to be located as close as possible to fuel sources (river, coal mine, solar
radiation, etc.). However, especially for renewable projects, the fuel
sources are often far from existing grid connections and may require the
construction of additional transmission infrastructure including
substations. When procuring a new generation project, the government or
the transmission utility may therefore decide that the transmission
infrastructure is to be built by the IPP as part of the broader generation
project and handed over to the government. Depending on the developer’s
appetite and the size of the transmission line asset, the IPP might be
interested to accept to take on the construction (and potentially financing)
of a transmission line that will connect its project to the grid. Nonetheless,
since the transmission line is transferred to the utility at some point in the
project, the transmission line is ultimately will be government-owned.

This kind of model is used to reduce the connection risk in IPP projects.
This ‘connection risk’ is the risk that the IPP or power plant is producing

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

(or able to produce) electricity but cannot deliver it to end users because of
a lack of connectivity to a transmission line. This could manifest itself in
the construction phase of the power generation project where the delay in
the construction and completion of the transmission infrastructure in turn
delays the achievement of an anticipated commercial operations date under
the power generation project.

This model allows the IPP to be in control of the interface risk between the
two projects — generation and transmission. If this risk is not managed in
this way, the typical remedy to the IPP is the inclusion of “deemed energy”
payments under the power purchase agreement. These are payments
calculated based on the loss of revenue from the energy that would have
been delivered but for the transmission line unavailability event. Where
generation is in the private sector but transmission is in the public sector,
there is an increased financial risk on the government to pay these
“deemed energy” payments (e.g., see above Case Study — Lake Turkana
Transmission Line) to the extent the government or transmission utility
does not manage or deliver the transmission infrastructure or make it
available for the IPP to use.

The extra equity investment and debt funding necessary for the
supplemental transmission work can either be repaid via a cash payment
by the transmission utility when the transmission infrastructure is handed
over or can be compensated through a higher generation tariff which
reflects the additional fixed cost incurred to connect the power project to
the national grid. The transmission asset will typically be handed over to
the transmission utility at the commercial operation date, even if the cost
of the construction is repaid to the IPP through the electricity tariff under
the PPA.

Some considerations that arise when transmission infrastructure is built

and captive to the benefit of one beneficiary (closed access for other
usages) but which is ultimately handed to the transmission utility to
maintain via public funds, is whether the transmission line still serves the

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

greater public good. This may still be the case if the captive line provides
reliable electricity to industrial users, who have wider economic benefits
for a country.

Case Study — Self-build funding model in the South African IPP

programmes
The South African government, through its energy ministry, has undertaken the
competitive procurement of many independent power producer (IPP) programmes
across various technologies since 2010. One of the most lauded of these
programmes is the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement
Programme (REIPPPP). Today REIPPPP is in its fifth round of procurement. As of
the end of round 4 bidding, the South African power utility Eskom Holdings SOC
Limited (Eskom) concluded PPAs for 92 renewable energy projects with a total
capacity of 6327 MW. Grid connection and integration of the power generation
facility to the national grid was a key feature of the REIPPPP.

Facing Eskom funding constraints and the short timelines required for grid
connection, the REIPPPP was structured to allow bidders to elect to build the grid
connection facilities on a "self-build" basis as part of their bid. The option was
initially only made available for distribution facilities but in the second quarter of
2015, Eskom's transmission division introduced a self-build option to its customers,
both electricity generators and consumers.

In this option, the customer can elect to design, procure, construct and commission
the transmission assets. The customer undertakes the design, route selection and
procuring of all authorisations, with consultation and the approval of Eskom, who
ultimately ensures the transmission infrastructure aligns with existing grid
technical specifications. After successful commissioning, the customer is obliged to
transfer full ownership of the transmission assets and all environmental
authorisations, wayleaves, approvals and permits to Eskom. Eskom states in its
Transmission Development Plan published in January 2021 that the intention is to
give customers greater control over risk factors affecting their network connection.
However, it is important to note that transmission infrastructure expects that it is
open access, meaning there could be the possibility of connecting other generation
assets and other customers to the self-build transmission line after it is handed over
to Eskom.

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

The self-build option has since also been expanded to allow customers to also build
associated works (such as substations) that will be shared with other customers,
based on an assessment by Eskom of the accompanying risks to the transmission
system and other customers. Since this is purely a voluntary option, the option of
Eskom constructing the generator or customer's network and paying a connection
charge also remains available to bidders and customers alike.

What is important to note with this option is that the customer bears the risk and
responsibility to finance the transmission infrastructure construction works,
including the authorisations required and the wayleave acquisition (including
compensation). These costs are recovered through the tariff over the term of the
PPA, so IPPs need to consider these additional costs when bidding into the tender.

Due to the success of the self-build option, this approach has been adopted by the
South African government in all subsequent IPP programmes.

Summary of Key Points

Most existing funding methods of transmission infrastructure in Africa
are public-sector led.
They are akin to corporate finance structures as the financing is based
on the ability of the government to raise financing and not on the
viability of the cash flows from the transmission project specifically. Of
these methods, government borrowing and ECA solutions (which also
require a government guarantee) are by far the most common funding
structures utilised.
The most common private sector-led funding method used for
transmission projects in SSA is the wrapping up of the construction and
financing of the transmission project into a related IPP power
generation project.
Government-supported financing is the most common approach to
financing transmission infrastructure projects in Africa. It can be an

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 3. COMMON FUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE AFRICAN MARKET

attractive method of funding as it can produce favourable terms (e.g.,

low-interest rate, long repayment period, etc.) if the government can
afford the debt.
There are examples of transmission infrastructure that are built by an
IPP developer as part of a generation project. Depending on the
developer’s appetite and the size of the transmission line asset, an IPP
might be interested to take on the construction (and potentially
financing) of a transmission line that will connect its project to the grid.

53
4. Introduction to
Private Funding
Structures
 4. INTRODUCTION TO PRIVATE FUNDING STRUCTURES

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce some private sector business
models which have been applied to finance transmission infrastructure in
other parts of the world. More detailed information on the different
funding structures will be provided in the following chapters which dive
into the details of each model. This chapter aims to provide tools to ensure
that well-informed decisions can be made. More specifically, we will look
at key considerations in determining whether these business models are, or
could be, applicable in a particular country or market.

Which model is more suitable for a country or a specific project depends

on many factors which are country and project-specific. A detailed
assessment is recommended to identify all the relevant considerations and
provide the advantages and disadvantages of the various options, so the
government can make the best decision. Nevertheless, whilst private sector
involvement in the transmission sector can take many forms, this book
will discuss:
Independent power transmission (IPT) projects (in chapter 5)
Whole-of-grid concessions (in chapter 6)
Privatisation (in chapter 7)
Merchant lines (in chapter 7) and
Industrial demand-driven models (in chapter 7)

The two most applicable structures to the African context based on the
current state of its electricity supply industry are the IPT and the whole-of-

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 UNDERSTANDING POWER TRANSMISSION FINANCING

grid concession. For this reason, more details will be provided on these
two models than on privatisation, merchant lines, and industrial demand-
driven models.

Key Considerations
Ownership, control, and maintenance
An obstacle to privately financed transmission infrastructure is often the
perception that the national power company or transmission system
operator (TSO) will lose control over the sector. On the contrary, in many
cases, the private investor builds the transmission project and turns over
the operation of the assets to the TSO immediately upon completion of
construction and project acceptance. In other cases, the private investor
only owns and operates physical transmission assets without managing the
electrical system and coordinating generation dispatch and power flows.

Another important consideration is that ownership and control do not

have to be held under the same organisation. Who owns the transmission
infrastructure may vary depending on whether it is an IPT or a whole-of-
grid concession. It is also possible to find variations within the same
model. For example, an IPT may be entitled to own the infrastructure
which it constructs on a long-term basis, but it may also be a condition of
the project documents or a condition of the relevant licensing regime that
ownership of the assets is transferred to the state-owned utility or another
state-owned entity at the end of a fixed period.

Furthermore, operation and maintenance can be separate as maintenance

of the transmission assets (under the project) can be carried out by the
private investor or a maintenance contractor or even be subcontracted to
the national transmission company.

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 4. INTRODUCTION TO PRIVATE FUNDING STRUCTURES

Depending on the objectives of the government, it is, therefore, possible to

calibrate the degree of control retained in respect of the transmission asset
as well as define the ownership of the asset during and after the duration of
the core agreement.

Financing and risk allocation

Although there are many advantages to private funding, the nature of the
financing will also carry constraints and requirements. When choosing a
private funding model for financing transmission infrastructure, a
government must be aware that it will require efforts in negotiating a
complex commercial transaction often driven by well-established market
standards. This is especially true when it comes to project finance which is
typically the method of financing for IPTs.

Risk allocation is the key component of project financing and by extension

may determine the success or failure of the privately-funded transmission
project. While there is a natural tendency to attempt to shift risks to other
parties, it is wise to keep in mind the golden rule of risk management: Each
risk should be allocated to the party that is in the best position to first
control/reduce it and then manage it. Imposing risks on the private
investor, even though it is not in the best position to manage them, will
typically result in a more expensive or even unbankable project. Allocating
the risks to the party which is in the best position to manage them will
help to de-risk and reduce the overall cost of the project and the final
tariffs.

Regulatory framework
There may be concerns that the legal/regulatory framework may not be
ready for some forms of private investments. Although this may be a
genuine challenge, it is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is usually
possible to put some of these models in place within existing frameworks.
If legal change is required, the project could be structured to address the

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lack of laws/regulations (regulation by contract) and can be used as a

testing ground to learn from and ensure that the laws/regulations which
are finally approved are the right ones for the country.

Approach to Risk Allocation

As is the case with all power projects, transmission projects have many
risks, some unique to transmission and others similar to all power projects.
The most challenging risks in private transmission projects are: 1) land
acquisition (“rights-of-way”) and 2) securing the revenue stream.

While each country and project have their own uniqueness which needs to
be taken into account, some important lessons learned have emerged from
the numerous transmission projects that have been implemented so far:
Consider carefully (and with an open mind!) what organisation is in the
best position to acquire land and secure “rights-of-way”; it may be the
developer or a government entity. Whoever takes the responsibility
may need support from a third organisation (e.g., a multilateral bank).
Environmental and social issues should be identified from the earliest
stage of project development and be addressed in the best way possible.
Extensive public consultation is essential and often helps to overcome
key obstacles.
Keep the project simple! For example, in the case of an IPT, an annuity
payment linked to asset availability is preferable (for all parties).
Securing a revenue stream to the project may require some creativity if
the sector is not financially viable. There is a lot of experience on how
an acceptable structure can be designed to address the specific needs of
each project. Escrow accounts, project finance waterfalls, offtaker
guarantees, and others could be deployed as necessary.

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We would further note that countries that have successfully delivered IPPs
may well choose to replicate some parts of the documentation structure of
IPP models into the transmission sector. This may inform, for example,
how the risk allocation between the government and the private sector is
documented. In countries where political risks are taken by the
government by way of a put/call options agreement (PCOA) for example,
this documentation method may be replicated in the transmission sector.
In other countries, political risks are dealt with in an “implementation
agreement” or “concession agreement” and government officials may be
more comfortable with both the nomenclature and risk allocation set out
in these documents, as negotiated in the IPP space.

While it is important to be efficient and not “reinvent the wheel”, it is also

crucial to take a fresh look at how risks are allocated as there may be
particular differences in the risk allocation agreed in that country on the
generation side that does not apply to the transmission side, due to the
specific nature of a particular project.

The Role of Key

Stakeholders for Privately
Funded Structures
The private developer/investor can be responsible for some or all of the
project preparation, design, financing, construction and operation of the
project. Depending on how and when the project developer will come on
board, it may have substantial project preparation activities to complete.
This depends on the procurement approach to select the
developer/investor (competitive bidding or sole source).

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Financing will typically be provided by other organisations too, including

equity and debt. The financial institutions will carry out due diligence of
the project including review of the various contracts, as well as assessment
of the risks and project “bankability”, ahead of financial closure. At
financial closure, the lenders will commit to the project and their funds
will be drawn down to fund construction.

The government may have a substantial role to play in the transaction,

especially if the project is not commercially viable. The risk allocation
matrix in fact should determine the role of each project stakeholder
including the government. In an IPT, the investor and the government
may enter into a Government Services Agreement (GSA) which
supplements the agreement between the investor and the offtaker.

Often, the Multilateral Development Banks have a substantial role to play. In

the case of a financially unsustainable power sector, the government might
work closely with the MDB to develop a roadmap to power sector
sustainability. This roadmap could be developed in parallel with the project
but it should include specific milestones which should be monitored and
may be linked to the project agreements. Also, the MDBs may provide:
Financial and technical support for project planning (including power
system planning, project feasibility studies, ESIA, etc. — see chapter
9. Planning and Project Preparation)
Review and improvement of the legal and regulatory framework
Support in land acquisition
Guarantees required to secure project cash flow and offtaker risks
Political and force majeure risk coverage

Last but not least, bilateral organisations and donor agencies could play a
catalytic role too. They may help with technical assistance in project
planning activities, but also they may provide grants or concessional
lending because the projects fulfil an important role in the country’s

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economy. Also, they may provide funding to close the viability gap (e.g.,
similar to KfW’s GETFiT programme). In this way, scarce grant funding
can be used in a targeted way to unlock larger sums of private sector
investment. Private sector procurement and management practices can
also benefit projects which may otherwise have been solely donor-led or
implemented by transmission utilities with capacity shortages or
governance shortfalls.

Providing hybrid private sector/donor funding for IPTs, for example, can
significantly boost the availability of funding to the sector. The provision
of grant funding for a project may not have a positive or negative impact
on investor returns since funding models for this asset class are typically
fixed or capped. The impact of viability gap funding like this would simply
increase the envelope available to multiply the number of projects which
can be undertaken.

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5. Independent
Power Transmission
(IPT) Projects
 5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION (IPT) PROJECTS

Introduction
This chapter will discuss the Independent Power Transmission (IPT)
model, the scope of which involves the design, construction, and financing
of a single transmission line or a set of transmission lines and/or associated
transmission infrastructure such as substations. The IPT models described
below assume transmission assets that are connected with the country’s
wider electricity network rather than captive assets for the benefit of an
industrial offtaker (which are discussed in chapter 7. Other Private Funding
Structures). Although an IPT is typically used for the development of
greenfield assets, we will also explore how the same concepts can be used
for the refurbishment of existing transmission assets.

In emerging markets, IPTs are implemented under a long-term contract,

generally between the state-owned transmission utility and a project
company. The contract will typically define the economic payment model,
and the roles and responsibilities for the new infrastructure, including
ownership, construction, maintenance and financing responsibilities.
These contracts can be structured as transmission service agreements
(TSA) but may also take other forms such as lease or line concession
agreements. In this chapter, the long-term contract will be referred to as a
TSA although it might have another name in practice.

IPTs have a proven record in many countries across the world including
Latin America and Asia. They are often described as a less disruptive
intervention in the transmission sector than the other available private
business models as they typically can be implemented with limited or no
regulatory reform. The IPT model, therefore, has the potential to unlock

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many critical infrastructure projects in SSA and, if well structured, could

help African transmission utilities quickly finance lines that have a direct
and positive impact on their revenue.

IPT Business Models

There are a handful of different IPT business models which have
successfully resulted in transmission infrastructure built, maintained and
financed by private project companies. While very similar, in that the
private party assumes construction and financing risk in all IPT models,
they vary by degree of ownership and maintenance obligations which will
normally change the terms of repayment and the risk allocation between
the project company and the transmission utility. The return on
investment expectations, as well as the cost of financing, will increase the
more the project company bears risks that condition its repayment.

“Operations” — Line operation and maintenance or system

operation
“Operations” in this chapter refer to specific maintenance activities required to
ensure that a transmission line and other associated infrastructure are available to
be used when specified. This is different from “System Operations'', which is carried
out by the transmission utility/transmission system operator (TSO) on a whole
network basis and involves system control and dispatch of generation facilities.
Notwithstanding the IPT model used, system control and dispatch will be carried
out by the transmission utility/TSO, not the project company. Hence, in this chapter,
operations refer to “line operation & maintenance” only.

The TSA establishes the financial terms and period during which the
project company is entitled to receive payment in exchange for ensuring
the constructed transmission infrastructure is available to be operated by

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the transmission utility as specified. In most cases, the project company

will not take demand risk (volume or price), or utilisation of transmission
infrastructure risk, since the transmission utility will determine how,
when, and by what means the grid is managed and electricity is dispatched.
The simplest way of structuring TSA payments is as a fixed return on
investment amortised over the term of the TSA, structured as a service
charge with scheduled payment dates. This type of annuity (or unitary
payment) very clearly defines the revenue stream by which investors and
lenders can recover their respective capital injections, which should lower
lenders’ cost of capital and investors’ return expectations. Also, when the
transaction is structured appropriately, the annuity payment becomes the
key criterion for selecting the winning bidder, assuming of course that
competitive bidding is used.

The annuity payment will be sized to ensure the project company can
recover expenses associated with capital expenditure, financing and
operating and maintenance agreement (O&M) expenses related to
constructing, financing and, if applicable, operating the transmission
infrastructure. Depending on the IPT business model, there may be an
element of payment variability associated with asset performance linked to
O&M obligations. However, baseline payment will be sized to ensure
ongoing debt servicing. Below are the most common IPT business models:
Build-Own-Operate (BOO): The TSA grants the project company the
right to build and maintain the transmission infrastructure for an
undefined period. Theoretically, the project company is not obligated to
transfer its ownership when the TSA terminates. This can cause issues
around ownership of the assets by the project company but no clear
legal basis for the revenue streams associated with it at the end of the
term. During the term of the TSA, a portion of the annuity payment
can be conditional on the project company meeting technical
performance specifications or key performance indicators (KPIs),
ensuring the transmission infrastructure is available to be fully utilised
when required.

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Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT): The TSA specifies that the

project company has a responsibility to maintain and operate the
transmission infrastructure for a period after the assets are constructed,
before transferring ownership and O&M obligations back to the
transmission utility. As with BOO, a portion of the annuity payment
may be conditioned on the transmission infrastructure meeting
predefined KPIs.
Build-Own-Transfer (BOT): Once the assets are constructed, the TSA
directs the project company to transfer the ownership of assets to the
transmission utility upon project completion. O&M for the
transmission infrastructure may fall outside of the project company’s
responsibility and will most likely fall to the transmission utility. In this
case, the annuity payment will be unconditional on the transmission
assets’ performance, because the project company is not responsible for
asset maintenance or operation.

In most IPT models that have been successfully implemented to date in

Latin America and Asia, the private ownership of transmission-related
assets is transferred to the transmission utility at the end of the TSA term.

BOOTs used extensively in Latin America

38 projects implemented in Brazil (220kV lines for a total of 50,000 km) and
18 projects in Peru (220kV and 500kV lines for a total of 7,560 km) were BOOT.

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Enabling Environment
There are some countries in SSA that have the regulatory environment or
experience with IPPs to be able to implement IPT business models within
existing legislation. For countries with a track record in IPPs, IPTs could
be considered a logical next step in using private capital to develop and
expand their electricity networks. Many of the same government
stakeholders who are familiar with the process and requirements of an IPP
are likely to have the capacity and relevant experience to enable IPTs,
especially when generation and transmission are bundled under the same
utility.

In many countries, a transmission licence will need to be granted to the

project company, either by a regulator or other relevant authority. There
may also be a legal prohibition on private companies owning and
operating transmission infrastructure (e.g., due to concerns about the
natural monopoly characteristic of transmission infrastructure). If there
are legal prohibitions, then there may be ways to structure around this as
described in the section below (Ownership of transmission assets). If this is
not possible, then an IPT business model can only be implemented if the
regulatory structure is amended to allow the granting of a licence or
appropriate authorisations by the regulator or relevant authority.

A regulator will typically have a role in approving (and likely licencing) the
project company to implement a specified IPT business model. Thereafter,
the regulator is likely to be responsible for monitoring compliance with
licence conditions, which could include identified KPIs under the TSA
during the O&M phase. When the TSA includes a simplified payment
model, which eliminates demand risk, the regulator will typically wish to
understand and approve the payment model. Before a TSA is being agreed
to, the regulator needs to understand the cost and benefit to the sector but
will not need to review complex tariff methodologies periodically during
the TSA as required with power generation projects.

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How It Works
Project phases
There are three key phases of an IPT project:

1. Project development
2. Construction and
3. Operations

Project development phase

See chapter 9. Planning and Project Preparation for a description of the
planning process of transmission projects. Project selection is critical in
determining which transmission infrastructure is suitable for an IPT. Some
of the key criteria to examine include:

A. The commercial case for the project

The economics of the relevant project will have to be analysed based
on the available data on the sector’s financial viability and growth
prospects, and a set of assumptions. Projects that deliver the following
efficiencies are well suited for an IPT business model: (i) can be
delivered faster with lower O&M costs by the private sector, and (ii)
likely to improve the sector’s cash flows by increasing the network’s
availability (e.g., by connecting new end users to power supply,
thereby meeting unserved demand). These types of projects are
generally identified during the power system planning phase.

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B. The suitability of alternative funding sources

An analysis of whether there are other funds in the budget at the
national, ministerial, or utility level for the financing of the
infrastructure should be completed. The government should also
assess whether there are donor funds readily available to procure the
project without it being an IPT — if this is the case, some efficiencies
from the private sector’s ability to maintain and operate the asset at a
lower cost may be lost. If some alternative funding sources are
identified, the government should then decide whether the
transmission infrastructure is the best use of these funds.

C. The project size

An IPT is unlikely to be a suitable solution for smaller projects.
Typically, for projects less than US$50 million, given the expense
required for project preparation and execution, an IPT may not be the
most suitable method of financing. It should be noted, however, that a
series of smaller projects can be aggregated into a portfolio and
executed as part of a single IPT investment.

D. If there are any particular challenges associated with a particular project

An assessment of the overall legal and regulatory regime will be key to
identify any particular challenges with an identified project.
Environment and social risks should also be considered early to avoid
obstacles that might stifle the financing efforts at a later stage (e.g., the
construction of a transmission line through a protected natural
reserve). This is not to say that easy projects should be implemented
through the IPT model, but it would be wise that the first IPT project
does not have added complications, as implementing a privately
financed transmission project is challenging enough in a country with
no relevant experience.

The host country can decide to allocate a project to a developer at an early

stage in the project’s development or to undertake a certain level of
preparatory work first. Allowing the developer to take responsibility for

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early-stage preparation provides more flexibility and may result in more

innovation and cost savings. It also relieves the government from raising
funds for project preparation and requires less capacity and government
resources, although external funding may be available for conducting
feasibility studies by the government or by the private sector. On the
negative side, the developer needs to be selected before the design and
investment requirements are finalised.

Countries can also choose to carry out a certain level of preparatory work
centrally before conducting an auction or tender process to attract a
greater level of investor interest and procure the most cost-effective
construction solution and lowest cost of financing. While effective, this
approach requires more resources initially to manage the project
preparation phase until the developer is selected. Further detail on
choosing between these approaches can be found in the Understanding Power
Project Procurement handbook.

Regardless of who will be responsible for each activity, the following

workstreams need to be completed during the preparation stage:

A. Comprehensive feasibility study. A feasibility study will be required,

which reaffirms the need for the project, evaluates the alternative
design options and recommends a specific scope based on an economic
analysis of the project and its alternatives. The recommended scope
along with the grid code (if it exists) would form the basis for the
design specifications.

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B. Environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA). Environmental

and social issues need to be identified as early as possible in the project
development phase. An ESIA will be required; they are usually
conducted by third-party environmental consultants. Even a
preliminary ESIA could identify major environmental and social issues
which may have a substantial impact on the project (affecting its
design or routing or even stopping the project). Early consultations
with all the key stakeholders are essential, including those concerning
the potential resettlement of peoples in areas along the transmission
route. Requirements by lending institutions may be relevant and need
to be taken into account.
C. Development of an EPC procurement strategy. How the project will
ultimately be built and delivered will be dependent on the strategy of
the transmission utility and relevant ministry. Assuming an IPT route
is chosen, the IPT themselves will have to choose how to procure the
project, i.e. they will typically run a process to choose an EPC
contractor (or separate suppliers of equipment and a contractor for
civil works). This can be a complex process due to issues of risk
transfer and mitigation between the transmission utility, project
company, and construction contractors.
D. Permitting and licensing. There may be several permits and licenses
that need to be obtained, and it is important to lay out a plan as early
as possible. Such permits and licenses may include the following: land
acquisition/lease, construction permits (including access to the site),
environmental permits, grid connection agreements, operating
permits, etc. If the country has a grid code, it should be taken into
account in both the design of the assets and the required
licenses/permits.

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E. Developing a financing plan. This will be an early stage consideration

and those developing the project will keep improving it as the project
moves forward, more information becomes available, and risks are
affected. Cost of financing and key terms required by financiers will
impact project cost and delivery and this needs to be worked on
iteratively with the other development workstreams. See chapter
2. Financing Structures and Capital Sources for further details.

The development phase will end when the project reaches “financial close,”
i.e. when all conditions precedent to the disbursement of the debt required
for the project have been met, and monies disbursed.

Construction phase
After a financial closure has been achieved, construction will begin. The
project company will typically be responsible for managing the project
activities required to complete the infrastructure, although in some
instances there may be a third party acting as construction manager. Even
in the case of a single contractor (EPC), an owner’s engineer will typically
be retained to supervise all aspects of the project and advise the project
developer/owner. Some financial institutions may employ their own
engineers and legal advisors to monitor construction, in particular the
environmental and social aspects. Lenders will typically disburse their
loans to fund the construction of the assets during this phase, although in
some cases the equity investor in the project company may decide to
finance the construction phase and refinance once the asset is built and
delivered.

