INTRODUCTION TO

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (MSE 305) LECTURE

DELIVERED BY:

DR. J. O. OLAWALE
October 2023
 INTRODUCTION
• Mechanics of materials is the study of deformation and fracture of
materials.
• It is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of
deformable solid bodies subjected to various types of loading.
• Rods with axial loads, shafts in torsion, beams in bending, and columns in
compression belong to the class of deformable solid bodies.
• In mechanics of materials, the general aim is to calculate the stresses,
strains, and displacements in structures and their components under
external loading.
• If we can find these quantities for all the values of applied loads up to
the limiting loads that cause failure, we will have a complete picture of
the mechanical behavior of these structures or their components.
• Understanding the mechanical behavior of all types of structures is
essential to design airplanes, buildings, bridges, machines, engines
able to withstand an applied loads without failure.
• Designers of machines, vehicles and structures must achieved
acceptable levels of performance and economics while at the same
striving to guarantee that item is both safe and durable to ensure
reliability.
• It is important to avoid excess deformation and cracking in
components must be avoided entirely or strictly limited so that it does
not progress to the point of complete fracture.
• Hence, knowledge of mechanics of materials provide the basics for
avoiding these type of failure in engineering applications.
• Experience shows that any material subjected to a load may either
deform, yield or break depending upon the magnitude of the load, the
nature of material and its cross-section dimensions.
• The most basic concern in design is to avoid structural failure. To
achieve this, stress of components are often design to operate below the
yield strength of the material.
• Apart from yield strength further analysis of stress are often required in
cases such as:
i. Where stresses are present that act in more than one directions
ii. Real components may contain flaws or even cracks that may be
specifically considered.
iii. Stress may be applied for a long period of time at elevated
temperature.
iv. Stress may be repeatedly applied or removed, or the direction of
stress repeatedly reversed
 DEFORMATION OF SOLID BODY UNDER
STATIC LOADING
• Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the
relationships between the external loads applied to a deformable body
and intensity of internal forces acting within the body.
• There are two kinds of external forces which act on a body: surface
forces and body forces.
• Forces distributed over the surface of the body, such as hydrostatic
pressure or the pressure exerted by one body on another, are called
surface forces.
• Forces distributed over the volume of a body, such as gravitational
forces, magnetic forces, or inertial forces (for a body in motion), are
called body forces.
• The two most common types of body forces encountered in
engineering practice are centrifugal forces due to high-speed rotation
and forces due to temperature differential over the body (thermal
stress).
• In general, the force will not be uniformly distributed over any cross
section of the body. Consider a body subjected to external forces, as
shown in Fig. 1.1.
• To obtain the stress at some point 𝑂, a cutting plane parallel to 𝑦𝑧
plane is pass through point 𝑂.
• The portion of the body to the left of the section is subjected to some
original loads, and to normal and shearing forces distributed over the
section, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.1 Application of the method of sections to a body under external loading
Fig. 1.2 Components of an internal force ΔF acting on a small area centered at point O
• An element of area 𝛥𝐴, positioned on an interior surface passing
through a point 𝑂, is acted upon by force 𝛥𝐹.
• Let the origin of the coordinate axes be located at 𝑂, with 𝑥 normal
and 𝑦, 𝑧 tangent to 𝛥𝐴. Generally, 𝛥𝐹 does not lie along 𝑥, 𝑦, or 𝑧.
Components of 𝛥𝐹 parallel to 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 are also indicated in the
figure.
• Dividing now the magnitude of each force by the area 𝛥𝐴, and letting
𝛥𝐴 approach zero, the normal stress 𝜎(sigma) and the shearing stress
𝜏(tau) are then defined as:
∆𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝐹𝑥
𝜎𝑥 = lim =
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
 ∆𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝐹𝑦 ∆𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝐹𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = lim = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = lim = (1.1)
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴 ∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴

• We note that the first subscript in 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 is used to indicate
that stresses under consideration are exerted on a surface
perpendicular to 𝑥 axis. The second subscript in 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 identifies
the direction of the component.
• The normal stress 𝜎𝑥 is positive if the corresponding arrow points in
the positive 𝑥 direction, i.e., if the body is in tension, and negative
otherwise. Similarly, the shearing stress components 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 are
positive if the corresponding arrows point, respectively, in the positive
𝑦 and 𝑧 directions.
• The above analysis may also be carried out by considering the portion
of the body located to the right of the of the vertical plane through 𝑂.
• The same magnitudes, but opposite directions, are obtained for the
normal and shearing forces. Therefore, the same values are obtained
for the corresponding stress components, but since the section now
faces the 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, a positive sign for 𝜎𝑥 will indicate that the
corresponding arrow points in the negative 𝑥 direction.
• Similarly, positive signs for 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 will indicate that the
corresponding arrows point, respectively, in the negative 𝑦 and 𝑧
directions.
• Passing a section through 𝑂 parallel to the 𝑧𝑥 plane, we define in the
same manner the stress components, 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , and 𝜏𝑦𝑥 . Finally, a
section through 𝑂 parallel to the 𝑥𝑦 plane yields the components 𝜎𝑧 ,
𝜏𝑧𝑥 , and 𝜏𝑧𝑦 .

• To facilitate the visualization of the stress condition at a point 𝑂, let us

consider a small cube centered at 𝑂 and stresses exerted on each of the
six faces of the cube (Fig. 1.3).

• The stress components shown in the figure are 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , and 𝜎𝑧 , which

represent the normal stress on faces respectively perpendicular to 𝑥, 𝑦,
and 𝑧 axes, and six shearing stress components 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 ,
and 𝜏𝑧𝑦 .
Fig. 1.3: General state of stress
• According to the definition of the shearing stress components, 𝜏𝑥𝑦
represents the 𝑦 component of the shearing stress exerted on the face
perpendicular to the 𝑥 axis, while 𝜏𝑦𝑥 represents the 𝑥 component of
the shearing exerted on the face perpendicular to the 𝑦 axis. On the
faces of the volume element are the values of the components of the
stress vectors acting on the coordinate planes passing through point 𝑂
(Fig. 1.3).
• In this way we obtain at point 𝑂 the nine components of the three
stress vectors acting on planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧
• Assuming that the areas of the faces of the unit cubes are small enough
so that the change in stress is over the face is negligible (a condition of
isotropic). Taking the summation of the moments of the forces about
𝑥, 𝑦 − and 𝑧 −axes, we find that σ 𝑀𝑧 = 0 results in
−𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = 0
for which
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥
• Similarly, from σ 𝑀𝑥 = 0 and σ 𝑀𝑦 = 0, we obtain 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 . Thus, the state of stress at a point is completely described by
six components 3 normal and 3 shear stresses, 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 .
• Note that the values obtained from Eqn. (1.1) differ from point to point on the
surface as 𝛥𝐹 varies. The components of stress depend not only upon 𝛥𝐹,
however, but also upon the orientation of the plane on which it acts at point
𝑂. Thus, even at a specified point, the stresses will differ as different planes
are considered. The complete description of stress at a point therefore
requires the specification of stress on all planes passing through the point.
• Consider the projection on the 𝑥𝑦 plane of a thin element and assume that,
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 do not vary throughout the thickness and that other stress
components are zero.
• When only one normal stress exists, the stress is referred to as a uniaxial, or
one-dimensional, stress (Fig. 1.4a); when only two normal stresses occur, the
state of stress is called biaxial (Fig. 1.4b). An element subjected to shearing
stresses alone (Fig. 1.4c) is said to be in pure shear. The combinations of
these stress situation are two-dimensional stress (Fig. 1.4d).
Fig. 1.4 Special cases of state of stress: (a) uniaxial; (b)biaxial; (c) pure shear; and (d) two-dimensional.
• Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the
body’s shape and size. The elongation or contraction of a line segment
per unit length is referred to as normal strain. The concept of normal
strain is illustrated by considering the deformation of a prismatic bar
(Fig. 1.5a).
• The initial length of the member is 𝐿. After application of a load 𝐹, the
length increases an amount δ (Fig. 1.5b). Defining the normal strain ε
(epsilon) as the unit change in length, we obtain
𝛿
𝜀= (1.2)
𝐿
Fig. 1.5 Deformation of a prismatic bar Fig. 1.6 Distortion of a rectangular plate
• When uniform deformation does not occur, the strains vary from point
to point in a body. Then the expressions for uniform strain must relate
to a line AB of length 𝛥𝑥 (Fig. 1.5a).
• Under the axial load, the end point of the line experiences
displacements u and 𝑢 + 𝛥𝑢 to become 𝐴′ and 𝐵′, respectively (Fig.
1.5b). That is, an elongation 𝛥𝑢 takes place. The definition of normal
strain is thus
∆𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = lim = (1.3)
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• Hence, when 𝜀 is positive the initial line will elongate whereas if 𝜀 is