Operations phase
Generally speaking in IPT models, the control and dispatch of power will
be the responsibility of the transmission utility acting as TSO, given the
interface with the wider network. It is possible, but rare, for the private
sector project company to take operational control of a section of the
transmission network. Maintenance of the asset, which may include some

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localised operational activities, may be the responsibility of the project

company. The project company may decide to have its own staff or hire a
contractor to undertake this maintenance. In some cases, maintenance will
be the responsibility of the transmission utility, either under the terms of
the TSA or because the project company contracts back to the
transmission utility under a maintenance agreement. The role of the
project company in this respect has an impact on investor risk and is likely
to determine the most suitable payment model that is agreed between the
project company and the transmission utility (or an alternative offtaker).
The decision as to which party is responsible for the maintenance and/or
localised operations is a function of the risk analysis and how the project
fits into the overall system strategy of the government.

Stakeholders
The roles of each relevant sector participant concerning an IPT are set out
in the table below.

Sector Participant Role

The project company will have at least one

shareholder/equity sponsor. In the case where projects
are allocated earlier in the process, the owner of the
project company will probably also develop the project.
The developer will then either fund the project company
with sufficient equity to capitalise it in the long term at a
financial close or it will bring in a new shareholder. As
with the IPP sector, developers usually carry out work
and fund early-stage activities “on risk” in consideration
for earning development fees, which are typically paid at
financial close.

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Among the other project development activities

undertaken by the developer/equity sponsor, it will take
responsibility for arranging debt finance for the project
company. During the lifetime of the IPT investment, the
developer/equity sponsor will manage the project
company and be the key point of interface between the
project company and the stakeholders.

Lenders will finance the project company with loans.

They will typically be mandated during the development
phase to review the contracts developed by the
developer/equity investor and test their “bankability”
ahead of financial close (see below). At the financial close
the lenders will fund the project and their loans will be
drawn down to fund construction. IPT lenders include
MDBs, bilateral DFIs, ECAs, and donor agencies. To
provide long-term lending, international commercial
lenders will likely only be able to participate with some
kind of political risk or credit insurance from an ECA or
DFI. Some local funding may be available as part of an
overall funding package.

The “offtaker” is the organisation responsible for paying

the IPT under the Transmission Services Agreement. In
most cases, this will be the transmission utility, but it
could be a different organisation in some countries, such
as a distribution company or another government entity.

The transmission utility’s role in the sector is unlikely to

change as a result of an IPT project. In most cases, the
transmission utility will continue to be responsible for all
transmission operations in the host country and it will
control dispatch and system operations. Existing
infrastructure owned by the transmission utility will
interface with the IPT’s infrastructure. The terms of
many IPT projects will involve the transfer of the assets
of the IPT project company to the transmission utility at
the end of the term of the TSA.

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5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION (IPT) PROJECTS

The government’s role in an IPT project is typically to

assume certain state risks to protect the project
company from risks it is not best placed to manage. The
agreement between the government and the project
company may be reflected in the Government
Service/Support Agreement (GSA), which needs to be
agreed upon and signed by both parties. The government
here could be one or more ministries (usually the
Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Energy, or their
equivalents) and may also include a Ministry of Land. A
PPP Unit or Presidential Delivery Unit may also be a
relevant governmental stakeholder.
The level of support provided by the government in this
respect will have an impact on the availability and pricing
of debt and equity finance available for the IPT project.
See further discussions in chapters 2. Financing Structures
and Capital Sources and 11. Common Risks for further
analysis on the range of government support available
during both construction and operations phases.

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Contractual Structure

Figure 5.1: Relationship structure in an Independent Power Transmission

Special Purpose Vehicle model

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 5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION (IPT) PROJECTS

Risk Allocation Matrix

The risk matrix below summarises how key risks might be allocated to
different stakeholders within a TSA. For a more detailed discussion and
commentary on the individual risks, especially as they pertain to private
investment in transmission infrastructure, please see chapter 11. Common
Risks.

Please note that the table below is indicative and not meant to be
exhaustive. The precise risk allocation between the parties on any
particular transaction may be different to what is identified below as
typical. Risk allocation is always subject to the fact pattern existing in
relation to a particular transaction, investor appetite, and what risks a
government is prepared and able to take on with respect to a particular
transaction.

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Stakeholder bearing risk

Risk
Govt/ IPT
Transmission project
utility company

Financial risk

Demand risk

Credit risk

Inflation

Interest rates

Foreign exchange rates

Buy-out payment

Land

Pre-existing environmental conditions

Pre-existing conditions in the title

Land acquisition

Technical risk

Construction and commissioning of assets

Scope changes before or during construction

Interface between lines, substations, and

generation facilities

Technical risks related to the adoption of new

technologies

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 5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION (IPT) PROJECTS

Operation, maintenance, technical performance

KPIs, service levels

Accidents, damage, theft

Social and environmental risk

Social and environmental impacts

Occupational health and safety

Resettlement

Non-political force majeure events

Political and Regulatory Risks

Initial issuance of licenses, permits

Renewals, modifications

Changes in law

Changes in tax

Political force majeure events

Disputes

Resolution of disputes arising under contracts

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Financing Structure
One of the main advantages that IPT business models bring is the ability
for transmission utilities or host governments to expand transmission
infrastructure using off-balance-sheet financing, via third-party
investment and financing, freeing up financial resources for other
purposes.

Security Arrangements
It is important to note that while asset ownership may lie with the project
company for the duration of the TSA term, in practice, the key form of
security relied upon by project lenders will be the revenue stream set out
within the TSA. As indicated above, while a project company may be
entitled to own the transmission infrastructure which it constructs
permanently, the regulatory licensing regime or the TSA itself may dictate
that the ownership of transmission infrastructure be transferred to the
transmission utility at the end of the TSA term.

The TSA term is purposely defined for a long period (15 years plus) to
spread the cost of long term transmission assets across many years and
minimise the short term impact of servicing these payments on tariff
structures. Payments are likely to follow a regular schedule over the term
of the TSA.

Payment risk
As discussed earlier, simplified payment structures based on the availability
and performance of the transmission infrastructure strip away demand risk
based on utilisation (volume or end-user fees). This has the benefit of
clearly defining a predictable revenue stream which represents a lower risk

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for investors and therefore attracts a lower cost of capital. Any variability
to the revenue stream introduced via KPI metrics based on a split of risk
allocation between the project company and the transmission utility (e.g.,
for commissioning or O&M responsibilities) may impact revenue risk but
has the advantage of ensuring service quality, which should improve the
operating performance and “availability” of the transmission infrastructure.

Payment risk mitigation

Whether additional credit support from a host government is required will
be a function of the credit of the entity responsible for making scheduled
payments. To the extent the paying entity, or offtaker, has a healthy
balance sheet or the payment obligation is irrevocable and can be insured,
there may be no need for a full sovereign guarantee to backstop ongoing or
termination support. Minimising any sovereign contingent liability has the
benefit of freeing up fiscal space.

If there are concerns about the offtaker’s ability to make timely scheduled
payments, the following can be pursued to provide liquidity support:
government Support Arrangements including termination payments in
the event of non-payment under a TSA;
sector collection accounts that give a degree of priority in payment
waterfalls to investors;
establishing a bank account or a letter of credit structure that maintains
6-month payment reserves; and
non-sovereign credit enhancement products. These are described in
more detail in chapter 2. Financing Structures and Capital Sources.

Advantages of IPT models

Although ECA support (typically for an EPC contractor) offers a host
government an off-balance sheet funding solution, the ECA still requires
an implicit guarantee by requiring the MoF to be a borrower for their
financing facility which can put pressure on the country’s debt capacity. In
addition, the ECA requirement that the borrower provides a

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15% contribution means there is still some amount of cash outlay expected
from public resources, usually in the form of a down payment. While there
could be alternative ways to finance the 15% contribution, this will take
additional time and resources to structure, which can result in other
inefficiencies.

While IPT financing may be more expensive than concessional loans or

ECA financing benefitting from an implicit sovereign guarantee, it can
attract a more diverse set of lenders and result in a lower cost for the
project. As highlighted in the risk allocation matrix above, many types of
lenders can provide cost-competitive financing to support IPT business
models. As outlined in the contract structure diagram in Figure 5.1, the
borrower will be the project company that enters into distinct construction
and TSA contracts, and if applicable, an O&M services agreement.
Depending on the amount of financing to be raised, the lender(s) can
include MDBs, bilateral DFIs and ECAs who can provide long-term loans.
Commercial lenders may be able to provide longer tenor loans with
additional political and/or credit risk insurance from an ECA or MDB.

Other Considerations
Aside from mitigating offtaker payment risk, there are a couple of other
issues worth considering when choosing to implement IPTs which deserve
special mention: land acquisition/right-of-way issues, and transmission
infrastructure ownership.

Land acquisition
Land acquisition is dealt with in chapter 10. Land Acquisition. To implement
an IPT, the party that is best placed to manage this process is best decided
on a case-by-case basis. However, the experience from around the world
suggests that land acquisition/right-of-way risk, in most cases, is best

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handled by the government or a public sector entity. Even countries with

very well-functioning power markets and numerous private transmission
projects already being implemented (such as Brazil) have the government
responsible for land acquisition.

In addition to ownership and local opposition, funding for acquiring the

land and compensating the various stakeholders may be an obstacle too.
Investors can play an important role, working with the government, to
ensure that adequate funding is available and the compensation is fair and
is done promptly. Land issues should be resolved before the agreement
with the private investor is concluded.

Ownership of transmission
This section has focused on implementing IPT business models for
greenfield transmission infrastructure assets to raise financing that is off
the government’s balance sheet. As outlined when defining IPT business
models, the assumption is that the private sector will obtain a licence to
own the transmission infrastructure for some time, after which the
infrastructure is transferred to the transmission utility as set out in the
TSA. This could be for a period of e.g. 20 or 30 years and is sized to allow
the private sector developer to make a return on its investment.

This follows the example of how PPP business models have been applied to
raise third-party financing to build other types of infrastructure, especially
power generation assets. It is rooted in the philosophy that ownership of
the asset runs concurrently with the project company’s right and ability to
operate the relevant asset. It is typically also a lender requirement that the
project company owns the asset for the long term, so that in a scenario
where the project company has not been able to repay the debt it has
incurred (e.g., because the transmission utility has failed to make payments
to the IPT), lenders can recover their costs by selling the assets over which
they have taken security. Lenders will always take some form of security
(collateral) over the project company’s rights, title and interests — and
having security over assets ensures that lenders have recourse to

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something of value, which they can sell (or at least have the right to do so)
if things have gone wrong and the project is in default. Those rights are
tied to the private ownership of the assets themselves.

In transmission infrastructure projects, where the operation of the relevant

asset (e.g., the operation of a transmission line) may rest with the
government utility, the same logic of ownership may not necessarily apply.
In addition, unlike, for example, a generation asset such as a power plant,
dismantling hundreds of kilometres of transmission infrastructure in a
host country to sell to other parties (i.e., taking the ultimate step to enforce
security to repay the debt) is likely to be less practical than for other types
of assets. The analysis on ownership will therefore depend on the relevant
transmission assets in question, who is operating it; and lender
expectations. Security over revenue accounts associated with the
predictable revenue stream and any credit-enhanced liquidity solutions and
other contractual arrangements are arguably where lenders should focus
their attention when structuring bankable solutions, rather than who owns
the asset.

If this principle is accepted, there is room to argue that IPT business

models do not need to rely on private ownership, in which case the
refurbishment of existing transmission lines owned by the transmission
utility could raise third-party financing along the same fundamentals
outlined in previous sections of this chapter.

Case study — IPT: Peru

Peru is a country of 31 million people. Peak electricity demand is around 6200 MW
and electricity production is nearly 50/50 hydro and thermal, even though
renewables are increasing. 85% of the installed capacity is linked to the national
power grid (SEIN) and 15% is in isolated systems. According to the World Bank in
2018, the length of the transmission lines was approximately 22,600 km. The
majority of the demand is along the coast, as shown in Figure 5.2. Strengthening of
the transmission capacity was a priority in the late 1990s and early 2000s when
many transmission projects were implemented.

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Reforms in the sector started in 1992, resulting in full deregulation and substantial
privatisation. Eventually, there were 70 power generators, of which 65 rivately
supplied 63% of the total energy. There are 14 transmission companies, all private,
and 23 distribution companies of which 13 are private with 67% market share.
Regulation of the power sector was well-designed and very effective in supporting
a well-functioning power market.

Procurement of privately financed transmission projects started in 1998. The PPP

process provided the framework for procuring transmission projects. Early on, it
was decided that a BOOT model would be used and private investors would be
selected through a competitive process. A well-balanced risk allocation matrix
(among the investor, offtaker and government) provided the basis for de-risking
these projects, leading to very competitive tariffs and substantial savings, as shown
in Figure 5.3. The basis for bidding was an annuity, independent of demand and
utilisation of the assets.

Eighteen tenders have now been completed leading to the implementation of a

total of 7,560 km transmission lines (220kV and 500kV) and a total budget of
$2.6 billion. All these projects were based on a BOOT model and were 30-year
contracts.

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Figure 5.2: Peru transmission lines

(Source: Pedro E. Sanchez, World Bank 2018)

An important conclusion that can be drawn from the Peruvian experience is that
privately financed projects have been implemented at a fraction of the expected
cost. The experience in other countries (e.g., Brazil and India) were similar. As an
illustration of this, Figure 5.3 below shows that the winning bids in Peru provide
significant savings to the electricity sector versus projected costs (an average of
36% lower).

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 5. INDEPENDENT POWER TRANSMISSION (IPT) PROJECTS

Figure 5.3: Peru — Private Transmission Projects implemented in the period

1998-2017 (based on data in Pedro E. Sanchez, World Bank 2018)

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A case needs to be made on a project-by-project basis as to whether the

benefits of an IPT in terms of availability of funding, flexibility of funding,
and risk transfer to the private sector, mean that this is the most
appropriate solution. The risks that the project company agrees to take
will, to a large extent, determine the returns required by investors. An IPT
will not always be the best solution and most countries will likely have a
long list of projects that are more suitably funded with support from public
funding sources.

However, experience in many countries demonstrates that when well

structured and applied to the most appropriate projects, IPTs can create
substantial value for the sector, improve the quality of power and enhance
energy access. They can lead to efficiencies and lower costs for tariff
payers.

Strategically, a host country’s decision to involve the private sector in the

transmission subsector is a sensible way to improve power sector efficiency
and reduce power supply costs. However, a necessary supplement to
privately financed transmission should be a roadmap to power sector
financial sustainability. IPTs can play an important role in making power
sectors more efficient by unlocking critical projects that increase network
ability to deliver power to areas of unmet demand and therefore increase
sector cash flows. If correctly structured, they can also bring very material
efficiencies, as illustrated by the experience of Peru described above.

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Summary of Key Points

Independent power transmission projects (IPTs) involve the design,
construction, and financing of a single transmission line or a set of
transmission lines and associated infrastructure such as substations.
IPTs are implemented under a long-term contract, generally between
the state-owned transmission utility and a project company. The
contract will typically define the economic payment model, and the
roles and responsibilities concerning the new infrastructure, including
ownership, construction, maintenance and financing responsibilities.
These contracts can be structured as transmission service agreements
(TSA) but may also take other forms, such as lease or line concession
agreements.
Thousands of kilometres of IPTs have been developed in Latin
America, India, and elsewhere. An important conclusion that can be
drawn from the experiences of Brazil, Peru, India, and other countries
is that IPTs are often implemented at a fraction of the anticipated cost.
In Peru, for example, IPTs cost 36% less than expected on average.

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6. Whole-of-grid
Concessions
 6. WHOLE-OF-GRID CONCESSIONS

Introduction
Governments will consider a whole-of-grid concession when there is the
expectation that a concessionaire can (1) better maintain and operate the
existing transmission network to improve the overall availability and
ultimately utilisation of transmission infrastructure and (2) invest in
extending/upgrading the network to improve reliability and access to the
power supply.

A whole-of-grid concession extends the right to develop, construct,

operate, and maintain transmission infrastructure (the “concession”) to a
private sector concessionaire, who in turn receives remuneration for the
concession period. A concession can be a grant of rights or property,
depending on the jurisdiction. Transmission assets are either leased or sold
by a government or transmission utility to a private sector concessionaire
to take over the role of the transmission utility via a concession agreement,
a lease and assignment agreement, or a similar agreement.

Regardless of the contract form, the concessionaire may have to pay an

upfront investment for the rights to maintain and operate the transmission
infrastructure, although this is not always the case. The concessionaire
would typically be compensated via payments it collects from its customers
(generators, distribution companies, or industrial consumers that are
directly connected to the transmission system).

The upfront payment owed by the concessionaire, and the form of this
payment, is covered in further detail later in the chapter. The amount the
concessionaire is required to earn in a year to cover its costs and earn a
return on its investments (the annual revenue requirement) is calculated
using performance-based rate making or cost of service regulation. In
either ratemaking method, the revenue requirement is based on the

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regulated asset base (RAB) or rate base — a measure of the value of the
assets which are used to perform a regulated service. In a whole-of-grid
concession, the RAB would include all transmission infrastructure the
concessionaire is expected to maintain, operate or expand to deliver
services to a defined customer base (e.g., generators, bulk distributors,
large industrial customers, etc.) in a defined geographic area. In exchange
for delivering these services, the concessionaire earns and collects fees
directly from those customers.

In principle, this methodology assumes that customers are paying a cost-

reflective tariff that will ensure full recovery of the concessionaire’s
investment in transmission assets, reducing the investor’s risk of investing
in capital-intensive projects. If regulated tariffs are below what the
concessionaire requires to recover its costs, then the transmission utility or
other government entity will be required to compensate the concessionaire
some other way. This is covered in greater detail later in the chapter.

Concession Models
There are two main ways a whole-of-grid concession may be structured:
concession for the whole existing transmission network; and
concession of a portion of an existing transmission network, which can
be limited to a territorial area or identified transmission lines and
related infrastructure.

The concessionaire, via a project company, is typically responsible for:

the operation and maintenance of the transmission infrastructure;
refurbishments, restoration and repairs to existing transmission assets;

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construction of new transmission infrastructure, upgrades, and

expansions within the concession area;
all investments required for the stable and efficient operation of the
transmission infrastructure; and
operational control of the transmission network within the concession
area.

The rights conferred to the concessionaire must allow it to exert sufficient

and unfettered control to manage its transmission network responsibilities
without government or transmission utility interference. The
government’s role is limited to an oversight role — i.e., an independent
regulator that oversees tariff methodology and a planning role — set out in
the concession itself. This “concession” right, depending on the jurisdiction
(and asset), could be a grant of rights, land or property, or a combination
of all three. However, title to the relevant land and properties may not
always pass to the concessionaire as a result of the concession. What is
more important is that the concessionaire retains the rights to control,
maintain and operate the relevant asset — in this case, the entire national
grid — and that these rights are granted in a manner that is legally valid,
binding and enforceable (including with parliamentary or cabinet-level
approval, where necessary).

In all cases, the transmission assets are transferred back to the transmission
utility at the end of the concession.

Enabling environment
Whole-of-grid concessions are suitable in jurisdictions that have an
independent electricity regulator and have a regulatory framework that
allows for third parties (such as a concessionaire) to hold a transmission
licence that permits them to construct, operate and maintain transmission
infrastructure. It is also important that the legislative framework permits
private sector parties to own or operate strategic transmission assets.
Changes to legislative and regulatory frameworks to permit whole-of-grid

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concessions where the existing regulatory regime does not permit

investors to be concessionaires can be a complex, expensive, and time-
consuming undertaking.

The allocation of risks in a whole-of-grid concession also plays a

significant role in determining the success or failure of efforts to structure
and award a concession. This is discussed in further detail later in the
chapter.

Tariff considerations
Considering the ongoing investment required in the operation and
maintenance of transmission infrastructure, it is not practical to establish a
tariff from the outset that the concessionaire may charge customers for use
of the transmission service for the entire term of the concession. To avoid
renegotiating, restructuring, or early termination of a concession due to an
insufficient or inadequate tariff, the tariff methodology the regulator
intends to use should be clearly articulated in a set of tariff guidelines or
the concession agreement. The two most common forms of regulation on
which tariff methodologies are based are the cost-of-service approach and
performance-based regulation. While these will not be covered in detail in
this book, each has its advantages and disadvantages which need to be
carefully considered.

The important principle is that the concessionaire’s annual revenue

requirement should be sufficient to allow for a return on the RAB equal to
the amount of the RAB times the weighted average cost of capital,
operating and maintenance costs, taxes, and depreciation of existing assets.

The soundness and certainty of the RAB valuation and associated tariff
methodology are critical to the success of implementing a whole-of-grid
concession, given that the tariffs charged to customers for their use of the
transmission infrastructure are the main source of revenue (and in some
instances the only source of revenue) to the concessionaire.

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 6. WHOLE-OF-GRID CONCESSIONS

A concessionaire’s revenue shortfall may sometimes be as a result of its

failure to meet certain KPI set by the regulator. In this case, the
government or the transmission utility would not be required to cover
such a shortfall. However, if the shortfall is a result of the regulator’s
failure to apply appropriate tariff guidelines, the government or the
transmission utility will need to find an alternative way to compensate the
concessionaire or face a potential termination of the concession. The
compensation may take the form of a one-time payment or an ongoing
subsidy to the concessionaire.

If there is a material unfavourable future change in the tariff methodology

that does not adhere to the principles of full cost recovery plus a return on
investment, this would be detrimental to the financial viability of the
concessionaire. The government support agreement (discussed in further
detail below) would typically address this risk.

In countries that do not have an established independent regulator,

economic regulation can still be achieved through a government support
agreement or concession agreement which includes an annexe that
describes a regulatory methodology. The government support agreement
(between the host country and the concessionaire) or the concession
agreement (between the transmission utility and the concessionaire) will
then govern the relationship between the asset owner and the service
provider, and the relevant government counterparty will be responsible
for monitoring the performance of the operator and for applying the
regulatory methodology following the terms of the contract. This system is
known as “Regulation by Contract.”

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Case Study — Transmission Concession: Philippines

Source: Private Sector Participation in Electricity Transmission and Distribution/
Experiences from Brazil, Peru, The Philippines, and Turkey (World Bank, 2015), pages 6-9.

The Philippines is an example of a long-term (25-year) concession for existing

transmission assets. The main goal was to raise capital for the sector and the
Treasury. This goal was eventually satisfied even though it took longer than initially
expected; privatisation of the transmission system attracted close to $4.2 billion in
a concession deal that closed in 2007.

Initially (2001), the regulatory framework was established under a comprehensive

restructuring and privatisation programme, known as the Electric Power Industry
Reform Act (EPIRA). At the same time, the energy regulatory commission (ERC) was
created. Performance-based regulation (PBR) formed the basic framework and a
specific methodology for regulating the revenues of the transmission company was
developed. A "revenue cap" approach was adopted for the transmission company.

While the essential regulatory elements were in place since 2003, it took a few
years for the ERC to improve the rate-making methodology and impose the
necessary discipline for setting the specific revenue cap levels. As a result, there
were two unsuccessful attempts before the third successful one in December 2007.
Bidders were very interested to invest in the Philippines mainly because of the
following three factors: (1) there was promising growth prospect in the economy
and the power sector; (2) there was a clear and steadily improving regulatory
framework; and, (3) there was a vibrant domestic private sector which was
interested to participate.

Eventually (in 2007), there were a sufficient number of eligible bidders, who were
convinced of the quality of the regulatory framework and the integrity of the
competitive process. The National Grid Corporation of Philippines (NGCP), a
corporate vehicle of a group of local and international companies, won the
concession.

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Predictable Transmission Tariffs Set the Stage for Transmission

Company Concession in the Philippines
“The efforts to attract investors to the Philippine transmission business were an
essential part of the government's electricity reform programme stipulated under
EPIRA in 2001. However, the efforts to complete the required auctions failed twice
in 2003, and then again in February 2007. Regulatory uncertainty about the
transmission company's revenue streams was the main concern voiced by investors,
even though the transmission company had published the first set of essential
guidelines on the subject. The failure of the first two bids can be attributed to the
short track record of ERC and its PBR methodology. An additional source of
uncertainty for bidders was the relatively short (three-year) duration of the first
regulatory period set by the tariff guidelines. The period would end on December
31, 2005, after which the rates would be subject to revision.

For the second (2006-2010) and third (2011-2015) regulatory periods, the revenue
cap methodology still applied. However, the regulatory uncertainty remained high
in 2006, as the specific revenue cap levels were still debated. The continued
uncertainty undermined the bidders' confidence, and the government finally
decided to drop the third tender in February 2007 when only one bidder remained.
At this point, the government preferred to announce a new auction rather than
negotiate directly with the sole remaining bidder. The ERC used the opportunity to
better prepare for the next auction. The regulatory asset base (RAB), a key
component in the estimation of the maximum allowable revenue, was established
and could be used by investors in preparing their bids. This set the tone for
transparency and predictability of ERC's regulatory process.

The payment of the initial concession fee was made easier by requiring an upfront
payment of only 25 per cent and the deferred payment of the balance under precise
terms and conditions set before the final bid. In the new auction in December 2007,
the successful bid by NGCP yielded $3.95 billion, well above the RAB level that was
set around $3.0 to 3.2 billion.” (World Bank, 2015, p. 8)

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Figure 6.1: Milestones in the Transmission Company Concession in the

Philippines (Source: Private Sector Participation in Electricity Transmission
and Distribution/ Experiences from Brazil, Peru, The Philippines, and Turkey
(World Bank, 2015), p. 8)

How It Works
Procuring a whole-of-grid concession
Host countries that seek to implement a whole-of-grid concession may
procure them (1) by conducting an international competitive tender or (2)
through direct negotiations. In both cases, the process would likely be
subject to laws governing the procurement and/or public-private

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 6. WHOLE-OF-GRID CONCESSIONS

partnerships. MDBs and donors providing concessional financing often

find it easier to support infrastructure projects that have been procured
following a competitive tender process.

In a competitive tender, the qualification and evaluation criteria of the

tender determine the selection of a concessionaire. Where a concession fee
is required to be paid either upfront or periodically over the term of the
concession agreement, the price offered for the concession fee will likely be
a significant consideration in the award of the concession as well as the
concessionaire’s return expectations.

For more information on how to procure projects in the power sector, see
the Understanding Power Project Procurement handbook.

Planning
The implementation of a concession will impact the process of planning
the development of the transmission system. Given the duration of a
whole-of-grid concession and the concessionaire’s role in investing in
network expansion, the concessionaire will likely become a key
stakeholder in system planning. Under traditional cost of service
regulation, a concessionaire may have a strong desire to obtain some form
of commitment from a regulator that the regulator will include the capital
costs associated with a future project in the rate base when the project is
placed into service. Under performance-based rate-making, a
concessionaire may be required to submit periodic business plans to the
regulator which outline the new projects it intends to undertake. Those
business plans are in turn used to establish the annual revenue
requirements for the period that is covered by the business plan.

Concession fees
A concession agreement typically provides that the concessionaire will pay
upfront or ongoing concession fees to the transmission utility. A
concession fee provides a source of revenue to the transmission utility
which it can use to fund its ongoing costs. A balance must be struck

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between how much the transmission utility needs to recover against the
impact on transmission fees to the system: generally, higher concession
fees will lead to higher transmission charges.

At the same time, it is important to recognise that the transmission utility

may have ongoing liabilities which may not have been transferred to the
concessionaire, for example, servicing a pre-existing debt. The
transmission utility would need to earn revenues that are sufficient to
enable it to pay for these liabilities as they come due. There may also be
ongoing costs incurred by the transmission utility throughout the
concession period, including administrative overhead to enable it to
administer the concession agreement, maintain its ownership interest in
the transmission system, and servicing debt repayment obligations.

There are different options that a transmission utility may choose to

charge a concession fee to a concessionaire to extinguish or meet its
ongoing liabilities, which are discussed in the Table 6.1.

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Option Description

Option 1 Under this option the concession fee would consist of:
1. An up-front payment calculated as the value of the RAB
(or a significant portion thereof); and
2. Ongoing payments that are sized to enable the
transmission utility to cover its ongoing costs during the
term of the concession.
The transmission utility would use the up-front payment to
retire its debts and would use ongoing payments to fund the
ongoing expenses for the term of the concession.
The regulated asset base of the concession would initially be
established as the amount of the up-front payment. That
portion of the regulated asset base would depreciate at a
specified rate designed to balance the competing interests of
reducing the regulated asset base and reducing the
depreciation charge recognised in each annual revenue
requirement.

Option 2 The concessionaire does not pay an upfront concession fee

because the transmission utility retains its RAB, which would
continue to depreciate following the regulatory concepts
discussed in Option 1.
The concessionaire will continue to collect revenue from the
customer base, and remit via the concession fee that portion
owed to the transmission utility to cover its debt obligations
and ongoing administrative overheads.
The concessionaire will start to earn a return on new
investments made (including depreciation) for capital
expenditure investments in upgrades or greenfield
transmission network extensions.

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Option 3 The concessionaire does not pay an up-front concession fee

to the transmission utility. The ongoing concession fee paid
to the transmission utility will be sized to cover two distinct
components:
1. A component sized and sculpted to enable the
transmission utility to pay its debts as they become due;
and
2. A component sized to enable the transmission utility to
cover its ongoing costs during the term of the
concession.

Table 6.1: Options for establishing a concession fee

Any number of permutations of these three options could be used to set

the concession fee in a manner that aligns with the priorities of the host
country and the ability of the concessionaire to raise debt and equity to
fund any up-front and ongoing payment obligations. Option 1 would
result in the highest upfront payment to the transmission utility (which
would likely be paid to the government as a special dividend). In most
cases, it would also result in higher use of system fees and therefore higher
rates for consumers. Option 3 may, depending on how the debts of the
transmission utility are structured, result in the lowest use of system fees
and therefore the lowest rates for consumers. Option 2 can be tailored to
achieve the desired blend of those two outcomes. Which option a
government should pursue depends on its objectives.

Stakeholders
Identifying and mapping stakeholders and their likely interests, concerns
and objectives is an essential first step in determining groups of
stakeholders that may support or oppose a whole-of-grid concession, with

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proper stakeholder engagement. To ensure successful implementation, it is

important for the team responsible for structuring the concession to
consider reasonable concerns and objectives of all affected stakeholders.
These stakeholders include the host government (notably the ministries
responsible for finance and electricity), the regulator, the transmission
utility, generators, distribution companies, and consumers, along with
potential lenders who have extended loans to the transmission utility. The
most significant effects on those participants are mapped in the matrix that
follows in Table 6.2.

Sector Participant Role

The ministries involved in financing and executing new

transmission implementation will now need to pay for
and administer any subsidies, if required, to make the
concessionaire whole. They will need to plan to raise the
termination payment/ “buyout price” at the end of the
term or upon the earlier termination of the concession.

Regulators in SSA generally have significant experience

regulating publicly-owned utilities, but limited
experience regulating privately-owned utilities. A higher
degree of oversight is required for privately-owned
concessionaires, including regulatory methodology and
KPIs, to ensure fairness and transparency. As private
sector participation is introduced, both the
independence of the regulator and the technical
proficiency of the regulator become more important.

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The transmission utility will primarily be responsible for

administering the concession agreement, maintaining its
ownership interest in the transmission system, and
servicing liabilities it retains.
The concessionaire may be required to hire substantially
all of the transmission utility’s employees as a
concession condition. In all cases, employment
considerations would also be influenced by local law
requirements, impacting costs.

Connection agreements and TSAs between generators,

distribution companies, and industrial customers and
the transmission utility will need to be transferred to the
concessionaire. Consideration will be required
regarding impact to generators, distribution companies,
and industrial users, including liability for grid
interruption and unavailability.
If the transmission utility performs the role of a single-
buyer and has entered into power purchase agreements
in respect of independent power projects, those
agreements should be reviewed to determine whether
the implementation of the concession will trigger any
defaults under existing PPAs.

Development finance institutions that fund, or may be

interested in funding, the development of new
transmission infrastructure will be interested in
exploring how they can continue to fund the
development of new transmission infrastructure after
the concession has been implemented.

Table 6.2: The potential effects of the whole grid concession model
on sector actors

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 6. WHOLE-OF-GRID CONCESSIONS

Contractual Structure
The participants in a concession and their contractual relationships are
shown in Figure 6.2. The structure presented in Figure 6.2 assumes that
the state-owned transmission utility does not act as a single buyer. If the
state owned transmission utility does act as a single buyer then additional
contracts will be necessary to separate rights and obligations related to
transmission from rights and obligations related to supply.

Figure 6.2: A typical concession structure.

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As the concessionaire constructs and installs new equipment and facilities

and those facilities become part of the transmission system, legal title to
the new equipment and facilities vests in the transmission utility so that
the transmission utility remains the owner of the entire transmission
system during the term of the concession. If, for example, the
concessionaire needs to acquire additional rights-of-way, easements,
ownership interests, or leasehold interests in land to expand the
transmission system, the concession acquires those interests in the name of
the transmission utility, and those interests become subject to the leasehold
interest and access rights created by the concession without further action
by the concessionaire or the transmission utility.

The concessionaire will be responsible for operating and maintaining the

transmission system. If the legislative framework provides that the holder
of a transmission license is responsible for dispatching generation and
balancing the system, then the concessionaire will be responsible for those
functions. If the legislative framework contemplates that those functions
will be performed by a transmission system operator, then those functions
will be performed by the entity that holds the license to act as the
transmission system operator. Although the concessionaire may also hold
the license to act as a transmission system operator, a different entity will
perform those functions in markets that separate the transmission
ownership and transmission system operator functions.

The concessionaire will recover its ongoing operations and maintenance

costs from the use of system fees it charges for transmission. It will finance
capital expenditures to upgrade and expand the transmission system with a
combination of debt and equity. Equity will be contributed by the
shareholders in the concessionaire or created by the retention of earnings
by the concessionaire. The concessionaire will raise debt by borrowing
from lenders or by issuing bonds or preferred shares. The concessionaire’s
ability to raise capital in the form of equity, debt, and preferred shares is
highly dependent on how the concessionaire is regulated.

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Key project agreements

In a typical whole-of-grid transmission concession, a state-owned utility
that owns a transmission system (the “transmission company” or the
“transmission utility”) grants a concession over all or a portion of its
transmission network to the project company established to act as the
holder of the concession (the “concessionaire”). At the same time, the
ministry that is responsible for overseeing the electricity sector or the
Independent Regulator that regulates the electricity sector, if one has been
established, typically grants a transmission license to the concessionaire. In
addition, the host country may enter into a government support
agreement, implementation agreement, or similar agreement (a
“government support agreement”) with the concessionaire to provide
certain identified types of support to the transaction. We explore these
three key documents below. We also take a look at a key concept for the
financing of whole-of-grid concessions, and termination payments, below.

Concession agreement
The concession agreement will typically provide that:
The transmission utility will retain ownership of the existing
transmission system but will concede and/or lease the existing
transmission system and related immovable assets that are useful for
operating and maintaining the network and are used by the
transmission utility for that purpose to the concessionaire for the life of
the concession.
The transmission utility will lease or sell to the concessionaire all of the
transmission utility’s moveable property, equipment, and inventory of
spare parts.
The transmission utility will transfer its right, title, and interest in some
contracts to which the transmission utility is a party, which may include

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ongoing service contracts, contracts for the supply of goods and

equipment, and contracts for the construction or supply of new assets
that will become a part of the transmission system.
The concessionaire will pay a concession fee, which may be structured
as a one-time payment, ongoing payments, or a combination thereof, in
exchange for the concession rights that have been granted to it.
The concessionaire will use the leased or transferred assets to provide
transmission services within the host country (or part of it) as described
in the transmission license.
The concessionaire will improve, repair, operate and maintain the
transmission system, and
The concessionaire will expand, reinforce, and upgrade the
transmission system to the extent required to provide transmission
service within the relevant host country, and to the extent that
expansion projects are approved by the regulator per the tariff
guidelines.

Government support agreement

As far as a whole-of-grid concession is concerned, government support
agreements will cover similar risks as in IPTs — although they may have
additional and specific protections relating to any outstanding risks that
fall to the government concerning an entire transmission system including,
for example, pre-existing liabilities that relate to the transmission system
assets before they are handed over under the concession.

Termination payments
The concession agreement and/or the relevant government support
agreement will include a termination payment or “buy-out price”, which is
payable at the end of the term of a concession or earlier, upon certain early
termination events.

This payment amount, if paid at the end of a concession, may often be set
to equal the regulated asset base as of the end of the last year of the

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concession. In scenarios other than the expiration of the term, the

termination payment could be calculated by applying a multiplier to the
regulated asset base.

In the case of early termination of the concession following (i) an event of

default by the state-owned transmission utility under the concession
agreement, (ii) an event of default by the host country under the
government support agreement, or (iii) the occurrence of a prolonged
political force majeure event, the multiplier may be greater than 1 in order
to provide an incentive for the host country and the transmission utility to
perform their obligations under the project agreements. Similarly, in the
case of early termination of the concession following an event of default by
the concessionaire, the multiplier may be less than 1 in order to provide an
incentive for the concessionaire to perform its obligations under the
project agreements. The incentives created by a multiplier other than 1
should not be viewed as, or sized in terms of, a penalty, which could be
unenforceable under the laws of many host countries.

Termination payments can be sizeable, as the amount of the termination

payment is directly correlated with the amount of investments made by the
concessionaire during the term of the concession. On the other hand,
a host government may find that a concessionaire has performed well over
the term of the concession and that there is little rationale for allowing a
concession to expire. A concession agreement and government support
agreement may contemplate that the host government, the transmission
utility, and the concessionaire may agree to extend the term of the
concession before its expiration.

Transmission licence
The concession agreement and Government Support Agreement may
contain only a part of the obligations of the concessionaire. Other
obligations the concessionaire will need to perform are likely to be set out
in the wider legislative framework, including any implementing
regulations issued under the regulatory framework, and any licences issued
to the concessionaire by the regulator.

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Some of the issues the licence may address particular to a concession

include:
The geographic service territory over which the concessionaire will be
responsible for transmitting electricity and the nature and scope of any
exceptions to the concessionaire’s exclusive right to own, lease,
construct, or operate a transmission system within the service territory.
The term of the licence (which should be aligned with the term of the
concession).
The KPI that apply to the concessionaire and the amount of any fines
the regulator may levy in the event the concessionaire does not meet
the KPI.
The scope of the concessionaire’s obligation to expand the transmission
system.
If the concessionaire will perform the role of a transmission system
operator, any obligations that are specific to that role, such as an
obligation to comply with a grid code or dispatch code.
Any transition provisions, which might include an agreement by the
regulator to forbear enforcing KPI during a limited and defined period
at the beginning of the term if the transmission utility has not been able
to consistently meet or exceed the key performance indicators.

These obligations will need to be aligned with the concession agreement

(or conversely, the concession agreement needs to be aligned with the
requirements of the licence). The rights and obligations that are set out in
the transmission licence will impact the risk assessment of potential
investors in the concession, the bankability of the transaction, and the
service levels consumers should expect of the concessionaire.

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Risk Allocation Matrix

Many of the risks that arise in the context of a concession are described
and discussed above. Please note that the facts and circumstances
surrounding a particular whole-of-grid concession will impact how risks
are allocated. The risk matrix below summarises how key risks might be
allocated to different stakeholders within a concession agreement. For a
more detailed discussion and commentary on the individual risks,
especially as they pertain to private investment in transmission
infrastructure, please see chapter 11. Common Risks.

Please note that the table below is indicative, and not meant to be
exhaustive. The precise risk allocation between the parties on any
particular transaction can vary from what is presented below. Risk
allocation is always subject to the fact pattern existing with a particular
transaction, investor appetite, and what risks a government is prepared
and able to support on a particular transaction.

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Stakeholder bearing risk

Risk
Govt/
Conces-
Transmission Consumers
sionaire
utility

Financial risk

Demand risk

Credit risk

Inflation

Interest rates

Foreign exchange rates

Termination payment

Land

Pre-existing environmental
conditions

Pre-existing defects in title

Land acquisition for expansions

Technical risk

Construction and commissioning of

new assets

Scope changes before/during

construction

Interface between transmission

infrastructure and generation
facilities

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Technical risks related to technology risk

Operation, maintenance, technical

performance

KPIs, service levels

Accidents, damage, theft

Social and environmental risk

Social and environmental impacts

Occupational health and safety

Resettlement

Non-political force majeure events

Political and regulatory risk

Initial issuance of licenses, permits

Renewals, modifications

Changes in law

Changes in tax

Political force majeure events

Disputes

Resolution of disputes (contractual)

Resolution of disputes (tariff methodology)

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Financing a Whole-of-grid
Concession
Financing models for whole-of-grid concessions
Network industries require ongoing investment. Ongoing investment
requires ongoing increases to the equity invested in the business and
ongoing increases (and repayments) of debt. Project finance structures are
not well suited to ongoing and open-ended borrowing. For this reason,
network utilities with ongoing investment requirements are, as a general
rule, financed using corporate finance, not project finance. This has several
implications. For example:
the range of debt-to-equity ratios that can reasonably be achieved using
corporate finance is lower than the range of debt-to-equity ratios that
can be achieved using project finance;
the tenor of corporate loans are significantly shorter than the tenor of
project finance loans;
unless a corporate borrower issues bonds, the interest rates on its debt
obligations are, as a general rule, floating rates; and
corporate borrowers have a constant need to borrow to roll over their
debt obligations.

Given these implications, large utilities have active borrowing

programmes that may result in the issuance of multiple series of bonds and
multiple borrowings under lines of credit or fixed-term loans during each

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year. This should not be surprising, given that project financing techniques
were developed in part to increase debt-to-equity ratios, increase tenors,
and enable borrowers to hedge their exposure to floating interest rates.

Viability gap funding

A significant portion of greenfield transmission infrastructure has been
financed by donors and concessional financing from MDBs.

A whole-of-grid concession does not preclude donors and MDBs from still
financing new transmission infrastructure build, nor does it change the
role of DFI or ECA lending for new transmission assets. Transmission
assets that continue to benefit from donors or other external financings
can still be operated by the concessionaire.

Donor funding can also provide viability gap funding to help support a
concessionaire’s acquisition of a regulated asset base, with the remainder of
the funding being financed by the concessionaire. The concessionaire
would earn a return on the portion of the asset base it has self-financed,
but not a return on the donor portion of the financing. The blending of
donor or concessional capital in this way helps subsidise the cost to the
concessionaire of operating and maintaining sections of the transmission
network which may be less commercial or in a poor state.

Other Considerations
This chapter has discussed the whole-of-grid concession in the context of
concessioning the operation, maintenance, and expansion of the
transmission network on a standalone basis. In reality in Sub-Saharan
Africa, there are only a handful of examples where the transmission
network has been concessioned, and generally, this has been the case when
it has been bundled along with generation and distribution services. At the

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time of writing, there are no whole-of-grid private sector concessions in

the transmission sector operating in the African continent, although
globally there are multiple examples, including in the Philippines and parts
of Latin America.

If power generation, transmission, system operator and distribution

remain the responsibility of vertically integrated power utilities, as is the
case in many African countries, whole-of-grid concessions in the
transmission space may only follow once the sector has been unbundled, or
if the entire energy sector is the subject of a concession. This has been the
case, in Cameroon, between 2000 and 2015 with AES-Sonel.

In countries where generation, transmission, and distribution are

unbundled, system operators are still challenged in their ability to charge
cost-reflective tariffs to end users required to enable upstream, midstream
and downstream activities in the energy value chain to recover their costs.
This is an argument for granting concessions concerning “bundled” assets
— so that the generation tariffs can cross-subsidise those on the
transmission side, for example.

However, incentivising the private sector by enabling them to be able to

charge end users to recover the costs required to build, own and operate
entire energy systems is not straightforward given the high capital costs
involved and challenges in recovering costs from end users which then do
not prohibit access to the electricity.

As a host country considers whether a whole-of-grid concession is an

appropriate approach for helping to finance new and existing transmission
infrastructure capital expenditure, it should consider (i) how its energy
sector is structured, (ii) the role of electricity sector stakeholders and how
their responsibilities may be impacted, and (iii) how to engage existing
stakeholders to build support for the successful implementation of this
approach.

A whole-of-grid concession may be appropriate if a host country desires

to:

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leverage the experience and know-how of the private sector to improve

the technical and commercial performance of a transmission utility;
relieve budgetary constraints by transferring the responsibility for
financing capital expenses to the private sector for the development and
construction of the projects that are required to expand, reinforce, and
upgrade the transmission system; and
retain long term ownership over the transmission system.

A whole-of-grid concession may be less attractive to a host country that:

has an existing transmission utility network whose performance equals
or exceeds international performance benchmarks; and
is targeting financing for a discrete or a package of transmission
infrastructure assets that might be more efficiently financed via IPT

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Summary of Key Points

A whole-of-grid concession grants a private party the right to develop,
construct, operate, and maintain transmission infrastructure in a
defined geographic area, which is usually but not always an entire
country.
A whole-of-grid concession may be appropriate where the government
expects that a concessionaire can: (i) better maintain and operate the
existing transmission network, and (ii) raise the capital needed to
finance extensions and upgrades to the network.
The private concessionaire derives their revenue from charging of
transmission use of system fees to generators, distribution companies,
and industrial users with a direct connection to the transmission
system.
The fees charged by a private concessionaire are usually established by
an independent regulator pursuant to a set of tariff guidelines or a tariff
methodology that is developed specifically for the concession.

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Introduction
In this chapter, we describe other private sector-led models of
procurement for transmission infrastructure, namely:
merchant transmission lines
industrial demand-driven model, and
privatisations

These models are described to ensure that the spectrum of private

participation options is covered by the book, although the authors believe
that these models are less likely to be adopted or operationalised in the
near term in the African context given other priorities of the sector.
Nonetheless, it is conceivable that they form part of the future
transmission infrastructure story in the African continent.

Merchant Transmission Line

A merchant transmission line consists of one or more lines that connect
existing transmission grids/power markets or consumers that were
previously isolated. Such transmission lines are entirely private in the
sense that ownership, control, financing, construction, operation,
maintenance, and tariff setting of the lines rests entirely with the private
developer. Access to the merchant line is at the discretion of the owner.
Therefore, it is not open to all transmission users.

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Traditionally, merchant lines were developed by independent companies

seeking to use the system to wheel power between markets where there is
a difference in electricity prices. Trading power from lower-priced markets
into higher-priced markets allows the company to profit from pricing
arbitrage. This model of financing is a market-driven model to provide
transmission infrastructure that supports competitive wholesale markets
for electricity. However, this model may not be viable for markets where
tariffs are set at artificially low levels or where there are low-cost
production sources. In such electricity markets, the price differential,
which the merchant model depends strongly on, is either non-existent or
sufficiently insignificant to impede the company’s ability to recover its
investment.

Merchant lines are usually not part of the traditional planning of a

transmission system but are instead born of market opportunity. However,
despite their opportunistic nature, regulators and policymakers still need
to put in place the proper regulatory and market framework that supports
merchant lines if this is an option they want to pursue to incentivise
alternative financing for new transmission build.

Figure 7.1 Schematic representation of a merchant transmission line

How it works
The assets of a merchant line/system are entirely owned by the private
party who invests or finances its construction. Merchant lines are generally
new construction, though it is conceivable that an existing line/system is

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privatised and sold to a private party for them to maintain and operate.
The state-owned utility responsible for transmission infrastructure has no
financial interest in the merchant line.

Despite the private ownership, merchant lines are still subject to technical
compliance with grid code (if in place) and regulations in the same manner
as all power system assets. This includes approvals on siting/permitting,
design and technology to ensure safety, alignment, and efficiency in the
national power system. The extent to which a merchant line is subject to
regulation is primarily a function of the regulatory framework of the host
jurisdiction(s).

The merchant/line system is also privately managed and controlled, with

the owner/developer:
determining when to utilise the capacity of the line to transmit power
between markets;
directing all dispatch, operational, maintenance and repair
determinations for the line(s); and
negotiating commercial agreements, including pricing, with the
transmission systems on either end of the line to secure grid access.

Merchant line developers are responsible both for the initial capital costs
to purchase the rights-of-way, design and construction of the project, and
for ongoing operations and maintenance costs. The commercial viability of
a merchant line rests entirely on its ability to capture value through power
pricing arbitrage across markets or by selling its capacity to third parties. In
promoting this model, advanced transmission network planning and
coordination is important. Also, there will be requirements to review
policies that do not accommodate a decentralised competitive wholesale
market.

To secure a revenue source, there are three potential avenues for securing
customers in the merchant model.
Bilateral negotiation with a potential anchor credit-worthy customer;

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Competitive sale process with credit-worthy participants bidding; and

The real-time market mechanism through short term sale of the firm
and non-firm capacity, leveraging price arbitrage.

The customers of a merchant line owner/operator may include existing

generating company or generation project developers who would buy the
merchant transmission service to deliver the power from their generation
plant. The customers may be utilities, retailers or load-serving entities
with energy needs becoming anchor tenants giving them access to an
energy source. Also, customers of merchant lines may be energy traders or
owners of merchant generation assets that want to take advantage of
arbitrage congestion. More so, the implementation of the merchant model
is only possible where private entities are allowed to hold a licence for the
construction and operation of a transmission infrastructure among other
regulatory requirements.

There have been a limited number of merchant transmission lines globally.

Examples include a transmission line between the Australian state of
Victoria and the island of Tasmania; Path 15 connecting the northern and
southern sections of the California power grid; and Montana-Alberta Tie
Line.

Key challenges to adopting the merchant line model

The most significant challenge to financing merchant transmission lines is
that it will be challenging to secure the project revenues for the financing.
Hence, a private company might need to finance the project with little or
no leverage (debt), or based on other commercial activities. This is not
optimal for the size of the investment required for transmission assets.

This model may be attractive for governments depending on the needs of

the specific country. However, even if there is a well-functioning market
with limited credit risk (such as the Southern African Power Pool
(SAPP) market, where settlements are prepaid), there still needs to be a
consideration for broader risk, such as political stability, land acquisition,

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and environmental and social risk. These risks, coupled with the market
demand risk, pose a challenge to most private investors, which return
expectations alone will not be able to overcome.

In places where there are no markets like SAPP, the regulations for cross-
border trades involving private participants are unlikely to have been fully
developed. Without regulatory certainty, it is difficult for the private
sector participants to develop a project on a merchant basis, as regulatory
certainty is required for long-term investments.

Industrial Demand-driven
Model
In the industrial demand-driven model, transmission expansion is driven
by the electricity needs of one or more large industrial consumers. The
transmission line will be financed, built, and operated to serve the
industrial area where the large consumer(s) conduct their businesses. The
relevant transmission line, once built, could remain in the hands of the
private sector or could be handed back to the transmission utility
responsible for the ownership and maintenance of transmission assets
(often in countries that consider transmission infrastructure a public
good).

As economies develop, there may be growth in a particular industry or the

discovery of a commodity in a region of a country where there is little or
no existing transmission infrastructure. The development of the industry
could underpin wider economic growth, which may be a key driver in the
procurement and financing of power and transmission infrastructure to
support industrial growth or a significant customer. The key feature of this

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industrial-demand driven model is that the project will be financed based

on the creditworthiness of the industrial consumer(s) and the strength of
the industrial sector (e.g., the commodity sector’s prospects).