negative the line contract.
• The change in angle that occurs between two-line segments that are
originally perpendicular to one another is referred to as shear strain.
• The shearing strain 𝛾 (gamma) measured in radians, is defined as
𝜋
𝛾 = − 𝜃′ (1.4)
2

• The shearing strain is positive if the right angle between the reference
lines decreases, as shown in the figure; otherwise, the shearing strain
is negative.
• In the case of two-dimensional, or plane strain, all points in the body,
before and after application of load, remain in the same plane. Thus,
the deformation of an element of dimensions 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 and of unit
thickness can contain linear strains (Fig. 1.7a) and a shear strain (Fig.
1.7b).
Fig. 1.7 Deformations of an element: (a) linear strain and (b) shear strain
• For instance, the rate of change of 𝑢 in the 𝑦 direction is 𝜕𝑢Τ𝜕𝑦, and
the increment of 𝑢 becomes (𝜕𝑢Τ𝜕𝑦)𝑑𝑦 . Here 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑦 represents the
slope of the initially vertical side of the infinitesimal element.
• Similarly, the horizontal side tilts through an angle 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥. The partial
derivative notation must be used since 𝑢 or 𝑣 is a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Recalling the basis of Eqns. (1.3) and (1.4), we can use Fig. 1.7 to
come to
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = ; 𝜀𝑦 = ; 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + (1.5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

• Clearly, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 represents the shearing strain between the 𝑥 and 𝑦 (or 𝑦
and 𝑥) axes. Hence, we have 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑦𝑥 .
• Strains at a point in a rectangular prismatic element of sides 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦,
and 𝑑𝑧 are obtained in a like manner. The three-dimensional strain
components are 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 and
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑧 = ; 𝛾𝑧𝑦 = + ; 𝛾𝑥𝑧 = + (1.6)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

where 𝛾𝑥𝑧 = 𝛾𝑧𝑥 and 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 𝛾𝑧𝑦 .