Industrially driven development may not have initially been part of the
government’s overall strategic plan to electrify and connect its population
to the power grid. The same pattern is reflected in other forms of
infrastructure such as roads and railway lines. Particularly where
commodities are involved (e.g., mines or extractive industries) or where
there is a burgeoning industry (often based on a natural resource), the
private sector may engage the government to obtain the relevant
rights/licences to construct and sometimes operate the relevant power
and/or transmission infrastructure. Such lines may also be initially
constructed by the government and transferred to the private sector as part
of privatisation.

How it works
One or several large industrial network users located within the same area
will typically establish or be approached by a project company that will be
responsible for financing and constructing transmission assets used to
wheel power generated outside the industrial area. The power generator
may be a state-owned utility, the project company or another generator
that has entered into a standard power purchase agreement with members
of the consortium. The project company will prepare a transmission
expansion proposal for submission to the government regulator.
Depending on the structure of the transaction, the costs of the network are
allocated to (or among) the industrial user(s) either based on a method
established by the regulator or a method agreed upon between the project
company and the industrial user(s) at the time the project company was
established.

The industrial demand-driven model is similar to the merchant line model

in that it is subject to regulatory approvals on siting/permitting, design and

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technology to ensure safety, alignment, and efficiency in the national

power system. Moreover, the project company will also typically set the
price for access to the line, subject to regulatory approval.

However, unlike the merchant line model, the business case for the
industrial demand-driven models is based on the creditworthiness of the
industrial users of the network. Hence, the demand risk associated with the
merchant line model is reduced in the industrial demand-driven model —
the line is built primarily by or for the demand.

While the industrial demand-driven model is not yet a common method

for financing transmission infrastructure in SSA, it is included in this
chapter as reflective of the “status quo” due to the strategic importance of
the mining sector for the development of the continent.

Key challenges to adopting the industrial demand-driven model

A key challenge to adopting the industrial demand-driven model is
determining the mechanisms for granting access to other network users
that are not the industrial users. It is inefficient to have multiple
transmission assets located in the same route. Hence, when the country’s
electricity demand increases, it may become necessary to use the industrial
demand-driven line to service distribution networks or other generation
companies located close to the line. When approving an industrial
demand-driven line that will be owned and operated by a private company,
the government has to anticipate a possible increase in demand which will
necessitate general use of the line. This will enable an initial determination
of how costs will be generally allocated in the future when the line is
opened to all transmission users.

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Privatisation
Privatisation, otherwise called full divestiture in the context of this
handbook, relates to the transfer of full ownership in the transmission
infrastructure to a private-sector party. Privatisation may occur on a single
transmission corridor, by region or even in respect of the entire
transmission system operation in a country. Once privatisation has taken
place, the transmission company is typically restructured, management
processes are re-aligned, technology and infrastructure investments are
planned and the government influence on the operation and management
is limited to regulatory activities.

In deciding whether to privatise the transmission segment of its electricity

supply industry, a government should carefully evaluate its goals for the
sector and whether privatisation is the best model for achieving these
goals. Since the transmission business is typically considered a natural
monopoly, specialised regulation will be required to monitor the activities
of the privatised transmission business. Further, the process of unbundling
the vertically integrated utility, breaking it up, and privatising the
transmission segment will take considerable planning, political will, and
appropriate legal reforms.

Privatisation may be an option to be considered under the following

prevailing conditions:
where there is a partial or full legal unbundling of the transmission
system operating function;
where a private-sector party is allowed by law to hold a transmission
licence for the construction and operation of the transmission
infrastructure; and

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where there is an independent regulator to ensure technical compliance

and ensure appropriate tariff structures.

In other words, privatisation is more suitable to those jurisdictions that

have already commenced some form of unbundling and electricity sector
reform, and where the regulatory framework is conducive to private sector
participation in providing transmission-related services and private sector
ownership of the transmission assets (or where policy decisions have been
made to effect the above changes).

Figure 7.2: Forms and stages of unbundling of the transmission system

operator function

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 7. OTHER PRIVATE FUNDING STRUCTURES

How it works
Privatisation can be implemented in at least three ways:
A sale of shares — where all or a majority of the shareholding of the
existing transmission company is transferred to a private entity. In this
option, the existing transmission company and its licences remain
unchanged and the transfer occurs at the shareholding level;

Figure 7.3: Privatisation Option: Sale of shares

A sale of assets — where there is a sale of the transmission business as a

going concern. In this option, the private party would be expected to
form a new transmission company and acquire the relevant
transmission licences in the name of the new entity; or
A statutory transfer — where legislation is passed imposing a
compulsory transfer of the transmission assets or shareholding, to a
private party. In this option, the transfer would be prescribed by the
legislation and any conditions attached to such law.

The government and the new owner may also enter into a government
support agreement, which protects the new private sector owner from
certain risks such as change-in-law, expropriation and foreign exchange.

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Key challenges in adopting the privatising model

One of the key decisions that governments need to take at an early stage is
to be willing to divest from owning transmission infrastructure that are
assets with national security implications. This will entail the loss of
ownership in assets that are monopolistic in nature. This monopoly does
provide governments with intense power to control the electricity supply
of a country and provides for additional revenues in some instances.

A second challenge is a fear that the privatisation process will result in

increased tariffs. A carefully managed privatisation effort will ensure that
results from long-term financial models are clearly articulated to the public
and key stakeholders. In some instances, there may be an initial tariff
increase due to increased operations and maintenance activity and
investments required to stabilise the transmission business. However,
long-term benefits and comparative cost reductions need to be proven and
stated. The usual intent of a privatisation process is to increase the
efficiency and stability of the transmission business, which could ultimately
lead to relative cost reductions. If this is not achieved, the re-
nationalisation of the privatised transmission assets are likely to bring even
more challenges to the country’s power sector.

Another challenge is that staff and management of public utilities in some

instances fear the loss of jobs. However, some means are available to
governments and unions that can be utilised to guarantee job security. If
managed carefully and when widespread stakeholder buy-in is secured, this
challenge can be minimised. However, this is a fundamental challenge and
staff resistance may be at a level that may be too difficult to overcome.

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Case Study — The Copperbelt Energy Corporation (“CEC”)

CEC’s business model has features of all three models — the privatisation, the
industrial demand-driven model, and merchant line models — but especially, the
industrial demand-driven model. CEC was established as part of the privatisation of
a previously government-owned mining company. CEC’s transmission assets were
built primarily for the defunct mining company’s electricity demand, and CEC
currently sells power wheeled through its network to many mining customers in
Zambia. Further, CEC currently buys or generates power in Zambia at a relatively
lower cost and sells to mining companies in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

CEC is a private company established in the context of the privatisation of the

Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) in 1997. Before being privatised,
ZCCM owned and operated electricity assets through its power division to address
the needs of its mining operations in the Copperbelt region of the country. When
privatised, ZCCM was divided into several companies and CEC took on the
activities of ZCCM’s power division including the role of operating, maintaining,
upgrading, and expanding the transmission asset to continue the supply of
electricity to the mines. CEC was later listed on the Lusaka stock exchange in 2008
and became a full member of the Southern African Power Pool in 2009.

CEC currently owns a network of more than 1,000 kilometres of transmission lines
at 220kV and 66kV, 43 high voltage substations and a transmission interconnection
between Zambia and the DRC. The company purchases electricity from ZESCO, the
Zambian national power utility, and sells this across its transmission network to
many Zambian mining customers with a combined average demand of approx. 450
MW. CEC also operates 6 gas turbine generators for emergency power supply with
a total installed capacity of 80MW.

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Figure 7.4: A case example of an industry-driven transmission

funding model in Zambia

The business model of CEC is not solely focused on transmission line assets as the
company diversified its activities in recent years and has also developed generation
projects and conducts power trading activities. Nonetheless, CEC is a good example
of an industrial-led funding model as it was set up to address specific needs of the
mining industry in the Copperbelt region. Hence, the funding required for the
acquisition, maintenance, upgrade, and expansion of the network was provided on
the basis of the mining companies’ ability to pay for electricity and the strength of
the commodity sector. Moreover, the characteristics of some of the world’s deepest
copper mines required consistency of supply to guarantee the safety of the mines’
workers. The reliability standards of the network and the readily available
emergency power supply were therefore specifically designed to respond to the
specificities of the mining activities.

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Summary of Key Points

Some other private sector-led models of procurement for transmission
infrastructure include:
merchant transmission lines
industrial demand-driven model, and
privatisations
These models are less likely to be adopted or operationalised in the near
term in the African context given other priorities of the sector although
they likely will form part of the future infrastructure development in
the African continent.
Merchant transmission lines
A merchant transmission line consists of one or more lines that
connect existing transmission grids/power markets or consumers
that were previously isolated. These transmission lines are entirely
private. Access to the merchant line is at the discretion of the owner.
It is not open to all transmission users. Merchant lines are usually not
part of the traditional planning of a transmission system but are
instead born out of the market opportunity.
Industrial demand-driven models
In the industrial demand-driven model, transmission expansion is
driven by the electricity needs of one or more large industrial
consumers. The transmission line is developed to serve the industrial
area where the large consumer(s) conduct their businesses. The
relevant transmission line, once built, could remain in the hands of
the private sector or could be handed back to the transmission utility.
A key challenge to this model is determining the mechanisms for
granting access to other network users that are not part of the
industrial users.

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Privatisations
Privatisation relates to the transfer of full ownership in the
transmission infrastructure to a private-sector party. Privatisation
may occur on a single transmission corridor, by region or even in
respect of the entire transmission system operation in a country.
Once privatisation has taken place, the transmission company is
typically restructured.
Challenges to this model include a government's concerns about
loss of ownership of its natural monopoly and control, the fear that
privatisation will result in increased tariffs and the risk of significant
job losses with the public utility.

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8. Government
Support and Credit
Enhancement
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Introduction
Sovereign support and additional credit enhancements, when needed, will
be required for the IPT, network concession, and privatisation funding
structures. As is the case for the financing of other types of infrastructure
assets, the need for additional credit enhancements and sovereign support
for the financing of transmission infrastructure will be largely defined by
the type of financing procured, and the country’s and power sector’s
economic viability. The sector’s solvency will be instrumental in defining
lenders’ requirements for providing financing, including which credit
enhancements are necessary and whether a sovereign guarantee will be
requested.

Moreover, the lenders will have different considerations depending on

whether the transmission project is corporate- or project-financed. Some
of the key factors assessed by financiers in making this decision are:
The creditworthiness of the transmission utility;
Cost reflectiveness of the end-user tariff;
The nature of the transmission charge (i.e., availability v. utilisation
based);
The project, concessionaire, or private utility’s ability to collect revenue;
Foreign exchange risks; and
Force majeure and political risks that may affect the repayment of the
financing.

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Case Study — The Transener Transmission Network

Concession: Argentina
In 1993, the national government of Argentina granted a whole-of-grid concession
over the country’s existing high voltage system to Transener, a privately funded
transmission company. Transener’s concession agreement provided for three forms
of charges: connection charges, line availability charges, and variable network
charges. The connection charges and line availability charges were mainly fixed
charges unconnected to the use of the assets or the quantity or wholesale prices of
electricity transmitted on Transener’s network. However, the revenues from the
variable network charges were based on the use of the transmission assets.
Specifically, these charges are connected to the quantity of electric power which is
lost as heat in the transmission process and the wholesale price of that power.

To protect Transener from revenue losses arising from the volatility of the variable
network charges, the government guaranteed Transener $55 million per year in
variable network charges for the first five years of the concession. Any shortfall
from the guaranteed amount would be covered by a corresponding surcharge on
the line availability charges.

This case illustrates the importance for the government to ensure the stability of
the revenues in private sector-led funding structures. While in the Transener case,
the government did not undertake to cover the revenue shortfall directly, it
provided initial support against the risk by a regulatory mechanism established in
the concession agreement.

Under the current market conditions in SSA, it is unlikely that it will be

feasible to structure the financing of a transmission infrastructure without
some form of government support and/or other credit enhancements
when one or more of these factors are perceived by the financiers as a
significant risk.

Although there is a wide spectrum of potential government support

instruments and credit enhancements, in the transmission infrastructure
market in Sub-Saharan Africa, only a limited number of instruments/

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products have been used to date. Nevertheless, stakeholders working

towards a financeable structure should consider all options when searching
for risk-mitigating measures.

Government Support
Before issuing a sovereign guarantee, governments should carefully
consider all available options and assess the magnitude of the payment
obligations, the related contingent liabilities and the impact these
obligations will have on the country’s overall debt sustainability.
Nonetheless, providing government support in favour of transmission
infrastructure financing can result in many potential benefits for the host
government. In making decisions about the support needed from the
government, all stakeholders should have an appreciation of the various
factors the government must balance when weighing the benefits and
challenges of granting credit enhancement.

The need for credit support from a host government may be required both
to address continuing payment risks and/or to address the ability to satisfy
termination payments. A sovereign guarantee can backstop routine
payments and give direct protection for termination payments and other
obligations affecting the transmission utility’s ability to repay the
financiers.

For the IPT model, the need for government support should be anticipated
since the model will use project finance to raise the debt necessary for the
transmission project. For the whole-of-grid concession and the
privatisation models, the government is also likely to be requested to
provide support although the scope may vary significantly depending on
the level of capital investment required to be made and the specificities of
the transaction. Furthermore, for the privatisation model, more

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government support is typically expected at the early phase of the

privatisation of the transmission assets but should reduce within a few
years of operations by the private transmission utility.

Government support agreements can take various forms. An

“implementation agreement”, a “government guarantee”, a “government
support letter” or a “put call options agreement” are just some of the names
of documents under which governments can provide support to a project.
Broadly speaking, they aim to achieve the same end, namely providing
some form of government support to a private sector investment and
investors. The government support agreement will be an important risk
allocation tool that is likely to be vital in terms of ensuring that the project
is capable of obtaining finance.

In some cases, the government support can extend to guaranteeing the

obligations of a state-owned transmission utility (e.g. in terms of payment
obligations). In almost all cases, government support will extend to a
government taking responsibility for certain “political” risks, often
described as events of “political force majeure”. These risks include
expropriation, war, civil disturbance, and they are typically seen as risks
within the government’s control. Most government support agreements
provide for a form of termination compensation payable if an ongoing
political force majeure event occurs. Government support documents also
typically confirm the wider regulatory and enabling environment and
transaction or sector-specific promises made by the government to
facilitate private sector investment (e.g. as to matters relating to the tax
regime, investment protections, assistance with permits etc.).

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Sovereign Support for

Termination Payments
Financiers are especially concerned about getting compensated if the
project is terminated. Most government support agreements are usually
structured such that upon termination, the government assumes
ownership of the project at a purchase price, also known as a termination
payment. This transfer of ownership can be executed either through a sale
of the transmission assets to the government or through a sale of all the
shares in the project company to a government-owned entity. The
constrained nature of the termination payment compensation is important
since this type of sovereign credit support is, in essence, a “last-resort”
option rather than a guarantee of actions or payments that are in the
regular course of business for a transmission infrastructure project.

Termination of the project agreements (the TSA or the concession

agreement) and the corresponding compensation typically follow certain
defined trigger events. These events may be as a result of government
actions such as expropriation/nationalisation of the transmission assets or
payment default. In the case of termination as a result of government
actions, the project company typically terminates the project and transfers
ownership to the government upon payment of the compensation.
Termination may also be triggered by actions of the project company such
as persistent failure to meet key performance indicators. In this case, the
government may decide to terminate the project and assume ownership of
the project.

In addition to defining the trigger events, the government support

agreement must also carefully define the purchase price to be paid for the
project assets or of the shares in a project company upon termination. The
formula for the purchase price, also known as the termination payment,
will be directly tied to which trigger event has led to the termination of the
TSA or concession agreement.

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For example, in the case of termination of the concession agreement due to

payment default by the state-owned utility, the purchase price will likely
include not only the value of the project assets and the outstanding project
debt but also the expected return for shareholders in the project over a pre-
agreed period. In the case of termination due to the project company’s
default, the purchase price may be limited to just the outstanding project
debt. The purchase price in the case of termination for force majeure will
likely fall somewhere between these two extremes and may depend on who
is directly impacted by the force majeure as between the transmission
utility or government and the project company.

For a further dive into the various forms of government support

agreements, please see chapter 6 titled “Sovereign Support” in the
Understanding Power Project Financing handbook and the chapter titled
"Default and Termination" in the Understanding Power Purchase
Agreements handbook.

Direct Agreements
Direct agreements are agreements that give the lenders a right to "step into the
shoes" of the project company with the key project contracts if the project company
— or another contractual counterparty — defaults in some way. While the
counterparties to the government support agreement will be the project company,
the lenders will enter into a direct agreement with the government related to the
government support agreement. This direct agreement will enable the lenders to
step into the shoes of the project company and directly enforce the rights of the
project company in the government support agreement in an event of default.

This type of agreement is also common in a project finance context for the IPT
business model. It will enable lenders to take possession of the project they have
financed if there is a material default by the developer. The lenders may then decide
to select a new operator to avoid complete failure of the project.

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Non-sovereign credit enhancement options

Third-party financial institutions offer various credit enhancement and
political risk mitigation products in the context of transmission
infrastructure financing. These products can be used instead of, or together
with sovereign support to provide another level of credit enhancement.
They are particularly used where the credit of a sovereign itself is not
strong enough to offer the level of assurance required by investors and
lenders.
MDB/DFI Guarantees: MDBs and other DFIs can deploy a range of
guarantees to address the different types of risks for the financing of a
transmission line. DFI guarantees will typically support the most critical
financial obligations, such as the debt service obligations on loans or
project bonds or payment obligations linked to the transmission
infrastructure financing. MDB or DFI financing is also welcome by
financiers as their participation in a project serves as a political risk
mitigant with added positive effect on the bankability of a project.
Commercial Political Risk Insurance (PRI): This type of product offers
coverage for political risks not directly covered under the financing
agreements or to backstop those risks in addition to the government
guarantee. Political risks are associated with government actions that
negatively impact the project revenues by denying or restricting the
right of an investor or lender to use or benefit from the project assets.
They include project company expropriation, acts of war, civil
disturbance, and breach of sovereign obligations.

For a more comprehensive discussion on the various types and features of

Credit Enhancements, please see chapter 7 titled “Third-Party Credit
Support and Risk Mitigation” in the Understanding Power Project
Financing handbook.

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Summary of Key Points

Sovereign support and additional credit enhancements are likely to be
required for the IPT, network concession, and privatisation funding
structures.
The need for additional credit enhancements and sovereign support for
the financing of transmission infrastructure will be largely defined by
the type of financing procured, and the country’s and power sector’s
economic viability.
Before issuing a sovereign guarantee, governments should carefully
consider all available options and assess the magnitude of the payment
obligations, the related contingent liabilities and the impact these
obligations will have on the country’s overall debt sustainability.
Providing government support in favour of transmission infrastructure
financing can result in many potential benefits for the host government.
All stakeholders should have an appreciation of the various factors the
government must balance when weighing the benefits and challenges of
granting credit enhancement.
Financiers are particularly concerned about receiving compensation if a
project is terminated prior to its term, e.g. due to an unforeseen
political event. Many government support agreements are structured
such that upon termination, the government assumes ownership of the
project at a purchase price, also known as a termination payment.
Third-party financial institutions offer various credit enhancement and
political risk mitigation products in the context of transmission infrastructure
financing. These products can be used instead of, or together with sovereign
support to provide another level of credit enhancement.
These products are particularly used where the credit of a sovereign
itself is not strong enough to offer the level of assurance required by
investors and lenders.

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9. Planning and
Project Preparation
 9. PLANNING AND PROJECT PREPARATION

Introduction
Transmission systems play a crucial role in moving electricity from power
plants to the end users. The farther the plants are from load centres, the
more important it will be to plan carefully the development of the
transmission infrastructure. With a growing focus on cheaper and greener
energy sources that are frequently located in less populated areas, it is
becoming even more imperative to efficiently transmit electricity across
the grid. In this chapter, we will discuss the following:
The power system planning process;
The process for developing a Transmission Development Plan (TDP);
The need for the planning process to result in the selection of a project
with an appropriate financing structure; and
The process for procuring private sector participants.

Depending on the jurisdiction, the responsibility of the transmission

planning may shift from the transmission utility to the ministry, regulator
or another governmental agency. It also can be the responsibility of the
private sector, although this is rarely the case in SSA. Even in the case of a
whole-of-grid concession, the planning function may be retained by the
government and the execution of identified projects may be done partly or
fully by the public sector and then handed over to the concessionaire.

The transmission planning process also allows the government to identify

the transmission lines that will be built in the upcoming years and for
which it will allocate significant resources. Thus, the planning process also
enables the government to identify lines not considered a priority but that
might be suitable for a merchant line or industrial demand-driven funding
model (regulation allowing).

This chapter will discuss the various steps from the power system planning
phase to the procurement of a transmission asset.

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Power System Planning

There are many reasons why a government or a key public sector
institution (e.g., transmission system operator) should conduct power
system planning. These include:
Efficiency: to avoid multiple studies and solutions, transmission
planning should be done by a central agency of government to better
integrate and use energy efficiently.
Optimisation: to avoid stranded or under-utilised assets in the sector.
Reliability: to provide reliable power to customers and to avoid
underserved customers.
Cost-effectiveness: a holistic approach provides cost-effective solutions.

Without a plan, there is substantial uncertainty regarding the development

of the power sector, and this increases the risks associated with new
projects.

The typical process flow for developing a new transmission line is depicted
below. This chapter will expand on each of these processes:

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Figure 9.1: Typical transmission project planning and development

Integrated Resource
Planning
Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) is usually done by the Government.
This is done at a national level to develop a plan to meet all the country’s
national energy demands with available and planned supply. It is a
planning and selection process for electricity infrastructure development,
which assesses all options for providing adequate and reliable electricity
service to end users at the least system cost.

Some of the options considered by an IRP include new generation capacity,

energy efficiency measures, renewable energy resources, energy storage,

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and cogeneration. The IRP process considers the impact of any of these
options on the efficiency and reliability of the electricity network. An IRP
will provide a country with an energy plan for a long period, usually 20
years. Although the IRP has a strong focus on power generation
requirements, it does account for high-level transmission costing to
connect generation power plants and load to main collector substations.

One of the main objectives of the IRP is to identify the least-cost

generation to meet the macro power demand over a defined period. To
project the growth of the demand for various energy sources, the IRP will
set macroeconomic assumptions such as GDP growth and country
inflation targets. The demand needs are then balanced with the country’s
potential energy sources and the cost associated with their conversion into
electricity. Some power projects that are already being developed will be
included in the IRP’s assumptions and used as inputs into the analysis. The
shortfall between the anticipated supply and the projected growth will
result in identifying opportunities for new generation projects.

The IRPs usually require continuous updates based on changing

assumptions (especially demand forecasts and implementation schedule of
projects) and government targets. The output from an IRP process serves
to strengthen the level of knowledge of the sector stakeholders and
simultaneously serves as an input to future IRP processes.

Not all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa produce IRPs. In some instances,

they are not detailed. This often leads to the construction of adhoc
generation plants. This unplanned approach can produce undesirable
consequences such as stranded assets in some areas of the system or the
overload of a part of the system. In addition, without a power sector
development plan, it would be difficult to identify in advance the need for
transmission system requirements. As depicted in the flowchart (Figure
9.1), the IRP is used as an input to the Transmission Development Plan
which provides for a more focused study of transmission projects.

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Transmission Development
Plan (TDP)
The TDP is developed by the transmission utility. In some instances, there
may exist an independent system operator but this is not common in
Africa.

The TDP utilises the IRP as an input. The TDP is needed to identify
specific transmission projects which are required to ensure that the
electricity generated reaches the end users and satisfies their needs. The
TDP is crucial to the current and future viability of a country’s power
sector.

The planning process, as depicted in Figure 9.2, identifies the gap between
the capacity of the existing transmission system and the infrastructure
needed to meet current and projected demand. This process takes into
account several key factors including the historical demand, the quality of
power supply, the economic growth and development goals, regulatory
requirements, connections to new power plants, system losses, undesirable
voltage profiles and new industrial customers with high demand.
Regulatory requirements can include the need to meet the quality of supply
or system reliability standards or technical loss limits set by the regulator.
Regulations including the grid code may also impose obligations on the
transmission utility to connect, for instance, renewable energy plants
which are typically located in undeveloped parts of the country and away
from load centres. All these factors serve as inputs into the analysis of
options for transmission system development.

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Figure 9.2: Graphical illustration of the planning process. The figure is adapted
from the process employed by Chile

Stakeholders
A wide range of public and private stakeholders with different interests
may be involved in the transmission planning process, depending on the
structure of the power system and the market operations. The sector’s
stakeholders will typically include the Ministry of Energy, the economic
planning ministry, power generators, utilities, industrial customers,
regulators, the investment community, and the transmission utility(ies).
While some of these stakeholders may play active roles in the process (e.g.,

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regulator, utility, cities, etc.), others such as large industrials or building

owners may only be consulted as part of the data collection activity or for
an alignment of the different options available for resolving identified
challenges in the transmission system. Notwithstanding differences in each
stakeholder’s level of involvement, all stakeholders need to be aligned in
the development of the TDP to ensure that it is a national and
comprehensive plan.

Transmission system planning studies

The identification of projects for the TDP is underpinned by many critical
studies. The analytical work is mainly done by planning experts. Some of
these studies include a demand forecast; load flow studies of existing and
future systems; a short circuit analysis; system stability studies; and
resilience analysis.

For best results, the team of experts will be composed of different experts
such as economists, environmental specialists and engineers experienced in
planning, design, operations and maintenance. Existing and prospective
power producers must be consulted during this phase of the planning
process. The output of the analytical work is a list of projects required to
satisfy the evolving needs of the power system, more specifically to ensure
that generated electricity is transmitted to end users in the most efficient
manner and satisfies the demand needs of end users.

The options assessment generally specifies the type of equipment to be

built to improve the stability of the transmission system and the quality of
the supply. The assessment will also cover high-level capital and lifetime
cost estimates and the useful lives of these components on the network.
Lifetime cost may include losses, operations and maintenance costs. The
options may also already identify preliminary route surveys and locations
and their preliminary environmental and social impact assessment.
Detailed cost estimates, identification of actual route of transmission
infrastructure, and substation sites are only required for the most viable
options during project development (e.g., through the project-specific
feasibility study).

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Route Identification
At an early stage, satellite images and available topographical data may be
used to identify one or a few feasible routes for further analysis and
investigation. Routes that have little chance of success such as routes close
to communities and nature reserves, can be avoided. When one or a few
viable routes are selected, further investigation may warrant on-site
activities such as “walking/driving/flying” the route to confirm initial
findings. At this stage, environmental screening activities may also start
and community consultations are essential. The main outcome of this
phase will be the specification of a few routes from identified substations,
which are low cost and have low or manageable environmental and social
impacts. More detail on route identification, land acquisition and
environmental and social impact studies is provided in chapter 10. Land
acquisition.

Figure 9.3: Some activities are undertaken for route identification and selection

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Transmission Project
Selection
The next phase of the transmission planning process is the selection of
specific projects. In this context, the relative merits of the options and
alternatives generated from the analytical work are evaluated and ranked.
Considerations other than electrical parameters come into play, including
critical factors such as the environmental and social impacts. The options
and alternatives are therefore not only compared based on technical
efficiency and cost but also according to their environmental, social and
regulatory impacts. The set of viable, economical, and environmentally
feasible projects selected at the end of this phase constitute the TDP.

The output of the TDP is a list of viable project alternatives for meeting
the identified needs of the power system. Out of this list, the projects to be
developed are selected. The case study below provides an example of a
TDP.

Case Study — Eskom Transmission Development Plan

Eskom’s Transmission business in South Africa is recognised globally for its
technical expertise and operations. Over the last 10 years, it has successfully
constructed over 7800 km of new transmission lines (added to its existing ~30000
km of transmission lines defined as 132kV and above) and increased the
transmission substation capacity by more than 37000 MVA. The transmission
business follows a rigorous planning approach. This is depicted in the diagram
below (courtesy of the published ESKOM TDP).

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Figure 9.4: Eskom transmission development planning process

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 9. PLANNING AND PROJECT PREPARATION

To achieve this, Eskom has to carry out many assessments such as conducting
strategic Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and strategic servitude
acquisition, working closely with the government on the IRP development,
independently determining its own national and regional forecast at the Main
Transmission Substation (MTS) level, and merging planning data with operational
data to ensure that reliability is improved. All of Eskom's planning is also designed
to meet the South African Grid code and to ensure that the new generation is
integrated. More than 10000 MW of new generation has been integrated into the
grid over the last 10 year with a substantial increase expected for the next ten
years. Eskom also develops a strategic long-term Transmission Plan that is updated
every 2 to 3 years based on long term strategic assumptions over 20 years (instead
of the 10-year planning horizon for the TDP which is updated annually).

Project Preparation
The planning process for transmission infrastructure will provide the
utility or a ministry with a list of projects for implementation. At this stage,
a project can be identified for concept definition and initial design. A
typical project will follow the following phases:

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Figure 9.5: Stages in project preparation

Each phase has clear outputs as defined in the diagram above.

It is important to note that in the practice, the transmission planning and

project preparation phases will have some overlaps in terms of some of the
outputs of the concept phase. However, a clearly defined project concept is
a key requirement to attract project preparation funding and technical
assistance funding for the further stages.

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Pre-feasibility analysis
The pre-feasibility analysis will focus on confirming several assumptions of
the TDP route identification process and high-level environment and
social impact assessment (ESIA) to confirm (or adjust) the preliminary
analyses or conclusions made in the context of the TDP. The pre-feasibility
analysis is considered a high-risk phase of a transmission project. It is
therefore important to keep costs as low as possible. The project will
progress toward a full feasibility study if the outcome of the pre-feasibility
is satisfactory.

The private sector is rarely involved at this stage of the project preparation
process because of the significant uncertainty surrounding the project’s
viability and business case. For this reason, the Government or
transmission utility should always budget or seek funding to provide for
the cost of the pre-feasibility studies for the projects identified.

Feasibility study
The feasibility study will be conducted on the route selected by the pre-
feasibility study and confirms or refines its conclusions through detailed
analysis and technical designs. Examples of activities carried out at this
stage may include power system analysis to establish the technical
feasibility, estimated power flows and scenario simulation for losses under
different operating conditions. Other activities include in-depth data
gathering, site reconnaissance activities including visual inspection of the
route and development of a digital terrain model, alternate route analysis,
geotechnical and other advance studies, substation site selection and
layout, risk assessment, stakeholder engagement and route selection
workshops.

At the end of the feasibility study, the project should have complete initial
design and cost estimates, a financial and an economic business case, an
ESIA, recommendations of contract procurement packages, legal structure

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options and an approach for the financing of the capital works. All of these
activities will set the scene for project structuring to affirm the bankability
of the project.

At this stage, the inclusion of the private sector will be easier and can be
considered. However, to attract greater interest, the government or utility
can also consider conducting the feasibility study before approaching the
private developers. If private participation does not gain traction at the
feasibility stage, it should consider alternative public funding options.

Funding for Project

Preparation
Even when the private sector is invited to participate in the development
of a transmission infrastructure project, the expectation is usually that the
Government or the transmission utility will conduct most of the project
preparation activities. However, not all SSA governments or SOEs may
have the funds to conduct this exercise. For this reason, project
preparation funds or facilities (PPF) have been designed to provide funding
for the project preparation of transmission lines. Some of these
donors/funds have specific objectives such as the introduction of the PPP
model or to help promote regional integration, while others aim at
encouraging projects that help meet climate change targets. Hence, PPFs
are not homogenous. A non-exhaustive list of donors/funders can be
found online at The Infrastructure Consortium for Africa.

Some of these fund sources also support capacity building, facilitate and
support the enabling environment to support infrastructure investment by
the public and private sectors, or a combination of both. It should be noted

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that multiple funds may be used for the same project. For example, a fund
may be used to develop and conclude the ESIA study while another may
fund the technical feasibility report.

Most of these donors/funders have standard application processes and

documentation. At a minimum, the conceptual phase for the project
should be well-conceived before applications are made. Some
donors/funders will only fund projects that are ready for feasibility studies
and expect the concept and pre-feasibility studies to be complete at a
minimum. A high-level understanding of the sites for the substations (if
required), line routes, the financial and economic benefits and the expected
cost of the project should be understood and documented as a minimum.
Linkages to possible private participation, “green” energy and regional
integration should also be clearly articulated.

Procurement and the

Private Sector
As stated above, the planning and early preparation work is commonly
undertaken by the government or state-owned utility. It may be possible to
start considering the inclusion of private sector participation at the
concept stage of a project. However, in most instances, the high-risk
nature of the project will deter most investors.

When the decision has been made to include the private sector, the
government needs to consider the procurement approach. This is
discussed in the following sections.

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Procurement framework
The applicable procurement framework is closely linked to the source of
funding for that particular project. If the government or the transmission
utility conducts the project preparation (pre-feasibility and feasibility
studies) then the sovereign laws, guidelines, and regulations become
applicable. If the feasibility studies are funded by grants from donors, then
there will be a requirement to waive the local requirements for the
procurement and adopt the donor’s requirements. This is often captured in
a grant agreement between the government and the donor.

It should be further noted that funding for the capital works must be kept
in mind. If funding is sought from DFIs for the capital works, a review of
all procurement activities will be conducted. If the local procurement
guidelines and regulations do not provide for competitive procurement
then it is advisable to adopt AfDB or World Bank guidelines to avoid
further challenges in raising finance.

For cross-border projects, choosing a local framework to govern the

procurement can be complex. Since most project preparation for cross-
border projects are donor-funded, most projects will adopt the donor’s
requirements. If there is an instance where development activities are
being funded by the government or the TSO, then it is advisable for the
project to still adopt an international DFI’s guidelines to secure funding for
the capital works at a later stage.

Procurement structure
Having developed a TDP and completed project preparation activities, the
government and the procuring entity need to identify a procurement
approach. The government must decide earlier on which entity will
manage procurement. Below we will briefly discuss different types of
procurement that can be considered. The procurement approach, planning
and structure are discussed in great detail in the Understanding Power Project
Procurement handbook.

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A procuring entity might use a variety of procurement processes. Broadly

we use the categories described below as a framework for discussing the
different processes.

Competitive tenders
A competitive tender (also called an auction or competitive bidding
process) is a process initiated by a procuring entity to select the sponsors
that will develop a project through a competitive process. A competitive
tender requires investors to compete directly against each other, on the
same terms, for the opportunity to develop a project (or projects). This
procurement structure harnesses the power of competition to achieve the
objectives of the procuring entity. Bids are therefore evaluated primarily
on price, but may also include additional evaluation criteria.

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Figure 9.6: Generic roles of executing agency and bidders/contractors

in infrastructure procurement

Direct Negotiations
Negotiating a project with single or multiple developers without inviting
other interested parties to engage in a procurement process is referred to
as either a negotiated deal, a direct negotiation, or a sole-sourced power
procurement. A direct negotiation may be initiated by the procuring entity
or by the sponsors. In either case, the procuring entity must ensure that

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direct negotiations are permitted under applicable law while also

considering the funder’s procurement requirements to ensure that the
capital works gets funded.

Summary of Key Points

All transmission projects start with planning.
Governments and transmission utilities are best placed to conduct the
planning across the sector. The reasons for this are efficiency, cost
optimisation, cost-effectiveness and reliability.
Stakeholder consultation during the planning process is recommended
to produce a more implementable and robust plan.
Integrated resource planning and transmission development planning
provide a prioritised list of projects that can proceed for project
preparation.
Governments can access various donor funds to assist with the planning
and project preparation activities.
Private sector participation in these transmission projects can be
procured via competitive processes and through direct negotiations.
Competitive processes will be more compatible with DFI funding.

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10. Land Acquisition
 10. LAND ACQUISITION

Introduction
A transmission line may be hundreds of kilometres long. The route may
cross land that is owned by the national government, state or regional
governments, public authorities, private landowners, or it could be tribal
or community-owned land. In many cases, it will be a combination of all of
these types of landownership. In addition to the transmission lines
themselves, substations are likely to be located along the line. Before
financing can be disbursed or construction can begin, rights-of-way,
wayleaves or easements must be acquired along the length of the route and
ownership interests over the land on which substations will be constructed
must be acquired. These are all forms of “access right” or ownership
interest, that enables the contractor to build along a pre-identified route
and are usually granted by the relevant landowner (whether this be a
governmental authority or private individual).

When it comes to substations, not only must the land on which it is built
be secured, it also needs to be accessible by road to get construction
materials to the site and for ongoing operations and maintenance. If they
are not, additional rights-of-way or easements must be procured to
provide access to the substations.

Acquiring these rights-of-way, easements, and ownership interests can be

costly and time-consuming in any country. Fortunately, a set of good
international practices have evolved for designing and siting transmission
lines, engaging in consultations with stakeholders that may be affected by
the project, acquiring interests in land through voluntary purchases and
sales, and ultimately, exercising rights of expropriation (the right of
eminent domain) in the event a landowner refuses to sell a right-of-way,
easement, or ownership interest.

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The land acquisition process can present one of the most significant
impediments to implementing greenfield transmission infrastructure
development. The key is careful, methodical and early planning to
implement an efficient and expeditious land acquisition strategy. The
stakeholder best placed to negotiate and finance land acquisition will
depend on how that stakeholder is empowered to execute this activity, to
implement a project on time and at the lowest cost. With varying land
rights at stake, the matter is unlikely to be simple, and coordination with
stakeholders at all levels (from individual landowners to communities, to
the relevant lands ministry) will be fundamental to ensure a smooth and
successful process.

Planning for Rights-of-way

During the project preparation phase, one of the key activities is the
selection of the transmission line route to determine route optimisation.
At this early stage, utilities will start investigating routing options for
planning purposes. If there is a sufficiently strong case or an obvious need
for a transmission line in the long term, then the utility may start pre-
emptively acquiring strategic rights-of-way for the eventual transmission
infrastructure.

Identifying strategic rights-of-way does not involve a significant cost

outlay. At the start, it will be a desktop or satellite determination of
potential line routes, identifying the nature of the landownership along
that route, and proceeding to landowner engagement. Where it is possible
to negotiate rights agreements with private landowners, this can
significantly assist in transmission line development in later development
phases. In some instances, it may be strategic to acquire the rights to
prevent obstacles that may impede project development (e.g., to prevent
settlements along routes that may be needed in future years).

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The relationship with landowners is critical in transmission line

development. With early-stage relationship-building activities, the party
responsible for the land acquisition, be that the governmental authority or
the private developer, will be able to manage the land acquisition risk
methodically. Without strong planning capacity, it will be difficult for
parties to proceed with strategic land acquisitions.

The acquisition of strategic rights does not provide an alternative to

detailed route selection engineering. This activity will need to be
undertaken as part of the project preparation activities and needs to be
budgeted accordingly. The availability of strategic rights-of-way can
however significantly reduce the time it takes to implement a transmission
project.

Phases for Route

Identification
Route identification can help avoid choosing routes that are close to
communities and nature reserves or pass through difficult terrain. The
objective of this screening analysis is to identify one or a few feasible
routes for a more detailed analysis, with limited on-the-ground activity.

The next phase of the identification and selection investigation may

warrant on-site activities such as “walking/driving/flying” the route to
confirm initial findings. Environmental screening activities and
community consultations may also start during this phase. The goal of this
scoping phase is to specify a few routes which optimise technical
feasibility, cost, and mitigate environmental and social impacts.

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The environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) is an important

consideration that can ultimately determine available external financing
options. Aside from routing considerations, on-site soil and geotechnical
studies will be required, as well as ensuring the final detailed design meets
national grid code requirements.

Environmental and Social

Impact Assessment (ESIA)
We have included a high-level depiction of the ESIA process in the
diagram below (as per the IFC environmental and social performance
standards):

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 10. LAND ACQUISITION

Figure 10.1: High-level Environmental and Social Impact

Assessment (ESIA) process

For transmission lines and land acquisition, the screening and scoping
stages are critical. Screening is a quick high-level analysis to determine
whether a full ESIA is required. If a full ESIA is required, scoping
determines which impacts are likely to be significant and become the main
focus of the ESIA.

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In transmission projects, a full ESIA will most likely be required if seeking

external financing support from a publicly backed financial institution. If
significant physical or economic resettlement of communities is needed,
then a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) will be required. A deeper
discussion of the ESIA and RAP processes is outside of the scope of this
book, however, both elements are closely related to the land acquisition
strategy and required for any transmission infrastructure development.

The ESIA process must start at the concept stage or sooner as part of the
planning process. With an early start to the ESIA, the challenges faced by
projects can be managed and addressed. Transmission line developments
will be assessed against:
The process to prepare ESIA has been performed to the appropriate
level, with a plan to finance and implement identified mitigation plans,
including managing biodiversity;
Stakeholder consultation, including time and process allocated for
stakeholder engagement;
The process to prepare, finalise, and obtain agreement on the RAP,
including evaluating the adequacy of economic compensation and/or
physical relocation for identified affected individuals and/or
households; and
Availability of sufficient budget required for resettlement planning and
implementation.

By initiating the ESIA process early, the utility or government can make
informed decisions on the most optimal line route with due consideration
of these challenges. Some of these may be avoided through strategic
acquisitions as described above or can be avoided through alternative
routes.

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Acquisition of Land for

Rights-of-way
The responsibility for land acquisition will depend on the procurement
strategy for a transmission project, which is explored further in other
chapters. This responsibility is often best coordinated and executed by the
government, especially when the transmission utility or other
governmental body owns the transmission infrastructure. Depending on
the terms of a transmission service or concession agreement, private sector
developers can be allocated the responsibility for procuring land rights. For
example, the renewable IPP programme in South Africa provides the
option for the IPP developers, through a “self-build option” to acquire the
land required for their IPP project’s transmission connection and
undertake such transmission development themselves (see case study in
chapter 3. Common Funding Structures in the African Market). Ultimately,
while the acquisition of land can be done by either the government or by
the private sector, it is wise to identify the actor who is best positioned to
efficiently and expeditiously acquire or secure the land and rights of use,
and to empower them with that responsibility. For example, some types of
land will require governments to exercise a “right of eminent domain” to
construct critical national infrastructure, a right only the government can
exercise.

Project preparation activities will normally include all of the studies

required to choose the line route options including the ESIA studies. These
activities can be funded through project preparation funds that are
available to governments and in some instances the private sector. If
MDBs or bilateral donors are providing concessionary financing to
construct the project asset, then land acquisition and ESIA related costs

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may be included as a project capital expenditure which they are willing to

finance (for further discussion of project preparation funding, see chapter
9. Planning and Project Preparation).

Budgetary constraints faced by many utilities and governments can

frustrate funding the acquisition of privately held land, especially to pre-
emptively acquire strategic land for future transmission lines. Timing of
land acquisition can greatly impact the negotiated price and therefore the
cost of this activity. Most investors will only fund the transmission projects
at the construction stage, and technical assistance grants are rarely
available for capital works or the acquisition of capital assets. Moreover,
acquisition of land during construction (or in general, after financial
closure) increases the land-related risks. Any way to secure the land ahead
of the financial closure is also desirable for all parties as delays can prevent
a project from being implemented, potentially resulting in cost overruns
and an increase in the overall cost of the transmission line.

To the extent that the land acquisition is moved to the private sector, the
private sector may be able to fund the acquisition out of development costs
but are less likely to exercise the same leverage or bargaining power than
the government (local or national). The appetite they will have to do this
will depend upon how certain they are about having the rights to execute
the rest of the transaction (i.e., have they been awarded a tender or
concession to develop the project). In any event, the private sector will
need to work closely with the government at both a local and national level
to ensure adequate compensation is being paid to affected peoples and
landowners.

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Role of the Private Sector

For many transmission projects, where the land in question is owned by a
community or by the government itself, the land acquisition risk is best
managed by the public utility or relevant ministry within the
government. This is not always the case and provided that they are granted
the right authorisations, private sector sponsors can take on the
responsibility for acquiring land, sometimes engaging a consultant to
advise and manage the process. It is important to note that ESIA and RAP
studies can often only be completed once land parcels have been acquired,
which adds to the lead time of preparing these types of projects.

In projects anchored by a dedicated large industrial consumer, the

connection charge may be sufficient to allow for the payment for the
acquisition of the land rights.

For some IPP projects, the risk for the transmission connection to the grid
can be passed on to the IPP (e.g., generation-linked transmission project
discussed in chapter 3. Common Funding Structures in the African Market).
The IPP will need to acquire the land rights and conduct all the associated
studies to ensure that the power generation project can evacuate the
power. It should be noted that these are usually shorter transmission lines
that simply allow for the connection to the existing grid.

In an IPT or whole-of-grid concession/privatisation, the private developer

may be responsible for the grid expansion within the defined concessioned
area under a transmission service or concession agreement. This could
include land right acquisition for the projects. Governments do however
face the risk that if the landowners and the concessionaire cannot reach an
agreement, this might significantly delay investment into the sector and
this will hamper macroeconomic growth.

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Expropriation and Eminent

Domain
Governments in some jurisdictions may exercise their right to acquire land
via expropriation if needed for projects that are strategically beneficial to
the country.

These rights are sometimes called rights to “eminent domain” or

“compulsory purchase” rights. All of these describe the power of a state,
federal, or national government to take private or community property for
the public good or public use, on a limited basis. This power can be
delegated to government subdivisions (or even to private companies) if
legislatively permissible.

When this right is exercised, it is expected that the government will pay a
fair market value for the right. Typically the land value includes the value
of any agricultural assets or use of the land as well as the price of having to
move any dwellings or other fixtures, but this will be dependent on each
country’s laws — and — if funding is being provided by a DFI or MDB or
donor agency, is likely to need to meet the international standard of
adequate economic compensation.

Summary of Key Points

Transmission lines can be hundreds of kilometres long and may cross
land that is owned by the national government, state or regional

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governments, public authorities, private landowners, or it could be

tribal or community-owned land.
During the project preparation phase, one of the key activities is the
selection of the optimum transmission line route.
Route identification can help avoid choosing routes that are close to
communities and nature reserves or passing through difficult terrain.
The objective of this screening analysis is to identify one or a few
feasible routes for a more detailed analysis, with limited on-the-ground
activity.
For transmission lines and land acquisition, the screening and scoping
stages are critical. Screening is a quick high-level analysis to determine
whether a full ESIA is required. If a full ESIA is required, scoping
determines which impacts are likely to be significant and become the
main focus of the ESIA.
The responsibility for land acquisition will depend on the procurement
strategy for a transmission project. But it is wise that the organisation
which is in the best position to arrange land acquisition is made
responsible for it.
For many transmission projects, where the land in question is owned by
a community or by the government itself, the land acquisition risk is
best managed by the public utility or relevant ministry within the
government. Provided that they are granted the right authorisations,
private sector sponsors can also take on the responsibility for acquiring
land.
It is important to note that ESIA and RAP studies can often only be
completed once land parcels have been acquired, which adds to the lead
time of preparing these types of projects.
Governments in some jurisdictions may exercise their right to acquire
land via expropriation if needed for projects that are strategically
beneficial to the country.

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11. Common Risks
 11. COMMON RISKS

Introduction
The purpose of this section is to identify the most common risks associated
with private transmission projects/investments. The risks summarised
here are universal and should be considered regardless of the business
model which may be selected for each specific project. How each risk is
mitigated, however, may differ based on the business model (see chapters
5, 6, and 7 for the discussion of risk mitigation for each business
model). Understanding the detailed risk allocation will be an important
part of the assessment of a project for a government, transmission utility,
or transmission investor. Such understanding will also inform the policy
case and the commercial case and impact the availability or cost of
financing for a project.

Identifying and allocating risks is a key part of the development stage of

private sector financing of any asset or project. How risks are allocated
between the parties will depend on the appetite that the party has for risk.
However, as a rule of thumb, risks are best allocated to the party that is
best placed to manage those risks. Risk allocation is agreed upon in
documentation between the parties. Where one party is not able to fully
take on risk, there may be mitigants that can be put in place to minimise
the impact of any risks occurring.

Project development often requires a significant investment of time and

money before proposing a project for direct negotiation or entering a bid
in a competitive procurement. From the point of project identification
onwards, there is a time commitment and funding required to carry out all
the activities which take place prior to financial close. These include a pre-
feasibility study, a review of relevant laws and regulations, and
conceptualising the financing scheme. As the project matures, more
substantial investments are made in feasibility studies, social and

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environmental impacts assessments, land acquisition/lease and a more

detailed review of laws and regulations. The time and substantial costs
associated with these development activities — and the risk of a project not
achieving commercial or financial close — represents a significant risk to
investors. As a result, before opening the transmission to private
participation, governments/regulators should be careful to ensure that
they have fully committed to an open and transparent investment
solicitation process. Any ambiguity or uncertainty will deter investors
from taking on the risk of developing a project proposal that will never
receive fair consideration.

To differentiate amongst the common risks, they have been grouped into
six categories: financial, land, technical, social and environmental, political
and regulatory, and dispute resolution. A diagrammatic summary of what
falls into these categories is set out below.

Figure 11.1: Categorisation of risks in developing and operating transmission

infrastructure

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11. COMMON RISKS

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Financial Risks
The financial risks detailed below arise from private participation in
transmission infrastructure.

Demand risk
A substantial risk for any transmission project is demand risk. Demand risk
is the risk that there will not be enough demand for electricity from end
users in a prescribed period to enable the private investor to recover the
capital costs of building the transmission infrastructure. The risk is
characterised as an under-utilisation of the transmission assets such that,
over time, the transmission assets do not generate enough revenue to
cover their construction and operating costs.

Private investors are very unlikely to accept any exposure to demand risk:
such exposure arises when the payment terms of a project are linked to the
use of the relevant transmission infrastructure (often termed a “utilisation
factor”). For example, the main private transmission business models
discussed in this book — independent power transmission projects (see
chapter 5) and concessions (see chapter 6) — allocate demand risk to the
transmission utility, the host government, or electricity consumers.

Regardless of who bears this risk, the best way to mitigate it is to ensure
that the project includes assets that are essential and necessary for the
country’s requirements, as demonstrated by comprehensive planning and
feasibility studies. Hence, the focus for a private investor is on how to build
this asset as efficiently as possible and on time, and to use the most efficient
operating model.

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 11. COMMON RISKS

Credit risk
The ability of existing utilities to make payments to private transmission
companies under long-term contracts is referred to as “credit risk”. This
type of risk is significant in the African market since few utilities on the
continent generate enough cash themselves to recover their operational
and capital expenditure costs. This is due to a combination of high costs
and low revenues. In extreme cases, utilities may become functionally or
legally insolvent. As a result, utility credit risk is one of the most important
risks which need to be managed.

When evaluating credit risk, transmission investors will assess the

financial condition of the utility, the extent to which the end-user tariffs
reflect the cost of electricity across the entire value chain, the utility
company’s revenue collection rate, and its ability to pay all stakeholders.

The capacity of the government to make a termination payment, even if

the likelihood of terminating the project is highly unlikely, will also be part
of the overall credit risk assessment, and mitigating this risk will be
necessary to access financing for the private transmission project.

The formulation of termination compensation and buy-out prices are

discussed in more detail in the chapters on independent power
transmission projects and concessions (see chapters 5 and 6).

Inflation and interest rates

The multi-decade duration of most transmission investments exposes
investors to long-term economic risks arising from changes in inflation
and interest rates.