• Equations (1.5, 1.6) express the strain tensor in a manner like that of
the stress tensor. If the values of the above strains are known at a
point, the increase in size and the change of shape of an element at that
point are completely determined.
• In summary, then, the state of strain at a point in a body requires
specifying three normal strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 , and three shear strains 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ,
𝛾𝑦𝑧 , 𝛾𝑥𝑧 .
Example 1.1 A pin-connected truss composed of members 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 is subjected to a vertical force
𝑃 = 40 𝑘𝑁 at joint 𝐵 (see figure). Each member is of constant cross-sectional area: 𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 0.004 𝑚2
and 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 0.002 𝑚2 . The diameter d of all pins is 20 𝑚𝑚, clevis thickness t is 10 𝑚𝑚, and the
thickness 𝑡1 of the bracket is 15 𝑚𝑚. Determine the normal stress acting in each member and the
shearing and bearing stresses at joint 𝐶.
Solution A free-body diagram of the truss is shown in Fig. b. The magnitudes of the axially directed
end forces of members 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶, which are equal to the support reactions at 𝐴 and 𝐶, are labeled
𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐶 , respectively. For computational convenience the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of the inclined
forces are used rather than the forces themselves. Hence force 𝐹𝐶 is resolved into 𝐹𝐶𝑥 and 𝐹𝐶𝑦 , as
shown.
(1) Calculation of support reactions. Relative dimensions are shown by a small triangle on the
member 𝐵𝐶 in Fig. b. From the similarity of force and relative-dimension triangles,
3 4
𝐹𝐶𝑥 = 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶𝑦 = 𝐹𝐶
5 5
3
It follows then that 𝐹𝐶𝑥 = 𝐹𝐶𝑦 . Application of equilibrium conditions to the free-body diagram in
4
Fig. b leads to
σ 𝑀𝐶 = 0: 𝐹𝐶𝑦 − 𝑃 = 0; 𝐹𝐶𝑦 = 𝑃 = 40 𝑘𝑁 (Right directed)
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0: 𝐹𝐶𝑦 − 𝑃 = 0; 𝐹𝐶𝑦 = 𝑃 = 40 𝑘𝑁 (Up directed)
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0: −𝐹𝐶𝑥 + 𝐹𝐴 = 0; 𝐹𝐶𝑥 = 𝐹𝐴 = 30 𝑘𝑁 (Left directed)
We thus have
(2) Calculation of internal forces. If imaginary cutting planes are passed perpendicular to the axes of
the members 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶, separating each into two parts, it is observed that each portion is a two-
force member. Therefore, the internal forces in each member are the axial forces 𝐹𝐴 = 30 𝑘𝑁 and
𝐹𝐶 = 50 𝑘𝑁.
Note. The positive sign of 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐶 means that the sense of each of the forces was assumed
correctly in the free-body diagram.
(3) Calculation of stresses. The normal stresses in each member are
𝐹𝐴 30 × 103
𝜎𝐴𝐵 =− =− = −7.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝐴𝐵 0.004
𝐹𝐶 50 × 103
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = = = 25 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝐵𝐶 0.002
where the minus sign indicates compression. Referring to Fig. c, we see that the double shear in the
pin 𝐶 is
1ൗ 𝐹 25 × 103
2 𝐶
𝜏𝐶 = 2
= 2
= 79.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 Τ4 𝜋 0.02 Τ4
For the bearing stress in the bracket at joint 𝐶, we have
𝐹𝐶 50 × 103
𝜎𝑏 = = = 166.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑡1 𝑑 0.015 0.02
while the bearing stress in the clevis at joint 𝐶 is given by
𝐹𝐶 50 × 103
𝜎𝑏 = = = 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡𝑑 2 0.01 0.02
The shear and bearing stresses in the other joints may be determined in a like manner.

Example 1.2 A steel strut S serving as a brace for a boat hoist transmits a compressive force 𝑃 =
54 𝑘𝑁 to the deck of a pier (see figure (a)). The strut has a hollow square cross section with a wall
thickness 𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑚 (see figure (b)), and the angle 𝜃 between the strut and the horizontal is 40°. A
pin through the strut transmits the compressive force from the strut to two gussets G that are welded
to the base plate 𝐵. Four anchor bolts fasten the base plate to the deck. The diameter of the pin is
𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 18 𝑚𝑚, the thickness of the gussets is 𝑡𝐺 = 15 𝑚𝑚, the thickness of the base plate is 𝑡𝐵 =
8 𝑚𝑚, and the diameter of the anchor bolts is 12 𝑑bolt = 12 𝑚𝑚.
 (a) Pin connection between strut S and base plate B. (b) Cross section through the strut S