The costs of operating and maintaining transmission infrastructure will

vary over time and will be subject to inflation throughout a long-term
project. If a private investor takes responsibility for operating or

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maintaining transmission infrastructure, then understanding the treatment

of inflation regarding these costs is an important risk that is often reflected
in the investment agreement.

Similarly, private investment in transmission infrastructure will usually

involve a large debt component that will be repaid during the long life of
the project. Lenders terms may include either fixed or floating interest
rates, and a lender may provide financing for the duration of the project
(most common in project financing for IPTs) or up until a date in the
future when the company investing in the transmission project may need
to refinance (which is typically the case for a transmission concession). As
with inflation, the risk that interest rates may increase over time must be
allocated within the investment agreement. In some cases, these risks may
be partly or fully mitigated by hedging instruments.

Foreign exchange rates

While debt service and payment obligations for a transmission investor are
usually denominated in a reserve currency such as US dollars or Euros, the
transmission utility almost always charges its consumers in local currency.
The result is a currency mismatch – the transmission utility pays for the
transmission infrastructure in a reserve currency but earns its revenues in
the local currency. This mismatch is significant and strains the overall risk
profile of an investment.

Different business models for transmission investment deal with this risk
differently. However, the majority of investors, including international
lenders, with a mandate presently suitable for the sector in Sub-Saharan
Africa will be unable to take currency risk. Even where this risk is
mitigated by a pass-through to the utility or government, an investor will
need to consider the impact of foreign exchange risk as part of the overall
credit risk assessment described earlier in this chapter.

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Land
Transmission infrastructure, especially transmission lines, can cover
several hundreds of kilometres, adding to the complexity of securing
financing. Unlike power generation assets that are location-specific,
acquiring the rights-of-way requires considerable political, community,
social, economic, and environmental considerations for each community
or geographic terrain along the transmission line route. Resettlement and
the security of the infrastructure — from both a public safety perspective
and against vandalism or theft — increases the risk of delays in, and
escalates the costs of, developing and delivering transmission
infrastructure.

Please see chapter 10. Land Acquisition for further details on the land
acquisition process.

Technical Risk
Transmission projects involve many technical risks. Identifying these and
apportioning them between a host government or transmission utility and
a private investor is an important part of agreeing to the terms of any
project. Private investors will then seek to mitigate and pass through many
of these risks by contracting with EPC contractors and/or O&M providers,
or through insuring against these risks where suitable. In many cases,
transferring some of these risks to a private investor is a key benefit for a
host government or transmission utility and may form part of the rationale
for introducing private investment.

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Construction and commissioning of assets

Most transmission projects will involve new infrastructure, including new
or upgraded infrastructure forming the basis of the project. Transferring
construction risk to the private sector is likely to be a key feature and
benefit of most projects. This will generally involve a private investor
taking responsibility for cost overruns resulting from construction.

Changes in the construction scope of work required may occur at different

stages of the project and may have significant impacts on the budget,
schedule, and overall viability of the project. Changes may involve the
specification of certain components, the designed redundancy, and
interfaces with the existing or future components of the power grid. Yet,
the most disruptive scope change is the change in the routing of the
transmission line. This may be needed because of numerous reasons
including issues with land acquisition and challenging geology.

The existence of a grid code helps to set the design specification. A

thorough feasibility study should help determine the required scope and
design specifications, as is described in chapter 9. Planning and Project
Preparation. The parties to a transmission project will generally agree to the
scope of projects before the signing of the contract. Most transmission
investors will seek to mitigate construction risks with an EPC contract to
transfer risk to a construction company if it is better placed to manage
them.

Interface Risks
Private transmission projects may be as simple as a single transmission line
or may include multiple lines. They may include new substations or the
expansion or refurbishment of existing ones. They may link to new or

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existing power generation projects. All of these related infrastructure

assets may be held in either private or public hands. When conceiving a
new transmission infrastructure project, these related or ancillary projects
— and their ownership — must be taken into consideration during the
planning period of the transmission project as the interface between the
various assets may affect the scope of the new transmission project. For
example, a privately financed line that is dependent on, and will be
connected to, a remote generation project will need to carefully assess the
timing of the construction of that generation project to ensure that delays
on the generation project do not adversely impact the timing of payment
of wheeling or use-of-service charges of the transmission line. A level of
coordination and interface management will be required for projects that
connect to one another.

Technology Risks
New technology risk is not common for transmission projects, as the
technology is relatively standard. However, soon new technologies will be
developed including smart grid capabilities and battery storage. IPTs will
not usually take on new technology risk as they are difficult to finance
without a proven track record. However, whole-of-grid concessions and
privatisation models do allow private sector operators to experiment with
new technology within their wider business. Encouraging innovation and
improvements is a possible benefit of network concession models.
Technology risks are reduced or eliminated by ensuring that the specific
technology has demonstrated good performance and reliability in other
projects of scale and similar operating conditions. Risks associated with
new technologies can also be mitigated through appropriate supplier
guarantees.

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Operation, maintenance, and technical performance

Operating risks, especially availability and technical performance, need to
be assessed. Any private transmission financing business model which
passes responsibility for operating or maintaining assets to the private
sector will likely include key performance indicators (KPIs) for which the
private investor will be responsible. Failure to meet KPIs will generally
result in financial penalties or revenue reductions for the project company.
Maintenance risks involve improper or inadequate maintenance. In most
private-sector business models this risk will be transferred to the investor.
The investor will then either employ its own staff to maintain the assets or
seek to transfer the responsibility and the risk by hiring a contractor
(either an independent maintenance company or even the transmission
utility) to carry out this function.

Accidents, damage, and theft

Accidents, damage and theft are risks throughout the lifecycle of a project
including construction, operation and maintenance, and need to be dealt
with. Responsibility for accidents will typically reside with the party
responsible for operations and maintenance. Damage and theft will
typically be the responsibility of the private sector asset owner, though this
can be mitigated through insurance products and adequate insurance will
typically be a requirement of lenders to the sector.

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Social and Environmental

Risks
The potential for transmission projects to impact surrounding
communities and environments is significant and gives rise to a number of
risks that must be allocated amongst the public and private parties in any
transmission investment. In general, a comprehensive social and
environmental impact assessment will need to be prepared in connection
with the construction of new facilities or the rehabilitation of existing
facilities. It is often advisable to begin this assessment at an early stage, as
part of pre-feasibility and feasibility studies, so that serious social and
environmental issues are identified early on. In many cases, changes to the
design of the project may mitigate these issues. For example, alterations to
the line route to mitigate social and environmental impacts are common.

Social and environmental risks are typically grouped into construction-

related risks and operations-related risks. Some of the risks mentioned
below are present in only one of these two periods. Others are in both.

Health and safety

Occupational, health, and safety risks that may arise during project
construction, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning should also
be assessed and allocated. Accidents could happen and adequate
precautions need to be taken to avoid them. Electrocution is probably the
most common injury but could be avoided with proper system design and
precautions. Electromagnetic interference (radio noise) is possible and may
require that transmission line rights-of-way and conductor bundles be
designed to ensure radio reception at the outside limits remains normal.

Resettlement
If resettlement of persons is required to build and operate the transmission
project, a very thorough assessment is needed to ensure that it is handled

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properly. Resettlement relates not only to landowners but also to users of

the land, particularly for agricultural or other purposes. Lenders, especially
development finance institutions, have specific requirements on how social
and environmental issues (including resettlement) should be handled. One
such example is the “Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Electric
Power Transmission and Distribution” of the World Bank Group
(https://bit.ly/32aZ9Db).

Climate change
Finally, it should be mentioned that assessment of greenhouse gases as a
result of the transmission project is becoming more and more common.
Certainly, energy losses in the transmission line could be linked to
greenhouse gases. However, investments in transmission reduce losses.
Transmission is a key enabling infrastructure for renewables and green
power sources and as a result, investments in transmission may contribute
substantially to the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases.

Non-political force majeure events

A party to a contract may be affected by an event or circumstance or
combination of events or circumstances (including the effects thereof) that
is beyond the reasonable control of that party and that materially and
adversely affects the performance by that party of its obligations under to a
project agreement. Such events are known as force majeure events. In civil
law countries, the nature and consequences of force majeure events are
generally specified by law. It may or may not be possible for parties to
agree to change the events that constitute force majeure events or the
consequences of force majeure events by contract. English law does not
recognise the concept of force majeure as a matter of law. As a result, the
parties to a contract governed by English law (and the laws of virtually all
common law countries) must agree on the events and circumstances that
constitute force majeure events and the consequences of those events.

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Force majeure events may include:

lightning fire, earthquake, tsunami, flood, storm, cyclone, typhoon, or
tornado;
fire, explosion, mudslide, or chemical contamination;
epidemic or plague; and
events that are analogous to political force majeure events but that
occur outside of the host country and do not directly involve the host
country.

If a party is prevented from performing by such an event, uses reasonable

efforts to overcome the effects of the event and continue performing its
obligations, and notifies the other party of the event and its effects, then
the time the affected party must perform will be extended. If the force
majeure continues for a prolonged period, the parties may have the ability
to terminate the affected project agreements.

Political and Regulatory

Risks
As discussed in chapter 12. Regulatory Framework, private transmission
projects will need to obtain many approvals, licenses, permits, and other
consents from various public authorities to be able to perform their
obligations and exercise their rights. The project company faces the risk
that a license will not be issued, may be revoked or that when the license
period lapses, the license will not be renewed. The project company would
also be concerned about any changes to the terms and conditions of the
license or changes in law more generally.

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Political risks are generally mitigated under government support

agreements by way of termination compensation payments. The
formulation of termination compensation and buy-out prices are discussed
in more detail in the chapters on independent power transmission projects
and concessions (see chapter 5 and 6).

Licensing and permitting

A government support agreement (see chapter 8. Government Support and
Credit Enhancement for more detail) will typically provide that the host
government will, where necessary, take appropriate action to ensure that
its public authorities issue the licenses, permits, and consents the project
company is required to obtain. The form of material licenses — such as a
transmission license — may be attached to the government support
agreement so that the project company will have visibility of the terms and
conditions that will be attached to that license upon the execution of the
government support agreement. The issuance of key licenses will usually
also constitute a condition precedent to the effectiveness of the project
agreements or to the obligation of the project company to perform its
obligations, such as constructing facilities or taking control over
operations and maintenance. It is important to note the failure to approve
and issue permits or other regulatory approvals may eventually trigger an
event of default under the relevant IPT, concession, or similar agreement.

Change in law
The transmission utility and the host government will likely require the
project company to contractually commit to comply in all material respects
with the laws of the host country. The project company should in turn be
able to commit to doing so, at least by reference to applicable laws at the
outset of the project based on legal due diligence and advice. The project
company (and by extension its lenders) will, however, find it difficult to
give an unqualified commitment to comply with laws to the extent that

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laws may change over time. This risk arising from the impact of a
changing legal environment over the life of the project is referred to as a
change in law risk.

The scope of change in law risk has evolved to include (a) the introduction
of a new law, (b) modification of existing law, and/or (c) changes in the
interpretation of the law by any court, tribunal, governmental entity or
other authority which has applicable jurisdiction or regulatory oversight
concerning the project or the project company. “Law” in this context is
often defined as covering a comprehensive range of legislative, statutory
and regulatory instruments, orders, guidelines, and so on.

A change in law may impact the project company in many ways:

It may adversely affect the performance of a particular obligation under
the project agreement or render performance impossible.
It may adversely affect the project company’s revenue stream by
requiring the project company to incur a one-off capital cost or cause an
ongoing increase in the project company’s operating costs (in each case,
for the project company to comply with the relevant change in law).
Conversely, it may lead to a reduction in the project company’s
operating or forecast capital expenditure.

The general principle behind the allocation of change in the law risk is that
the project company should be left in no better or worse position than if
the relevant change in law had not occurred. This protection is often
subject to limits, such as the need for a “material” impact on the project
economics or exclusions for changes in law related to human rights or
environmental protection.

To the extent the project company is temporarily unable to perform an

obligation as a result of a change in law, this will not constitute a project
company default and any time limits imposed on the project company will
be extended accordingly. In addition, if the project company incurs an
increase in costs or decrease in revenue as a result of a change in law, this
will entitle the project company to receive either (a) direct compensation

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to pay for or reimburse the project company for such cost or revenue
shortfall, or (b) an appropriate tariff increase. Conversely, if the project
company benefits from a change in law, then an appropriate downward
adjustment in the tariff will typically apply. If a change in law renders
performance under the project agreement impossible, the project company
will generally be entitled to trigger the termination payment provided for
in the agreement.

Political force majeure events

A party to a contract may be affected by an event or circumstance or
combination of events or circumstances (including the effects thereof) that
is beyond the reasonable control of that party, and is to some extent within
the control of the host country, and materially and adversely affects the
performance by that party of its obligations under a project agreement.
Such an event may be known as a political force majeure event. It may also
be known as material adverse government action or by some other name.

These events may include:

any act of war (whether declared or undeclared), invasion, armed
conflict or act of a foreign enemy, blockade, embargo, revolution, riot,
insurrection, civil commotion, or act of terrorism;
unless the project company is otherwise effectively compensated, any
failure by the regulator to allow or approve an adjustment to the annual
revenue requirement that the project company is authorised to recover
per the terms or provisions of the applicable licenses and the tariff
methodology guidelines;
the failure of a public authority to issue or renew licenses or the
modification of the terms of a license;
any strike, work-to-rule, or go-slow which is not primarily motivated
by a desire to influence the actions of the project company to preserve
or improve conditions of employment, and is part of a general strike or
industry-wide strike, work-to-rule, or go-slow; and

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changes in law, including adverse changes in the tariff methodology.

Prolonged political force majeure events may lead to government events of

default, which would typically entitle the project company to terminate the
project agreements and claim any termination compensation that is
payable upon their termination.

Dispute Resolution
Unfortunately, disputes do sometimes arise, even in the context of well-
structured transactions that have been implemented by parties that were
well advised by legal, technical, financial, and other specialist advisors. The
contracts that are discussed in this handbook are all long-term contracts
and the parties to them cannot always anticipate the circumstances that
may arise over a period that may sometimes exceed 30 years.

When a dispute arises, all parties will have an interest in resolving the
dispute as quickly, efficiently, and amicably as they can. The purpose of
dispute resolution mechanisms is to ensure that disputes are resolved
quickly so that the parties can put the dispute behind them and continue to
perform their obligations and enjoy their rights under the contracts they
have entered into.

Disputes arise for a variety of reasons. They may relate to technical or

financial issues, measurements of the availability of a transmission line, or
measurements of KPIs to name just a few. Disputes may also relate to the
interpretation of contracts, laws, regulations, or licenses, or the
interpretation of rights or obligations that arise out of the intersection
between contracts, laws, regulations, and licenses.

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Informal dispute resolution

The best thing parties can do when disputes arise is to talk to each other.
Ongoing dialogue among the parties after the project agreements have
been executed can help to resolve most disputes. If the project level team is
not able to resolve a dispute, discussions between senior management of
the parties to the dispute may be helpful. Most project agreements impose
an obligation on the parties to attempt to amicably resolve issues in good
faith through dialogue before they use more formal dispute resolution
processes.

Formal dispute resolution

Referral to technical experts

Many project agreements provide that a party may refer defined categories
of disputes to a technical expert. They may also provide that any dispute
may be referred to a technical expert if the parties agree after the dispute
has arisen, regardless of whether the dispute falls within the defined
categories of disputes that can be referred to a technical expert by right.

Some project agreements provide that a technical expert appointed by the

parties will render a non-binding recommendation to the parties.
Although the recommendation is non-binding, it may assist the parties in
crystallising the issues and reaching an amicable resolution. Other project
agreements provide that a technical expert may issue a decision and that
the decision will be binding on the parties unless a party effectively appeals
the decisions by referring the dispute to arbitration within a defined period
after the decision has been issued. Finally, in rare instances and in relation
to narrower categories of disputes, a project agreement may provide that a
decision issued by a technical expert is final and binding.

It is worth noting that the legal frameworks that support the validity and
binding nature of arbitration are well developed. In contrast, the legal
frameworks related to the determination of disputes by technical experts is

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less well developed and that a decision may not be final and binding even if
a project agreement indicates that it will be if applicable law does not
provide that such decisions are final and binding. Care is necessary in the
context of cross-border projects because the laws of multiple countries
must be considered.

Expert determination is less suited to the resolution of disputes that arise

out of complex factual matters that require extensive evidence in the form
of documents or evidence from witnesses. Expert determination is also less
suited to purely legal disputes, in part because most clauses that permit a
party to refer a dispute to a technical expert do not envision the referral of
a dispute to barristers, solicitors, or attorneys.

Independent engineers
If the transaction involves the appointment of an independent engineer,
the independent engineer may issue recommendations or opinions that
can help the parties resolve disputes. The list of issues that can be
submitted to an independent engineer can be agreed upon during the
negotiation of the project agreements. An independent engineer is
mandated in a separate agreement among the independent engineer and
the parties to the project agreement in relation to which the engineer is
being appointed. If the parties intend for an independent engineer to play a
role in resolving disagreements as they arise, it is advisable to appoint an
independent engineer at the outset of the project. This avoids delays and
disagreement as to the identity of the independent engineer after a
disagreement arises. It also means that the independent engineer will have
more background knowledge about the project and may be able to issue
well-informed recommendations and opinions more quickly as a result.

Arbitration
Arbitration is used to resolve disputes that cannot be resolved through
informal processes or processes that involve a technical expert or
independent engineer. Unless the project agreements include a provision
that requires the parties to resolve disputes by binding arbitration, the
dispute would be submitted to courts that have jurisdiction over the

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dispute. This is not an ideal outcome in the context of international

transactions because arbitral awards are much more easily recognised and
enforced by courts than decisions issued by other courts.

The parties to a contract may choose from various sets of arbitration rules
to resolve disputes. Those rules include rules issued by the International
Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), the
International Chamber of Commerce (the ICC), the United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), and the London
Court of International Arbitration (the LCIA). Other arbitration rules also
exist, including under OHADA law. Each set of rules addresses issues such
as the qualifications of arbitrators, the number of arbitrators, the method
of appointing arbitrators, the confidentiality of the proceedings, the fees
and costs of the arbitrators, and many procedural issues.

The seat of arbitration

The project agreements should select the seat of the arbitration. The seat
sounds like it is where the arbitration will physically take place, but it is
important that the seat not be confused with the venue of the arbitration
(which is where the arbitration will take place). The seat is important
because the law of the seat will (either favourably or unfavourably) fill in
gaps not catered for by the arbitral rules, will impact on the role of the
courts regarding the independence of the arbitrators, and might even
override certain arbitration rules.

The law of the seat can even influence the ultimate enforceability of any
award. Prudent contracting parties would undertake some due diligence of
the chosen seat.

Enforceability of an arbitral award

Parties often prefer arbitration to litigation due to the enforceability of an
arbitral award. An arbitral award may be enforced in a country that is a
party to the New York Convention (the Convention on the Recognition

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and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards) and has implemented the

convention by passing its own internal laws regarding the enforceability of
foreign arbitral awards in a manner that is consistent with the convention.

Summary of Key Points

Identifying and allocating risks is a key part of the development stage of
a private sector financing of any asset or project.
The majority of risks identified in this chapter are universal to all types
of investment in any country.
There are certain specific risks associated with the development,
construction, financing, and operation of transmission assets.
How risks are allocated between the parties will depend on the appetite
that party has for risk, but as a rule of thumb, risks are best allocated to
the party that is best placed to manage those risks.
Risk allocation is agreed upon in documentation between the parties.
Where one party is not able to fully take on risk, there may be mitigants
that can be put in place to minimise the impact of any risks occurring.
Understanding the detailed risk allocation will be an important part of
the assessment of a project for a government, transmission utility, and
transmission investor. Such understanding will also inform the policy
case and the commercial case, and impact the availability or cost of
financing for a project.
More detailed analysis on the allocation of risks in IPTs and whole-of-
grid concession models are found in those respective chapters.

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Framework
 12. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Introduction
Regulatory frameworks are fundamental to the effective operations of the
electricity sector in any country. A predictable regulatory framework is of
particular importance to private funding structures since the existing
framework forms the assumptions upon which the investment is made at
the outset of the project and ongoing regulation represents a risk over the
life of the project.

The elements that define a well-constructed and transparent framework

include autonomy, consistency, and predictability. With these elements
legislated and demonstrated in practice, it will be easier to attract funding
of private business models and stimulate transmission infrastructure
investment. Improving the regulatory framework for transmission projects
will also benefit the market more broadly by incentivising efficiency and
bringing down costs for consumers.

In addition to the general need for a well-developed regulatory framework,

the introduction of private investment in the transmission sector will also
require targeted changes to existing regulations to address barriers that
may otherwise make private investment impossible.

In this chapter we will discuss the following:

the characteristics of an independent regulator;
how regulatory transparency can be achieved;
economic, market, and licensing regulations; and
reducing regulatory barriers to private investment.

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Regulation by Contract
For certain private investments where the transmission project will operate largely
on an independent basis (e.g., whole-of-network concessions and IPT models), it
may be possible to finance a project even if the regulatory framework is not fully
developed. Both the economic and technical regulations described in this chapter
can be defined directly in the project agreements, which is referred to as Regulation
by Contract. This does not foreclose the possibility of developing a regulatory
framework as that legislative process may continue in parallel with the
implementation of the project. There are many cases in the power sector where one
or two projects have led the way and provided useful lessons learned that are
translated into long-term regulations. It is important to note, however, that the use
of Regulation by Contract should be limited as a widespread use would result in a
market with widely divergent regulation of different projects. Any plan for wide-
scale investment from the private sector will require an independent and stable
regulatory framework that governs all market actors on equal terms.

Definition of an
Independent Regulator
The independence of the regulator is a primary concern for transmission
project investors given the significant possibility for political influence in
the energy sector. As a regulated asset that supports the broader public
benefit of energy access, there is often an incentive for political actors to
artificially lower transmission and other energy costs to generate goodwill
with consumers (particularly ahead of elections). In its basic ideal form, an
independent regulator will not be subject to any political influences or
special interest groups and will be autonomous in its governance of the
energy sector. Some of the characteristics of an independent regulator are:
an independent board that has a duty of care to all sector stakeholders;
independent funding mechanism via licensing fees;

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resources and capacity to conduct regulatory activities (economic,

technical, legal, and compliance functions) without the need for
government or utility support; and
legislation that allows for accountability to all stakeholders independent
from the executive or legislative branches of government.

As a general rule, legislative frameworks that govern electricity sectors

establish the regulator as a separate legal and independent entity outside
the ministry that is responsible for energy. Although the government may
establish policy objectives for the sector, the independent regulator is
responsible for ensuring efficiency, transparency, and fairness in the
management of the electricity sector and benefits from the discretion that
is required to achieve those objectives and to balance the interests of
investors and consumers. Among other things, the concepts of regulatory
independence and discretion mean that a regulator is permitted by law to
modify its tariff guidelines at any time, yet with a reform procedure that
involves broad consultation with all participants, particularly sector
stakeholders.

How Transparency Can Be

Achieved
A transparent regulatory framework can create credibility for the regulator
and the regulatory decisions it makes. Even when service providers are all
public entities, stakeholders including the government, consumers, and
utilities are more likely to express confidence in the regulator if its
decisions are guided by clear rules, procedures, and methodologies and if
stakeholders participate in the decision-making process.

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Transparency makes it easier to attract private investment in financing

through any of the available business models discussed in this handbook.
This is because private investors are more likely to choose legal and
regulatory frameworks in which their rights and obligations have been
clearly defined and the decisions of the regulator are predictable.

Measures to achieve and enhance transparency in the regulatory

framework include clarity of the rules and procedures of the regulator and
the rights and obligations of regulated entities, the autonomy of the
regulator, regulator accountability to stakeholders, predictability of
regulatory decisions, broad stakeholder participation in the regulatory
process, and open access to information about the process.

Clarity of roles, rights, and obligations

Regulatory transparency can be enhanced when the roles and objectives of
the regulator are spelt out in primary legislation and other instruments
such as contracts. The rights and obligations of the regulated entities also
need to be clearly stated so that expectations are clear to all stakeholders.
This feature of the regulatory framework is particularly important to
private developers and their financiers.

Autonomy of the regulator

Good regulatory governance requires that the regulator is protected by law
and in practice from interference from political actors, policymakers, and
special interest groups. This may be achieved through various measures
that ensure that regulators are not funded through government budgets or
by the utilities, and balanced stakeholder representation on the board of
the regulators.

Accountability to stakeholders
To avoid abuse or the perception of abuse of its autonomy, a good
regulatory framework should create the framework for stakeholders to

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challenge the decisions of the regulator, and most importantly, to obtain

redress when the decisions are not per the rules and procedures.

Predictability of regulatory decisions

In a good regulatory framework, the decisions of the regulator will be
predictable. This means that regulatory decisions are made under
established rules, methodologies, and processes. It calls for clearly spelling
out in regulatory documents - including licenses and contracts- the factors
that feed into the decisions of the regulator. These factors may include
definitions of parameters such as the rate base, price adjustment formulas,
and timetables of events.

Stakeholder participation
Broad stakeholder participation in the regulatory process enhances
transparency and the legitimacy of the regulatory framework and bolsters
consumer confidence that the regulatory system will protect them from
unreasonably high prices or poor quality of service. Typical stakeholders
will include regulated entities, non-regulated ones, consumers,
policymakers, and other public authorities. These stakeholders should be
encouraged to participate actively in the regulatory decision-making
process, to provide regulators with as much information as possible about
their views and about the impact that a regulatory decision would have on
them.

Open access to information

Open access simply means that the laws, rules, processes, methodologies,
and consultation papers that inform the decisions of the regulator and the
decisions themselves are readily and openly available to stakeholders and
the general public. This is one way to enhance the transparency of the
regulatory framework and foster stakeholder participation and stakeholder
confidence in the regulator and regulatory decisions.

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Functions of a Regulator
Economic regulation
Economic regulation is needed in areas where no functional competition is
possible. Electricity networks are a prime example of this lack of
constitution since they typically constitute a natural monopoly and require
regulation to limit monopoly pricing and to set incentives for efficient
performance.

Economic regulation typically involves ensuring the financial sustainability

of the utility through tariffs that are cost-reflective and incentives for the
efficient cost of operations. It also allows for utilities to have returns that
allow for future investments and still balances the requirements for
affordability to ensure access for all. The necessity for economic regulation
that balances the need to limit monopoly effects with the financial
sustainability of the utility applies equally to both public and private
transmission companies.

Methods for economic regulation

Some of the methods used for economic regulation by regulators include:

Rate of return (ROR) regulation: At the basic level this method allows the
regulated entity to recover its justifiable prudent cost and is allowed a return
on the regulated assets (or rate base). Under this method of regulation,
regulators evaluate the firm's rate base, cost of capital, operating expenses,
and overall depreciation to estimate the total revenue needed for the firm to
fully cover its expenses. It makes room for clawbacks and claims for over- and

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under-recovery of cost, typically through clearing accounts. It should be noted

that in some jurisdictions the term cost of service regulation, or COSR, is
used. The most commonly used term in Africa, however, is RoR.

Incentive-based regulation: This method determines the revenue

requirement for the transmission utility using a future period called a
control period. The control period is a long interval between tariff
reviews, usually 4 or 5 years, within which the revenue requirement is
frozen. In the control period, tariffs are allowed to increase at a rate that
comprises the difference between the country’s annual consumer price
index (CPI) or inflation rate and a productivity factor. The goal of this
method is to ensure that at the end of the control period, the transmission
utility’s allowed revenues equate to its costs, and efficiency gains are passed
on to the consumers in the next control period.

This model can take either of two approaches: the price cap and the
revenue cap approaches.

Price cap regulation: Sometimes referred to as CPI-X, this method

attempts to adjust the utilities’ prices according to the price cap index that
reflects the overall rate of inflation in the economy, the ability of the
operator to gain efficiencies relative to the inflation in the utilities input
prices, relative to the average in the economy.

Revenue cap regulation: This method allows the utility to change its prices
as long as its revenue remains below the cap set.

The effective application of these methods will lead to a predictable

methodology for calculating the economic return for transmission projects
and make it easier for potential investors to assess the commercial viability
of any given project.

Cost recovery: transmission tariff considerations

Efficient regulation will be required to determine the price (cost) of
transmission through a transmission tariff that will be ultimately borne by

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the electricity end user. The transmission tariff will be designed using
principles that enable fair allocation of the cost of transmission between
generation and consumption, reduce the investor’s risk of cost recovery,
incentivise network users to make the best decisions on the location of
new generation and load, and reduce system operating costs.

Figure 12.1: Elements of transmission tariff regulation development

When the transmission costs are clear and fairly allocated, it becomes
easier to attract financing through any of the available business models
discussed in this handbook.

To attract financing for transmission, governments will have to consider

how their respective electricity market structures affect the transparency of
their transmission costs. The regulatory tariff models and pricing
methodology used in Sub-Saharan Africa to calculate the upstream costs of
transmission depend largely on the structure of the electricity market.
Thus, vertically integrated electricity markets with little or no unbundling
or competition differ in their approach to transmission pricing from

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unbundled markets with a partial or full competition. This impact of the

market structure on transmission pricing affects the extent of regulation
for and transparency in the cost of transmission.

In vertically integrated monopolies with no market competition, the costs

associated with transmission are often unclear. While it may be possible to
determine the fixed costs of new transmission lines, the variable costs of
operating and maintaining the grid may not be easily separated from the
operation and maintenance costs for associated generation plants and the
distribution system. Corporate and administrative costs also remain
bundled.

Figure 12.2: Current degrees of transmission tariff pricing in SSA according to

market structure

Further, limited regulation of transmission pricing is seen in most

countries that have introduced competition in generation while retaining a
vertically integrated monopoly structure. The regulator ensures that the
connection charges for a new generator — typically an IPP — cover the
costs of constructing, operating, and maintaining the network facilities
that are strictly required to connect the IPP to the monopoly’s network.
However, the costs related to the use of the system by both the generators
and the utility are not clear. Thus, proper cost allocation may not be

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feasible under current tariff structures in markets with vertically integrated

utilities and new regulations may be needed to establish a predictable
methodology for transmission pricing.

Transmission pricing is clearer in some countries that have undergone full

legal unbundling: separation of generation, transmission, and distribution
functions into different legal entities. The laws in such countries also
establish independent regulators that create regulatory frameworks to
allocate the benefits and costs of using the transmission network among
the various participants in the market and recover the costs of investment.
Yet, the degree of transmission cost transparency in such markets depends
on the extent of the regulator’s independence and its ability to design and
implement cost-reflective tariffs.

Nonetheless, all countries regardless of market structure can regulate and

achieve transparency in transmission costs. Costs of transmission in
vertically integrated monopolies can be regulated and be transparent
without a full legal unbundling exercise. This is possible if the existing
monopoly utility is required to maintain separate accounts for the various
services it renders (generation, transmission, distribution) which are then
monitored by an independent regulator. This introduces transparency and
predictability without the need to fully unbundle the legacy utility in a
market.

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Case Study — Mauritius

The legal and regulatory framework established by the Mauritius Electricity Act,
2005 (as amended, 2020) contemplates the existence of an independent regulator
(the Utility Regulatory Authority) and a requirement that a licensee who provides
more than one electricity service should keep separate accounts and publish
separate financial statements for each electricity service. Hence, the vertically
integrated utility will keep separate accounts for generation, transmission, and
distribution. Such practice — known as accounting unbundling — can enable a
vertically integrated utility to avoid cross-subsidisation of costs among its
respective businesses, determine the true cost of transmission, and publicly
disclose such costs. The regulator is also better equipped to properly allocate
transmission costs to other network users such as IPPs and bulk purchasers.

Market Regulations and

Compliance
An electricity regulator also performs in some markets the function of a
market regulator in addition to the economic regulations. This includes for
the transmission business the development of the grid codes that govern
the technical specifications and performance requirements. Adherence to
this is usually specified in the licence.

A regulator also plays an important role in monitoring compliance to

licensing conditions and other legislation. To do this effectively, the
regulator will need to be appropriately resourced and have the necessary
legislative powers to impose sanctions for infringements.

As electricity markets become more liberalised, the functions of the

regulator will need to be reinforced. With a multitude of stakeholders and
consultants being a foundation of regulatory processes, the regulator’s

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ability and resources to undertake these activities need continual focus. A

regulator without the resources can quickly lose its independence, even if
in some instances this is not total independence.

Licensing
Another function that a regulator performs is to issue licenses. Some of
these licenses, permits, and consents apply to virtually any type of business.
A business license may be required by the localities in which a business
owns property, operates, or has an office, for example. Planning, location,
and construction permits are likely to be required to construct
transmission facilities, substations, offices, and other facilities. At the other
end of the spectrum, some licenses, permits, and consents are specific to
the power sector, and to transmission in particular. A transmission license
is a good example of a license that is specific to the transmission sector.

The transmission license typically authorises the holder to own, construct,

and operate physical installations for transporting electricity from a
production point to a consumption point, either within the country or
outside the country. In many African countries, cross-border transactions
will not fall under the remit of the local countries’ regulator and may be
regarded as an unregulated business.

The system operation license authorises the holder to engage in activities

that ensure the reliability of the entire network. Thus, the system
operation licensee will manage electricity flows on the network, and
undertake non-discriminatory generation scheduling, commitment and
dispatch, transmission congestion management, transmission outage
coordination, system planning for long-term capacity, and procurement
and scheduling of ancillary services. The system operator does not own or
operate physical transmission facilities and has no financial interest in the
electricity flow on the transmission lines.

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Regulatory Implications for

the Private Sector
This section will discuss the regulatory framework required to attract
private investments in transmission. While the bulk of private investment
in power infrastructure is directed to generation projects, governments
and regulators are increasingly moving towards the introduction of private
participation into other segments of the power market, such as
transmission and distribution. Even with private participation, the need to
maintain the stability and accessibility of power markets remains.
Regardless of the mix of public and private participation in the power
market, a regulatory framework that establishes market rules, prohibits
and provides protection is an important focus for governments and
regulators.

Removing entry barriers to private investments

Since electricity transmission infrastructure has traditionally been
managed as a public asset, the regulatory framework must often be
adjusted to specifically authorise private participants to undertake grid
activities. Grid activities include planning for transmission projects,
construction of new transmission infrastructure, maintenance planning,
and system operation. Some jurisdictions divide these activities into two
licenses which may be held by the same entity — a transmission license and
a system operation license.

If a country’s legal and regulatory framework contemplates that only the

state-owned utility will perform the activities listed above as strictly
“transmission license” activities, it will be difficult to attract private
investments into the transmission segment of the electricity supply chain.

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The business models discussed in this book are only possible if the
electricity laws and regulations are drafted to allow private entities to hold
“transmission licenses''. These licensees can coexist with state-owned
utilities who may also provide transmission and/or system operator
functions. However, the licensing regime must ensure that private entities
which undertake strictly transmission activities allow non-discriminatory
connection to the installations they own and operate. The licensing
framework should also clearly establish the steps for obtaining a
transmission license and the costs involved.

Secured interests in transmission assets

One significant change in the regulatory framework for transmission
systems that must be anticipated with the introduction of private
investment is the need for investors to obtain a secured interest in any
transmission assets that are covered by a license, concession, or any other
business model. This may be a significant departure from existing
frameworks that assume transmission assets are to be held by a public
entity on behalf of the state. The form of secured interest that investors
require may vary significantly, based upon both the project structure and
the type of financing. In general, however, the regulatory framework
should anticipate the need to grant interests to private parties in the
physical assets (land, equipment, etc), legal assets (operating license,
sales/marketing agreements, etc), and financial assets (tariff payments,
receivables, etc). Without this security, the investor will be unable to
demonstrate to their shareholders or lenders the financial security
necessary to fully fund the project's development and the cost recovery
potential.

Currency risk
As discussed later in this book within the context of financing, privately
financed transmission projects often require that the investor borrow
funds in either local currency or reserve currency. The local currency is the
currency of the jurisdiction in which the project is to be constructed and
operated, and reserve currency is a currency held in significant quantities

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as part of governments’ or institutions’ foreign exchange reserves. Reserve

currencies, such as U.S. dollars and Euros, are commonly used in power
and infrastructure transactions. As a result, any regulatory framework that
intends to attract private investment in transmission infrastructure must
also authorise the payment of transmission tariffs in either local or reserve
currencies (or possibly a combination of both) to ensure that the private
financing terms of the project are compatible with the publicly regulated
payment structure. For additional detail on currency risk in private
projects, see chapter 11. Common Risks.

Dispute resolution
With the introduction of private participation in the transmission segment
of a domestic power market, it is often necessary for the regulatory
framework to accommodate the need for alternative forms of dispute
resolution to quickly and fairly resolve any issues that arise at the contract
or operational level. For example, as new technologies and operational
standards are introduced by private parties, the regulatory framework may
authorise the appointment of independent engineers to help reconcile any
conflicts between legacy and modern systems. Similarly, if a major dispute
were to arise between public and private parties, it would be expected that
a neutral dispute resolution system, such as commercial arbitration, could
be utilised to resolve the dispute, an option that would need to be
specifically authorised in the regulatory framework (public entities may
also be required to waive their sovereign immunity protections to enable
the enforcement of any arbitration awards). For additional detail on
dispute resolution, see chapter 11. Common Risks.

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Summary of Key Points

An effective regulatory framework for both public and private
transmission projects should be transparent, consistent, and predictable.
An independent regulator is critical and should not be subject to any
political influences or special interest groups to facilitate autonomous
governance of the market.
Energy regulators provide vital functions for the sector such as
economic and market regulation, licensing, and compliance.
In addition to the general need for an effective regulatory framework,
private projects will require specific regulations to protect investors.
In limited cases, a private project may be negotiated in a market that
lacks a clear regulatory framework through Regulation by Contract.

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Deep Dive into Transmission Pricing

As explained in this chapter 12. Regulatory Framework, one of the primary
functions of an independent regulator is to establish the pricing that the
transmission utilities, be they private or public, can charge to generate
revenue. This revenue will then cover the transmission utility’s costs,
namely, the network investment costs (including a specified return on the
capital deployed), operation and maintenance costs, ancillary service
charges, and administrative costs.

This section of the book presents a summary of the most common

methodologies utilised by independent regulators to establish transmission
pricing. While any application of a pricing model will require careful
study, economic modelling, and significant consultation with all market
stakeholders, this section should provide a helpful overview of the
diversity of pricing strategies available to regulators.

This section is especially relevant for the whole-of-grid concession funding

structure as the pricing of the transmission charge by the regulator will be
critical for the successful implementation of the business model. Note,
however, that the level of technicality of this subject matter is high and
goes slightly beyond the original intent of this book.

Tariff Setting Process

The basis for determining the transmission utility’s allowed revenues
depends on the tariff model adopted by the regulator. As detailed in this
chapter, there is a range of tariff models that may be deployed by the
regulator. However, before investigating each model, it is important to
note that any uncertainty in the process adopted for tariff making is itself
considered a risk for private investors.

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A key feature of the revenue models for private transmission projects is the
periodic regulatory review of the tariffs. At the outset of a project, the
tariff will be established, based upon the allocation of existing assets to the
private operator (in a privatisation or concession model). However, over
the life of the project, as the need for additional investments in the
transmission network/segment are identified, the regulated tariff will need
to be reviewed. Additionally, between reviews, the existing regulated tariff
may be allowed to increase by an escalation factor that reflects inflation or
other changes in economic growth. The investment agreement may also
include key performance targets for the private transmission project,
which may also be adjusted over time as the assumptions underlying those
performance targets evolve with appropriate rewards or penalties attached
to the performance targets.

Given the significant need to treat tariff setting as an ongoing exercise

rather than a one-time event, it is critically important for the regulator to
communicate to the market how it plans to engage in this process and
invite feedback to build trust in that process. Some areas of concern
include: the model applied in the valuation of the transmission assets, the
establishment of a reasonable return on invested capital, and the
characterisation of the nature of new assets that are included in the
regulated asset base.

Tariff Methodologies
In general, the process for transmission tariff design is divided into three
phases:
Establishing the allowed costs (annual revenue requirement) of the
transmission utility through any of the revenue regulation models for
network monopolies.
Deciding how the transmission utility’s revenue requirement will be
allocated among network users in the form of connection and use-of-
system charges.

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Designing the format of the charges.

The methods for establishing the allowed costs have been briefly described
in the main chapter ‘Regulatory Framework’. These include the cost of
service model and the performance-based regulation model. However, the
various considerations and calculations in these models are not discussed
in detail in this book.

After determining the transmission utility’s costs or revenue requirement,

the regulator allocates these costs among network users through
transmission charges. Transmission charges can be broadly divided into
two categories:
the connection charge; and
the transmission-use-of-system (TUOS) charge.

Connection charges
Connection charges are designed to recover the transmission utility’s costs
for constructing and maintaining the connections and associated
transformers required by individual generators and wholesale buyers.
Regulators typically take various approaches to recover the connection
costs. These approaches depend on whether new facilities are needed to
connect the network user and the extent to which the new connection
facilities will benefit other users of the transmission network.

If new facilities are not needed, then there is typically no network charge.
However, if new facilities are needed, whether the connection charge will
be separated from the TUOS charge depends on whether the connection
costs are shallow or deep.

Shallow connection costs cover the cost of new facilities dedicated to

connecting a network user to the grid. The connection charge allowed by
the regulator will cover the cost of the meter, any transmission substation,
and the cost of the usually short line between the network users and the
transmission utility’s network. The regulator may decide to levy those

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charges to be paid upfront or to spread the payments as monthly costs over

time. Such costs may also be shared among all users connected to that
specific node in the transmission network.

Deep connection costs cover facilities that benefit existing network users or
future network users. For instance, system upgrades or reinforcements
may be necessary because the network is congested at a certain connection
point. New lines and associated transformers may also be needed when
there is a long distance between the new IPP, distribution company, or
industrial consumer and the preferable network connection point. In this
case, the new facilities may be deemed part of the transmission network
instead of a connection. Regulators typically include deep connection costs
as part of the TUOS charge.

TUOS charge
Since the TUOS charge covers the cost of network investments other than
shallow connection costs, operation and maintenance of the network, and
the corporate and administrative costs of running the transmission
business, the TUOS is the main transmission charge which the regulator
must determine how to allocate among network users.

In allocating the cost of the network, the regulator aims to ensure that the
method used is simple and transparent, non-discriminatory, fair, enables
recovery of the cost from both present and future users of the network,
and sends proper location signals to users in the network. There are
various approaches used globally by regulators or suggested by academics
for transmission cost allocation, and no approach is foolproof. Some of the
common approaches used are postage stamp, wheeling, and distance-based
methods.

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1. Postage stamp method: this is the simplest and most common method of
transmission cost allocation. Using this method, the regulator allocates
the TUOS costs among all network users through a uniform charge
that applies regardless of the location of the user or the transactions
involved. Thus, every generator and/or distributor receives the same
charge per MW or MWh injected into the system, or per hour of the
availability of the transmission network. In some countries, the
regulator divides the charge into proportions between generators and
distributors/bulk purchasers. Hence, generators may be responsible
for a certain percentage (say 60%) of the TUOS charge divided among
all generators uniformly, while the remaining percentage is shared
uniformly among distributors/bulk purchasers. In Nigeria, the postage
stamp method is used to apply uniform TUOS charges only to
distributors/retailers.
2. Wheeling charge method: this method is based mainly on the
transactions between two users and is commonly used in bilateral
electricity trade between two countries. It involves the determination
of a fictional transmission path, by parties to a power sale transaction,
in which the electric flow will pass from the point of injection by the
seller to the point of delivery by the buyer. The charge is computed as
a fraction of the cost of the network path (lines and associated
infrastructure) where the transaction “flows”. In a very simplified form
of applying this method, the regulator computes the cost of respective
lines in the network and the estimated total annual flow on these lines.
The wheeling charge is then simply expressed as:

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3. Distance-based method: this transaction-based method considers not

only the amount of energy transmitted through the line but the length
of each line used for any transaction. In a very simplified form of
applying this method, the regulator develops a base case scenario in
which it:
Identifies all transactions using the network;
Determines the fictional transmission path for each transaction;
Determines the transmission flow in MW per transaction per
line;
Multiplies the transmission flow per transaction per line by the
length of the line to get an MW-km product;
Sums all the MW-km products for all transactions using the
line to arrive at a total MW-km base case amount.

Then, removing any particular transaction, the regulator repeats the above
process and calculates the resulting total MW-km amount. The
difference between the second sum and the first sum is the amount of
MW-km flow on the line allocated to the transaction removed. The
transmission charge is then calculated as:

Nodal pricing
In some liberalised or wholesale electricity markets, the cost allocation
methods described above are used to determine fixed charges that
supplement other charges known as variable network charges. The
variable network charges are implicit charges derived from the differences
in marginal prices among different nodes in the electricity network. Such

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differences exist in a market system as a result of losses in the transmission

system. Nodal prices are used to send signals to network users on more
efficient locations to site new generation or load.

When electricity is transmitted from one point (node) to another, some of

the electrical power is lost as heat. The amount of power lost depends on
the distance of the generator to the load (the farther the distance the more
power is lost), the resistance of the transmission lines, the environmental
conditions, and the amount of power flowing through a line at any
particular point among other factors.

Using a model that calculates the impact of each user on the transmission
losses, each generator’s marginal costs, the demand level at each node, and
active transmission constraints, the regulator assigns loss factors or node
factors to various nodes in the system. These factors are used to determine
the electricity prices at each node. The loss factor estimates the losses
associated with injecting or receiving an additional unit of electricity at any
particular node. It is also used to calculate the marginal cost of meeting
electricity demand at any node. For instance, if the loss factor at a
particular bulk supply node is 5% and a generator has a contract to deliver
100 MW to that node within an hour, the generator must supply 105 MW
to meet its delivery contract to the node and the associated losses. Thus, if
there is a bulk supply connected to the generator’s node, the marginal cost
of meeting demand at the generator’s node will be less than the marginal
cost of meeting demand at the other bulk supply node — there will be
fewer or insignificant losses at the generator’s node.

The differences between the prices of electricity between nodes are

allocated to the transmission utility as variable network charges. Because
these charges are variable and depend on a lot of contingencies, they may
be insufficient to recover the investment and operation costs of the
transmission utility. Hence, the regulator uses the cost allocation methods
previously described to determine supplementary charges for the
transmission utility.

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In countries that do not use wholesale electricity prices, and electricity

generation prices are not determined by market forces, the regulator may
use transmission loss or congestion factors as an alternative to achieve the
same locational signal objective associated with the use of nodal prices.
With this practice, the generator bears the cost of the extra units of
electricity needed to cover the transmission losses related to its generation.
This practice is used with the fixed cost allocation methods (supplementary
charges) discussed previously.

Designing the transmission tariff structure

After determining the method for allocating the costs among network
users as fixed or supplementary charges, the regulator finally determines
the format of the tariff. The regulator’s decision on tariff structure may
affect the private investment decisions and deserves careful consideration.
The regulator may decide to design the transmission tariff as a lump sum, a
volumetric energy charge ($/MWh), a volumetric capacity charge
($/MW), or an hourly availability charge ($/hour of t-line availability). As
a lump sum charge, the regulator designs the TUOS cost allocated to a user
as a one-off charge to be paid by the user annually. The regulator may also
divide this lump sum into fixed monthly charges.

As an energy charge, the recovery of cost by the transmission utility

depends on the actual energy generated or consumed by the network user.
This may expose the transmission utility to losses since it has no control
over the behaviour of other network users. For instance, with the increase
in behind-the-meter installations, an energy charge for transmission
means that network users whose demand may have justified transmission
investments will avoid payments for such transmission infrastructure in
their end-use tariffs. This may affect the transmission utility’s ability to pay
costs associated with private investments in the transmission network.
There may also be fairness issues associated with the other tariff formats
which are structured as capacity charges or availability charges. Some
network users may feel that they are paying more than other users if their
electricity production or consumption rates are considered.

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Some regulators balance these considerations by using a mix of energy

charges and capacity or availability charges. The suitable tariff format or a
mix of formats adopted by the regulator depends on the nature of the
market, the business models for private investment in transmission
allowed in the market, and the regulatory goals. Nonetheless, the tariff
format should ensure that the transmission utility recovers its cost without
compromising on principles of fairness, non-discrimination, and
transparency.

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13. Cross-border
Interconnection
Projects
 13. CROSS-BORDER INTERCONNECTION PROJECTS

Introduction
This handbook has largely focused on the funding of domestic
transmission infrastructure. Another important topic is the features of
cross-border transmission infrastructure development and the complexity
of funding such regional projects.

Most of the risk allocation factors described in this handbook apply to

cross-border interconnection. Although they have significant benefits,
cross-border projects can also present additional implementation
challenges when jointly undertaken by host governments and/or utilities.
They may be constrained by varying policy, legislation, governance
requirements, funding restrictions, restrictions or conditions to project
company foreign or local shareholding, borrowing restrictions, and the
like. Private sector participation is sometimes a viable option for reducing
or mitigating such risks.

What Are Cross-border

Interconnection Projects?
A cross-border project is transmission infrastructure that spans two or
more neighbouring countries, creating a transmission interconnection
between the electricity networks of the respective countries. Cross-border
projects can provide transmission services to domestic transmission
consumers and dedicated transmission capacity to power generation
projects, but importantly enable the regional development of transmission

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infrastructure. Where cross-border transmission lines exist, countries with

constrained funding and unstable or underdeveloped transmission
infrastructure can lean on neighbouring countries to trade in electricity
conveyed over that cross-border transmission infrastructure. Cross-border
interconnectors aim to provide countries with an increased supply of
electricity to meet growing demand where the generation capacity in a
neighbouring country is strong. Other advantages include assisting a
national grid in saving costs from having reserve capacity and stabilising
the national grid.

Cross-border projects are not new to the African continent. There are
many successful interconnector projects. These include:

The CLSG transmission line in West Africa,

which involves the construction of a 1,303 km
transmission line allowing power exports from
Côte d’Ivoire to Liberia, Sierra Leone, and
Guinea

The 2,000 km 225kV connections that serve

connecting points in Mali, Mauritania, and
Senegal

The 225kV Ghana - Cote d’Ivoire

interconnection

The 161kV Togo - Benin interconnection

The MOTRACO transmission project (case study

below), a project with multiple interconnectors
across the SADC region set up to facilitate
power trading in the SAAP.

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Benefits of Cross-border
Projects
The benefits of undertaking a cross-border transmission project
interconnecting neighbouring countries are numerous, some of which are:
interconnecting neighbouring countries’ power systems;
increasing regional supply across a regional network;
increasing grid stability;
improving system control;
creating reliable and accessible power supply; and
facilitating electricity trading amongst members of power pools.

Hurdles to the Development

of Cross-border Projects
Despite the benefits, there are many challenges and constraints to
developing cross-border transmission infrastructure, in particular the
raising of funding and facilitation of private sector participation. We have
identified a few of these hurdles below.

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Joint development and joint ownership models

Transmission interconnection projects can be constructed and developed
individually by each respective country, or undertaken jointly by all the
countries acquiring the transmission asset. This has been the typical
approach taken by some cross-border projects on the African continent.
The asset itself is therefore owned individually by each country in respect
of those portions within the respective country, or jointly by all countries
over which the asset is developed. The joint development aspect and joint
fundraising is a nuance that creates complexity with cross-border
transmission projects.