Determine the following stresses: (1) the bearing stress between the strut and the pin; (2) the shear
stress in the pin; (3) the bearing stress between the pin and the gussets; (4) the bearing stress between
the anchor bolts and the base plate, and (5) the shear stress in the anchor bolts. In solution, disregard
any friction between the base plate and the deck.
Solution
(1) Bearing stress between strut and pin. The average value of the bearing stress between the strut
and the pin is found by dividing the force in the strut by the total bearing area of the strut against the
pin. The latter is equal to twice the thickness of the strut (because bearing occurs at two locations)
times the diameter of the pin (see figure (b)). Thus, the bearing stress is
𝑃 54 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑏𝑙 = = = 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑛 2 12 𝑚𝑚 18 𝑚𝑚
This, stress is not excessive for a strut made of structural steel, since the yield stress is probably near
200 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Assuming the factor of safety 𝑓𝑠 = 1.5 allowable stress 𝜎allow = 133 𝑀𝑃𝑎. It means that
the strut will be strong in bearing.
(2) Shear stress in pin. As can be seen from figure (b), the pin tends to shear on two planes, namely,
the planes between the strut and the gussets. Therefore, the average shear stress in the pin (which is
in double shear) is equal to the total load applied to the pin divided by twice its cross-sectional area:
𝑃 54 𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝑝𝑖𝑛 = = = 106 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝜋𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑛 2 Τ4 2
2𝜋 18 𝑚𝑚 Τ4
The pin would normally be made of high-strength steel (tensile yield stress greater than 340 𝑀𝑃𝑎) and could
easily withstand this shear stress (the yield stress in shear is usually at least 50% of the yield stress in tension).
(3) Bearing stress between pin and gussets. The pin bears against the gussets at two locations, so the bearing
area is twice the thickness of the gussets times the pin diameter; thus,
𝑃 54 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑏2 = = = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡𝐺 𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑛 2 15 𝑚𝑚 18 𝑚𝑚
which is less than the bearing stress against the strut.
(4) Bearing stress between anchor bolts and base plate. The vertical component of the force 𝑃 (see
figure (a)) is transmitted to the pier by direct bearing between the base plate and the pier. The
horizontal component, however, is transmitted through the anchor bolts. The average bearing stress
between the base plate and the anchor bolts is equal to the horizontal component of the force 𝑃
divided by the bearing area of four bolts. The bearing area for one bolt is equal to the thickness of the
plate times the bolt diameter. Consequently, the bearing stress is
𝑃 cos 40° 54 𝑘𝑁 cos 40°
𝜎𝑏3 = = = 108 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡𝐵 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 4 8 𝑚𝑚 12 𝑚𝑚
(5) Shear stress in anchor bolts. The average shear stress in the anchor bolts is equal to the horizontal
component of the force P divided by the total cross-sectional area of four bolts (note that each bolt is
in single shear). Therefore,
𝑃 cos 40° 54 𝑘𝑁 cos 40°
𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 2 = 2 Τ4
= 119 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝜋𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 4Τ 4𝜋 12 𝑚𝑚

Example 1.3 A force 𝑃 of magnitude 200 N is applied to the handles of the bolt cutter shown in Fig.
a. Compute (1) the force exerted on the bolt and rivets at joints 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 and (2) the normal stress
in member 𝐴𝐷, which has a uniform cross-sectional area of 2 × 10−4 𝑚2 . Dimensions are given in
millimeters.
Solution The conditions of equilibrium must be satisfied by the entire cutter. To determine the
unknown forces, we consider component parts. Let the force between the bolt and the jaw be 𝑄. The
free-body diagrams for the jaw and the handle are shown in Figs. b and c. Since 𝐴𝐷 is a two-force
member, the orientation of force 𝐹𝐴 is known. Note, that the force components on the two members at
joint 𝐵 must be equal and opposite, as indicated in the diagrams.
(1) Referring to the free-body diagram in Fig. b, we have
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0: 𝐹𝐵𝑦 = 0,
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0: 𝑄 − 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵𝑦 , 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑄 + 𝐹𝐵𝑦 ,
𝑄
σ 𝑀𝐵 = 0: 𝑄 0.1 − 𝐹𝐴 0.075 = 0, 𝐹𝐴 =
0.75
from which 𝑄 = 3𝐹𝐵𝑦 . Using the free-body diagram in Fig. c, we obtain
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0: −𝐹𝐵𝑥 + 𝐹𝐶𝑥 = 0, 𝐹𝐶𝑥 = 0,
𝑄
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0: −𝐹𝐵𝑦 + 𝐹𝐶𝑦 − 0.2 = 0, 𝐹𝐶𝑦 = + 0.2,
3
σ 𝑀𝐶 = 0: 𝐹𝐵𝑥 0.025 − 𝐹𝐵𝑦 0.012 + 0.2 0.48 , 𝐹𝐵𝑥 = 8 𝑘𝑁.
It follows that 𝑄 = 3(8) = 24 𝑘𝑁. Therefore, the shear forces on the rivet at the joints 𝐴,𝐵, and 𝐶
are 𝐹𝐴 = 32 𝑘𝑁, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵𝑦 = 8 𝑘𝑁, and 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶𝑦 = 8.2 𝑘𝑁, respectively.
(2) The normal stress in the member AD is given by
𝐹𝐴 32 × 103
𝜎= = −4
= 160 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 2 × 10
Example 1.4 A thin, triangular plate 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is uniformly deformed into a shape 𝐴𝐵𝐶′, as shown by the
dashed lines in the figure. Calculate (1) the normal strain along the centerline 𝑂𝐶; (2) the normal
strain along the edge 𝐴𝐶; and (3) the shearing strain between the edges 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶.