The starting point for cross-border transactions is an Inter-Governmental

Memorandum of Understanding. This sets the governance model for
development. This will usually define whether a JV or project
implementing unit is created for the project preparation work. It should be
noted that there is considerable funding available to fund preparation
studies for regional integration projects from multilateral donors.

Funding constraints
Challenges in raising funding for cross-border projects can arise for many
reasons, relevant to one or more of the countries, being the limited ability
of the utility or government:
to borrow due to existing financial constraints;
to provide the appropriate collateral for the funding; and
to "guarantee" to any funder any consistent revenue flows from the use
of transmission infrastructure.

Project finance fundraising is therefore challenging unless the transmission

utility or host government agrees to pay a regular availability fee or
subsidise the tariff where demand across the line and commensurate

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revenues is not sufficient to meet the repayment of the debt. In short,

project finance funders would not likely take the “demand risk” as detailed
in chapter 11. Common Risks.

Where host governments undertake regional transmission development to

meet particular government objectives, for example, to enter into regional
electricity power trading, or to become an active participant within a
power pool, host governments can consider any form of subsidy or
guarantee offered by it as being a critical upfront cost to achieve such goals.
Once the goal is achieved and the transmission network improves, the
initial funding challenge is progressively lessened as electrification rates
increase and demand risk reduces. However, the initial challenge of how
the infrastructure is funded remains.

Development Finance Institutions (DFI) provide the government with

excellent sources of capital for funding cross-border transmission lines.
Provided the business case and the project preparation is well-conceived,
DFIs with an agenda to promote regional trade are aggressively pursuing
these types of projects. One example of these is the funding for the
Ethiopia-Kenya interconnector and the latest funding for the Temane
interconnector in Mozambique, which has a business case motivated by
regional trade.

Varying Domestic
Regulatory Frameworks
As described earlier in this handbook, each country has a unique regulatory
framework governing the transmission sector, including the national
electricity legislation, the licensing regime, and the grid code. In most
instances, there also exists a PPP or other procurement regime for the

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competitive, open, and transparent process to award a concession, or an

IPT, or any other private-sector party to undertake the development and
operation of transmission infrastructure.

Where there are two or more countries, a multiplicity of legal and

regulatory regimes may govern the development of the interconnection
infrastructure, which may create delays at the development stage. For
example, if three countries are entering into a joint development
agreement to construct interconnection facilities across a region, that JV
company will likely want to appoint a single EPC contractor for the
construction of the entire transmission corridor. The granting of rights to
the JV company, where that company is incorporated, how it is run and
how it is empowered, will all need to be agreed upon. This may lead to
complex negotiations to take account of regulatory differences across
countries for matters from the procuring the EPC contractor to the
staffing of the JV company itself. Negotiating and agreeing to all of these
details is typically not a quick process.

It should be noted that for instance the cross-border interconnections are

regarded as an unregulated business in terms of the local regulations. An
example of this is the South African treatment of these interconnectors
and the trade that takes place. However, these interconnectors will remain
subject to other legislation such as ESIA and tax legislation.

Competing electricity regulators

Power pools in Africa have generally developed their own grid codes,
operational standards, and have standardised cross-border electricity
trading agreements, and transmission use of system and connection
agreements. There is often a regional regulator who provides a monitoring
and oversight role in respect of compliance with the suite of codes,
standards and agreements developed by the power pool.

Whilst a domestic regulator’s legal authority and mandate emanate from

domestic law, regional regulators typically have a mandate through
contract, for example where power pool members agree contractually to

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abide by the membership rules of the power pool, including decisions by

the regional regulator. However, in countries where there may be political
or economic barriers where domestic policy decisions favour domestic
generation over imports, the domestic law may well trump the regional
rules. It is therefore imperative for the success of a cross-border project
that the relevant policymakers fully support the project, see chapter 9.
Planning and project preparation.

Case Study — The MOTRACO transmission project: an interesting

hybrid model
The Mozambique Transmission Company (MOTRACO) was founded in 1998 as a
joint venture between the government utilities of Mozambique (Electricidade de
Moçambique — EDM), South Africa (Eskom) and Eswatini (Swaziland Electricity
Board, now Eswatini Electricity Company — EEC). MOTRACO is a joint venture
company that has as its aim the efficient provision of electricity to businesses in all
three countries. It should be noted that government support in the form of assisting
with transmission licensing and regulation in the three countries at a time when
only state utilities had transmission licenses was critical to ensure MOTRACO could
become an IPT company (although state-owned).

The “anchor” customer was the Mozal aluminium smelter plant, 20 km outside
Maputo. The aluminium plant had significant electricity demands and was willing to
pay MOTRACO a wheeling charge for the reliable energy it received. The
aluminium plant paid the cost of electricity purchased from ESKOM. The fixed
portion of the wheeling charges relating to the energy transmission covered debt
service and operational expenditure of MOTRACO. The management, maintenance,
and control of the MOTRACO network were outsourced to Eskom.

EDM and EEC also have independent wheeling contracts with MOTRACO. This
allows the utilities to participate in SAPP and trade power in both directions (i.e.
import power from the market when supply is constrained and export to the market
when surpluses are available).

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The initial phase of the investment, worth US$ 93 million, was completed in mid-
2000. MIGA issued guarantees to Eskom to cover loan guarantees to the European
Investment Bank and the Japan Bank of International Cooperation for their
investments in MOTRACO to cover the investment against the risks of
expropriation, war and civil disturbance. The French development agency AFD
provided additional financing for later stages.

The deal has subsequently grown to link to the wider Southern African Power Pool.
The transmission interconnection benefited both Mozambique and Eswatini by
improving the quality of electricity distributed to the population in those countries.

Of note was the fact that there was an “anchor” customer, thereby reducing
“demand risk” (see Chapter 11. Common Risks for a further explanation of demand
risk). It further benefited from a guarantee from Eskom. At the time of granting this
guarantee, Eskom had a stand-alone investment-grade credit rating. The MIGA
cover was taken to protect the Eskom balance sheet against political risk.

The project provided the industrial company Mozal with a reliable supply of
electricity to meet its increased production and industrialisation of Mozambique
post-civil war, at the same time as strengthening the energy supply networks of
Eswatini and Mozambique. For EEC and EDM, the transmission infrastructure
helped lower the cost of energy and increase its availability, as well as to increase
the reliability and security of interconnected systems in the region. By becoming
active trading partners in the SAPP, both countries benefited from low-cost power
purchase in the SAPP market.

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13. CROSS-BORDER INTERCONNECTION PROJECTS

Figure 13.1 MOTRACO transmission project

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Other examples of successful cross-border projects

Many successful cross-border projects have occurred outside Africa as well.

Several cross-border lines exist across varying European Union countries

(including more than 80 cross-border interconnections between the EU
and neighbouring countries). The further development of cross-border
transmission infrastructure is designed to meet the EU's external policy
objectives, including energy transition (and the integration of renewable
energy), security of supply as well as regional and local socio-economic
welfare, economic cooperation, peace and solidarity. There are many
political and economic reasons for a country to cooperate with
neighbouring countries and benefit from existing and future
interconnectors.

Some other international cross-border transmission projects include:

Paraguay-Brazil (Itaipu 12,600 MW Hydro) and

Paraguay-Argentina (Yacyreta 3,100 MW
Hydro); Paraguay surrendered operating control
of the hydro plants to Brazil and Argentina,
respectively.

Uruguay and Argentina agreed to share the

energy generated from the Salto Grande hydro
plant (1,890 MW), with Uruguay consuming
50% of the energy and Argentina consuming
50% of the energy.

The CIEN lines built by ENDESA connecting

Argentina and Brazil (back-to-back
interconnection) includes one line (1000 MW)
with a firm contract and another (also 1000
MW), which is a merchant.

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 13. CROSS-BORDER INTERCONNECTION PROJECTS

Salta cross-border interconnection between

Argentina and Chile built by AES (private
company) to supply power to copper mines (in
the north part of Chile). Salta thermal plant (640
MW) in Argentina is dedicated to supplying the
mines in Chile.

The SIEPAC (230kV line) synchronously

interconnects six countries in Central America
and allows up to 300 MW of trade within a
regional electricity market.

Two back-to-back (one 220kV and the other

400/500kV) interconnections between Georgia
and Turkey; the latter is a merchant line.

Private Sector Participation

in Cross-border Projects
Private sector participation in cross-border projects has similar benefits to
private funding of domestic transmission projects. These benefits include
an increased mix of financing options and proper risk allocation and cost
recovery methods. However, private participation in cross-border projects
has its own complexities. Nonetheless, provided that the private sector
developer(s) is empowered by the various governments, it can overcome
some of the hurdles specific to the government-funded cross-border
projects.

In this section, we will summarise some of the possible private-sector

structures that could apply to cross-border projects.

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IPT Models
The concept of an independent transmission project, as described in
chapter 5. Independent Power Transmission (IPT) Projects above, can also apply
to cross-border transmission infrastructure. In the earlier discussion, it was
assumed a single local government or country defines the structure. For a
cross-border project, the complexity of resolving the requirements for
private participation extends to multiple governments. An example of this
will be land acquisition. This will need to be agreed upon with multiple
governments and the leasing structure for the rights-of-way will need to
ensure that the long term titles are valid across all jurisdictions.

In short, all of the considerations that are required for a single-country

project that need to be addressed and resolved are multiplied in cross-
border transactions (e.g. how is political risk allocated between two
countries if the event starts in one country but spills across to another).

The key risk to be addressed to allow IPT financing to take place is that of
payment risk. An analysis will be required of the various users of the
infrastructure. The tariff applicable to all jurisdictions would need to be
considered. The payment risk for the transmission use of system charges
or the capacity charges will also need to be addressed and this will get
especially complex in default scenarios. One of the ways this can be
resolved is for all of the government utilities to adopt joint and several
liabilities with a defaulting utility. This may be possible although it will
require complex inter-government negotiations.

Industrial demand-driven model

As seen from the MOTRACO example above, a public sector project can
be done with an “anchor” industrial offtaker. This addresses one of the key
risks as regards demand and payment risk. However, the need for an
umbrella guarantee from one of the parties may still be required,
depending on the creditworthiness of the other offtakers and the reliability
of the industrial user.

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Whilst this is not necessarily a privately funded model, the existence of a

private-sector party in the overall structure will allow for different types of
lenders to fund the cross-border infrastructure. Whereas previously only
concessional funding may have been available from donors, the existence
of an industrial offtaker allows the entry of commercial banks and DFIs,
who can provide loans at commercial rates. The advantage of a model that
is more linked to an industrial offtaker is the reduction in the impact on
the respective governments’ balance sheets.

Merchant power lines

In some instances where there is an operating regional market such as the
SAPP, it may be possible to consider merchant transmission lines. We
refer the reader to the earlier discussion on challenges in implementing a
merchant transmission line in chapter 7. Other Private Funding Structures.
These can work across borders. If, for example, country A has abundant
resources that enable it to generate plentiful and cheap electricity but
neighbouring country B has no such resources and is reliant on importing
fuel to burn for expensive electricity, it is conceivable that a private sector
developer could develop, finance and build a transmission line that is used
to connect one country’s grid to a particular plant (or simply to the other
country’s grid). The project company in this instance would earn revenues
from “wheeling” or use-of-system charges payable by country B. Similar
cross-border merchant lines have been delivered in the US and Australia,
for example (across state borders).

Private sector example

An interesting example of a cross-border project done by a private
company is the Zambia-DRC interconnector developed by CEC in Zambia.
As a private whole-of-the-grid in the Copperbelt region licensee, CEC was
able to develop and implement the cross-border transmission line. The line
is used by SAPP members to trade power between SNEL in the DRC and
other members. CEC benefits from wheeling charges as well as trading of
energy across the line.

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Summary of Key Points

Cross-border projects are transmission infrastructure projects that span
over two or more neighbouring countries, creating a transmission
interconnection between the electricity networks of the respective
countries.
Cross-border projects are not new to the African continent. There are
many successful interconnector projects both in Africa and globally.
The benefits of undertaking a cross-border transmission project
interconnecting neighbouring countries are numerous, including grid
stability, system control, and trade benefits.
Despite the benefits, there are also many challenges and constraints to
developing cross-border transmission infrastructure, in particular the
raising of funding and facilitation of private sector participation.
The joint development aspect and joint fundraising of multiple
countries is a nuance that creates complexity with cross-border
transmission projects.
Challenges in raising funding for cross-border projects can arise due to
existing utility or government financial constraints.
Project finance fundraising is challenging for cross-border projects as
project finance funders would not be likely to take the “demand risk”.
Development Finance Institutions provide the government with
excellent sources of capital for funding cross-border transmission lines,
provided the business case and the project preparation are well-
conceived.
Where there are two or more countries, a multiplicity of legal and
regulatory regimes may govern the development and procurement of

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the interconnection infrastructure, which may create complexity and

delays at the development stage of the project.
Whilst a domestic regulator’s legal authority and mandate emanate
from domestic law, regional regulators typically have a mandate
through contract, for example, where power pool members agree
contractually to abide by the membership rules of the power pool,
including decisions by the regional regulator.
When considering the complexity and cost of a regional cross-border
interconnection project to host governments and utilities, it would
appear to be an area of transmission development that may be well
suited to private sector involvement.
Possible private-sector structures that could apply to cross-border
projects are:
IPT models;
industrial offtake model; and
merchant power lines.

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Appendix
 APPENDIX

Acronyms
A
AfDB — African Development Bank

B
BOO — Build Own Operate

BOOT — Build Own Operate Transfer

BOT — Build Operate Transfer

C
CAPEX — Capital Expenditure

COD — Commercial Operation Date

D
DFI — Development Finance Institutions

E
EPC — Engineering, Procurement and Construction

ECA — Export Credit Agencies

EIA — Environmental Impact Assessment

ESIA — Environmental and Social Impact Assessment

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G
GSA — Government Service/Support Agreement

I
IFC — International Finance Corporation

IPP — Independent Power Producer

IRP — Integrated Resource Plan

IPT — Independent Power Transmission

K
KPI — Key Performance Indicators

kWh – Kilowatt Hour

M
MWh – Megawatt Hour

MDB — Multilateral Development Banks

MoF — Ministry of Finance

MTS — Main Transmission Substation

O
OECD — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OEM — Original Equipment Manufacturer

O&M — Operating and Maintenance

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OPEX — Operating Expense

P
PCOA – Put and Call Option Agreement

PCG — Partial Credit Guarantee

PRG — Partial Risk Guarantee

PPA — Power Purchase Agreement

PRI — Political Risk Insurance

PPF — Project Preparation Funds or Facilities

PPP — Public-Private Partnerships

R
RAB — Regulated Asset Base

RfP — Request for Proposal

RfQ — Request for Qualification

ROR — Rate of Return

S
SAPP — Southern African Power Pool

SADC — Southern African Development Community

SPV — Special Purpose Vehicle

SSA — Sub-Saharan Africa

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T
TDP — Transmission Development Plan

TSA — Transmission Service Agreement

TSO — Transmission System Operator

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Glossary
A
Annual Revenue Requirement — the total revenue to be collected in a
given year through the transmission of electricity over the transmission
infrastructure, including associated technical losses, to compensate the
transmission operating company for all expenditure incurred in the same
year and provide the basis for sound economic operation of the
infrastructure.

B
Balance Sheet Financing — the financing of a project which is provided
in full by a sponsor.

Bankable — a project or contract is said to be “bankable” if it comprises a

level of risk allocation which would be generally acceptable to lenders.

Baseload Power or Capacity — generating capacity within a national or

regional grid network that the offtaker or grid operator intends to dispatch
or utilise continuously.

C
Concession — a right to develop, construct, operate and maintain an
infrastructure project and to earn the revenues generated by the project.

Concession Agreement — an agreement that grants a concession over a

transmission system or a part of a transmission system.

Concessionaire — the holder of a concession.

Corporate Finance — used to distinguish Project Finance (see below).

Corporate finance implies that a borrower utilises its existing balance sheet

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strength and operational cash flows to borrow. Lenders assess the

creditworthiness of the corporate entity itself. This includes an assessment
of its current indebtedness, its capital structure and the business plan of the
corporate entity.

Commercial Operation Date (COD) — a key milestone date defined in

the agreement when the transmission infrastructure commences
commercial operation after all testing and commissioning have been
completed.

D
Deemed Energy Payments — payments made concerning deemed
generation.

Deemed Generation/Energy — the electricity that a power plant would

have been able to generate, but for the occurrence of an event or
circumstance for which the offtaker bears the risk.

Developer — see Sponsor.

Development Finance Institutions (DFI) — financial institutions with a

mandate to finance projects that achieve development outcomes. Examples
include the World Bank, AfDB, OPIC, FMO, DEG, CDC, DBSA and
Proparco.

E
Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) contract — one
or more contracts to be entered into between the EPC contractor and the
project company for the purpose of setting out terms and conditions for
the design, engineering, procurement of materials and equipment, the
construction and commissioning of the power plant.

EPC + F — in addition to the Engineering, Procurement and

Construction (EPC) definition, the EPC+F is a project financing

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mechanism in which the EPC contractor also arranges financing for the
project, through tie-ups with financing institutions. It is useful when EPC
contractors have better access to low-cost financing, including EXIM
financing.

Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) — a process of

evaluating the environmental and social impacts of a proposed project,
evaluating alternatives and designing appropriate mitigation, management
and monitoring measures.

Equity — money invested by the sponsors in the project that is not

borrowed by the project company. The term "equity" may sometimes be
used to include shareholder subordinated debt (which is finance made
available to the project company by the sponsors or shareholders of the
project company, which is subordinated to debt made available by the
lenders).

Export Credit Agencies (ECA) — public agencies and entities that

provide government-backed loans, guarantees and insurance to
corporations from their home country that seek to do business overseas in
developing markets.

F
Force Majeure Event — an event beyond the control of the affected party
that prevents it from performing one or more of its obligations under the
relevant contract. Events constituting force majeure are generally further
classified into political force majeure events and non-political force
majeure events, with different financial and contractual consequences to
the contracting parties. Natural force majeure events fall within the latter
category.

Financial Close — occurs when all conditions precedent in a signed loan

agreement have been met or waivered, making the funds available for
drawdown.

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Finance documents — the agreements required to finance the relevant

transmission infrastructure project under which the project company
borrows (and then owes financial obligations to) a series of lending
institutions — be they banks or development finance institutions or export
credit agencies. The facility agreement is typically one of the main finance
documents which is an agreement that sets out the terms and conditions
on which the lenders make a loan available to the project company.

G
Government Support Agreement — an agreement entered into by a
host country and a project company established to undertake an
infrastructure project or hold a concession to provide certain identified
types of support to the project company in respect of the project or
concession.

Government Concession and Support Agreement — an agreement

between the host government and the project company, under which the
host government agrees to certain undertakings concerning the project.
This agreement typically goes beyond the customary provisions of an
Implementation Agreement and may include an explicit guarantee of the
performance obligations of a governmental entity, such as an offtaker or
fuel supplier.

Grid — a system of high tension cables by which electrical power is

distributed throughout a region.

H
Host Country — the country in which a project, concession, or part
thereof is located.

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I
Independent Power Producer (IPP) — a special purpose company
established for the sole purpose of developing, financing, constructing,
owning, operating and maintaining a power plant.

Institutional Lender — a regulated financial institution engaged in

lending.

Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) — is an electricity infrastructure

development plan based on least-cost electricity supply and demand
balance, taking into account several considerations such as the security of
supply, ability to reduce/shift the demand and the impact on the
environment.

Interconnection — the linkage of transmission or distribution lines

between the offtaker (utility) and the power plant, enabling evacuation of
the energy generated.

Investor — see Sponsor.

Independent Power Transmission (IPT) — the construction and

financing by a private sector investor of a single transmission line or a
package of transmission lines and/or associated transmission infrastructure
including substations. These are independently owned but typically
connected with the wider electricity network.

J
Joint Venture (JV) — a joint venture is a commercial enterprise
undertaken jointly by two or more parties that otherwise retain their
distinct identities. These can be conducted either by way of incorporating a
special purpose vehicle (called the JV company) or by way of contract
alone (in which case it is called an “unincorporated” joint venture).

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K
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) — set of performance indicators
used to evaluate the performance of a project or system.

Kilowatt Hour (kWh) — a measurement of energy that is equal to 1,000

watts of electricity being generated or consumed continuously for one
hour.

Kilovolt (kV) — a unit of potential equal to 1,000 volts.

L
Lenders — the providers of loan financing to the project company.

M
Megawatt (MW) — a measurement of power meaning 1,000,000 watts.

Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) — an institution, formed,

owned and controlled by its member countries, that provides financing
and advisory development services. Examples include the World Bank
(IBRD and IDA), AfDB, and MIGA.

N
New York Convention — the Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (also known as the New York
Convention) allows for the enforcement by a contracting state of
arbitration awards issued by another contracting state, subject to limited
defences.

Non-Recourse Financing — financing that will be repaid solely through

the cash flow proceeds of a project, structured as a special-purpose vehicle.
The obligations of the shareholders in the special-purpose vehicle are

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usually limited to their obligation to contribute capital and, in some cases,

to provide other limited and well-defined support to the special-purpose
vehicle.

O
Offtaker — the party to a PPA whose obligation is to purchase the
capacity made available and the electricity generated by the power plant,
subject to the terms and conditions of the PPA. Also referred to as the
Buyer.

Operating and Maintenance (O&M) Agreement — the agreement

between the project company and a plant facilities operator under which
the operator operates and maintains the power plant and associated
facilities.

P
Partial Credit Guarantee (PCG) — a guarantee that covers interest and
principal defaults, up to a pre-agreed amount — expressed either as a fixed
sum or as a percentage of the credit balance. See Chapter 2 on Funding
Options and Constraints.

Partial Risk Guarantee (PRG) — a guarantee specifically structured to

address targeted risks and can be time-bound or event-bound. See Chapter
2 on Funding Options and Constraints.

Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) — a medium-to-long-term contract

that governs the production, sale and purchase of electrical capacity and
energy. Also referred to as an "offtake" agreement.

Political Risk Insurance (PRI) — offers coverage to mitigate and manage

risks arising from the adverse action, or inactions, of governments that go
against contractual obligations. PRI can be provided by both public and
private insurers.

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Privatisation — also called divestiture, in the context of this handbook,

relates to where full ownership of the transmission infrastructure is
transferred to a private-sector party. Privatisation may occur on a single
transmission corridor, by region or even in respect of the entire
transmission system operation in a country.

Project Company — a special purpose company established to undertake

an infrastructure project. Also referred to as a Special Purpose Vehicle
(SPV), a corporate entity established specifically to pursue a specific
project and is prohibited from undertaking any activity beyond the project
in question. For this handbook, the term Project Company is used.

Project Documents — key project and finance documents that would

typically be required in transmission projects.

Project Finance — see Non-Recourse Financing.

Project Preparation Funds or Facilities (PPF)

— donors/funds designed to provide funding for the project preparation of
transmission lines. Some have specific objectives such as the introduction
of the PPP model or to help promote regional integration while others aim
at encouraging projects that help meet climate change targets.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) — arrangements between the public

and private sectors whereby a service or piece of infrastructure that is
ordinarily provided by the public sector is provided by the private sector,
with clear agreement on the allocation of associated risks and
responsibilities.

R
Regulated or Regulatory Asset Base — this is a system of long-term
tariff design aimed primarily at encouraging investment in the expansion

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and modernisation of infrastructure. It looks at the overall value of

regulated assets (e.g. a national transmission grid) and uses that to create a
methodology for paying a private operator to run the relevant assets.

Regulation by Contract — regulation by contract is a form of governing

private contracts with utilities that uses no separate regulatory agency,
where the public sector owner of the asset monitors the performance of
the (private) operator and sets the relevant tariff and revenue
arrangements. A contract typically defines the relationship between the
asset owner and the service provider.

Regulator — the authority that is responsible for ensuring efficiency,

transparency, and fairness in the management of the electricity sector. An
independent regulator is generally established by the legal framework that
governs the electricity sector as a legal entity that is separate from the
government and is governed by a board of commissioners with fixed terms
who can only be removed for cause, as defined in the legislation that
established the regulator. Regulators issue, modify, and enforce licenses
(including transmission licenses) and establish and implement price
controls for network businesses and, in some cases, generation businesses.

Request for Proposal (RfP) — a solicited invitation from the procuring

entity to potential bidders to submit a proposal to develop a power project.

Request for Qualification (RfQ) — a solicited invitation from the

procuring entity to invite potential bidders to provide qualification
credentials for the development of a power plant.

Reverse Auction — a process where there is a single buyer and many

suppliers. The buyer indicates its requirements, and suppliers progressively
bid downwards. The lowest bidder wins the right to supply. This is
opposite to a regular auction that involves a single seller and many buyers.

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S
Sponsor — a commercial entity active in developing and investing in
power projects. Typically, it is a shareholder of the project company. Also
known as the investor or developer.

T
TransCo — a state-owned utility that owns a transmission network.

Transmission Development Plan (TDP) — a consultative process to

identify viable, economical, and environmentally feasible projects. The
process evaluates and compares options and alternatives based not only on
technical efficiency and cost, but also on their environmental, social,
regulatory, and political impacts.

Transmission Service Agreement (TSA) — an agreement concluded

between the relevant IPT and the grid operator that entitles the IPT, as a
network user, to use the grid and transmission systems of the relevant
country.

Transmission System Operator (TSO) — entity entrusted with

transporting energy on a national or regional level, either directly or
through instructions issued to others who operate as agents of the TSO.

W
Wayleaves — rights-of-way granted by a landowner, generally in
exchange for payment and typically for purposes such as the erection of
transmission lines, telecommunications infrastructure or for the laying of
pipelines.

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