Solution Referring to the figure, we have 𝐿𝑂𝐶 = 𝑏 and 𝐿𝐴𝐶 = 𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏 2 = 1.41421𝑏.
(1), (2) Normal strains. As the change in length 𝑂𝐶 is 𝛥𝑏 = 0.001𝑏,
0.001𝑏
𝜀𝑂𝐶 = = 0.001 = 1.0 × 10−3
𝑏
The lengths of the deformed edges are
𝐿𝐴𝐶 ′ = 𝐿𝐵𝐶 ′ = 𝑏 2 + 1.001𝑏 2 1Τ2 = 1.141492𝑏
Thus
1.41492 − 1.41421
𝜀𝐴𝐶 = 𝜀𝐵𝐶 = = 0.502 × 10−3
1.41421
(3) Shearing strain. Subsequent to deformation,
angle 𝐴𝐶𝐵 becomes
𝑏
𝐴𝐶 ′ 𝐵 = 2 tan−1 = 89.943°
1.001𝑏
The change in the right angle is then 90° −
89.943° = 0.057°. The corresponding shearing
strain (in radians) is
𝜋
𝛾 = 0.0057° = 0.995 × 10−3
180°
Note. Since the angle ACB is decreased, the
shear strain is positive.
Example 1.5 A 0.4 𝑚 by 0.4 𝑚 square 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is
drawn on a thin plate prior to loading.
Subsequent to loading, the square has the
dimensions shown by the dashed lines in the
figure. Determine the average values of the
plane-strain components at corner 𝐴.
Solution Let the original lengths of a rectangular
element of unit thickness be 𝛥𝑥 and 𝛥𝑦. Hence;
∆𝑢 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑣
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = +
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑥
where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are, respectively, the 𝑥 - and 𝑦 -
directed displacements of a point. For the square
under consideration, we have 𝛥𝑥 = 𝛥𝑦 =
400 𝑚𝑚. Thus;
𝑢𝐷 − 𝑢𝐴 0.7 − 0.3
𝜀𝑥 = = = 1.0 × 10−3
∆𝑥 400
 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 −0.25 − 0
𝜀𝑦 = = = −0.625 × 10−3
∆𝑦 400
Similarly,
𝑢𝐵 − 𝑢𝐴 𝑣𝐷 − 𝑣𝐴 0 − 0.3 0.1 − 0
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + = + = −0.5 × 10−3
∆𝑦 ∆𝑥 400 400
Note. The negative sign indicates that angle 𝐵𝐴𝐷 has increased.
 DEFORMATION OF SOLID BODY UNDER
STATIC LOADING AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURE – CREEP
• The mechanical properties of material have up to this point been
discussed only for static or slowly applied load at constant
temperature.
• In some cases, however, a member may have to be used in an
environment for which loadings must be sustained over a long period
of time at elevated temperatures. When a material has to support a load
for a very long time, it may continue to deform until a sudden fracture
occurs or its usefulness is impaired.
• This time-dependent permanent deformation is known as creep.
• For practical purposes, when creep becomes important, a material is
usually designed to resist a specified creep strain for a given period of
time.
• In this regard, an important mechanical property that is used for the
design of members subjected to creep strength. This value represents
the highest initial stress the material can withstand during a specified
time without causing a given amount of creep strain.
• The creep strength will vary with temperature, and for design, a given
temperature, duration of loading, and allowable creep strain must all
be specified.
• For example, a creep strain of 0.1% per year has been suggested for
steel in bolts and piping, 0.25% per year has been suggested for lead
sheathing on cables.
 DEFORMATION OF SOLID BODY UNDER
CYCLIC LOADING – FATIGUE
• When metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes
its structure to break down, ultimately leading to fracture.
• This behavior is called fatigue, and it is usually responsible for a large
percentage of failures in connecting rods and crankshafts of engines;
steam or gas turbines blades; connections or supports for bridges,
railcar wheels, and axles; and other parts subjected to cyclic loading.
• In all these cases, fracture will occur at a stress that is less than the
material’s yield stress.
 DEFORMATION OF SOLID BODY UNDER STATIC
LOADING DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF CRACKS AND
FLAWS – FRACTURE MECHANICS
• Fracture mechanics is the discipline concerned with the behavior of
materials containing cracks or other small flaws. All materials, of
course, contain some flaws. What we wish to know is the maximum
stress that a material can withstand if it contains flaws of a certain size
and geometry.
• Fracture toughness measure the ability of a material containing a
flaw to withstand an applied load.
• The study of fracture mechanics is important because it allows
engineer to design and select materials while taking into account the
inevitable presence of flaws.
• Thus, the main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to provide
the means of analyzing and designing various machines and load-bearing
structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given structure involve the determination of
stresses and deformations. Hence, the behavior of elastic solids under load will be
analyze by studying:
1. One-dimensional stress and strain
2. Two-dimensional stress and strain
3. Three-dimensional stress and strain
4. Application of Mohr’s circle for analysis of stresses and strains.
5. Tensor analysis of stress and strain.
6. Behavior of structure under constant stress at elevated temperature.
7. Behavior of structures containing internal flaws or cracks under constant stress
8. Behavior of structures under cyclic stress.
References

1. Case, J. and Chilver, A.H. “Strength of Materials and Structure” The

English Language Book Society and Edward Arnold (Publisher) Ltd.,
London.
2. Beer, F.P. and Johnston, E.R. (1981). “Mechanics of Materials” McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York.
3. Dieter, G.E. (1988). “Mechanical Metallurgy”. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, London.
4. Hibbeler, R.C. (1991). “Mechanics of Materials” Prentice-Hall
Incorporation, New Jersey.
5. Lardner, T.J. and Archer, R.R. (1994). “Mechanics of Solid Materials An
Introduction”. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Singapore.
6. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. and DeWolf, J.T. (2002). “Mechanics of
Materials” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
7. William, F.S. and Javad Hashemi (2006). “Foundation of Materials
Science and Engineering” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.