KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

KUMASI, GHANA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

SHORT LECTURE NOTES FOR

GED 357: BASIC HYDROLOGY

Prepared by:

Ing. Prof. E. K. Appiah-Adjei

January, 2023
 COURSE OUTLINE – FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023

WEEK ACTIVITY
REGISTRATION
INTRODUCTION:
1 • Definitions, History, and Hydrological Cycle
• Applications of Hydrology in Engineering
WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY:
• Structure of the Atmosphere
2–3
• Temperature (Analyses of Temperature Data)
• Atmospheric Pressure, Air Density and Water Vapour
PRECIPITATION:
• Formation of Precipitation
4
• Measurement of Precipitation
• Analysis of Rainfall Data
INFILTRATION:
• Definitions and Factors Affecting Infiltration
5
• Measurement and Estimation of Infiltration
• Field Practical (Demonstration of Infiltration)
6 MID-SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS
EVAPORATION (+ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION):
7 • Definitions and Factors Affecting Evaporation (+ Evapotranspiration)
• Measurement and Estimation of Evaporation (+Evapotranspiration)
RUNOFF:
• Sources and Components of Runoff
8–9
• Catchment Characteristics and Drainage Patterns
• Measurement and Estimation of Runoff
10 REVISION
11 – 12 EXAMINATIONS

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE

• Chow, T. V., Maidment, R. D. & Mays, W. L. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Co.,
572pp.
• Linsley, R. K., Kohler, M. A. & Paulhus, J. H. (1982). Hydrology for Engineers. McGraw-Hill
Co., USA, 508pp.
• Reddy, P. J. R. (2007). A Textbook of Hydrology. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd., New Delhi,
530pp.
• Shaw, E. M. (1988). Hydrology in Practice. Chapman and Hall, UK, 569pp.
• Ward, R. C & Robinson, M. (1990). Principles of Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Co., London, 365pp.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE OUTLINE – FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 ......................................................................ii

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE.......................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... iii
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 The Hydrological Cycle .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Applications OF Hydrology in Engineering ........................................................................... 6
1.3 Scope and Limitations of Hydrology ...................................................................................... 6
1.4 Sources of Hydrological Information ...................................................................................... 7
2. WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY ................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Structure of the Atmosphere ................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1 Temperature ................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure and Density ................................................................................ 11
2.1.3 Water Vapour ................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.4 Sample Calculation ........................................................................................................ 16
2.2 Trial Questions ...................................................................................................................... 16
3. PRECIPITATION ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.1 Siting of Rain Gauges ........................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Measurement of Precipitation ............................................................................................... 19
3.2.1 Non-Recording Gauges .................................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Recording Gauges .......................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Analysis of Rainfall ............................................................................................................... 22
3.3.1 Arithmetic Mean Method ............................................................................................... 23
3.3.2 The Thiessen Polygon .................................................................................................... 23
3.3.3 Isohyetal Method ........................................................................................................... 24
3.3.4 Missing Data Estimation ................................................................................................ 25
4. INFILTRATION .......................................................................................................................... 26
4.1 Factors Affecting Infiltration ................................................................................................ 26
4.2 Measurement and Estimation of Infiltration ......................................................................... 27
5. EVAPORATION ......................................................................................................................... 29
5.1 Factors Affecting Evaporation .............................................................................................. 29
5.2 Definition of Common Terms ............................................................................................... 30
5.3 Measurement of Evaporation ................................................................................................ 31

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 5.4 Estimation of Evaporation ..................................................................................................... 32
5.4.1 Mass Transfer (aerodynamic method) ........................................................................... 32
5.4.2 Water Budget Method .................................................................................................... 33
5.4.3 Energy Budget Method .................................................................................................. 34
5.4.4 Vapour Flux Method ...................................................................................................... 35
5.4.5 Penman’s Theory ........................................................................................................... 35
5.5 Estimation of Evapotranspiration .......................................................................................... 36
6. RUNOFF ...................................................................................................................................... 38
6.1 Catchment Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 39
6.1.1 Drainage Pattern............................................................................................................. 40
6.2 Factors Affecting Runoff ...................................................................................................... 40
6.3 Measurement and Estimation of Runoff ............................................................................... 41

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 1. INTRODUCTION

The word hydrology is derived from the Greek words hydor and logos, which means water and science
respectively. Hydrology is, broadly, defined as the study of the origin, movement, distribution, and
quality of water in and over the surface of the earth. Basically, it deals with all the waters (i.e., rainfall,
snow, surface water, groundwater, etc.) on earth and their usefulness to life. Due to its applications in
many branches of engineering (like hydraulics, water resources, irrigation, etc.), the term engineering
hydrology may sometimes be used instead. However, engineering hydrology deals with segments of
the very broad field of hydrology pertinent to the design and operation of engineering projects for the
control and use of water.

The history of the evolution and development of hydrology as a multi-disciplinary subject has been
presented by Biswas (1970) and dates to the times of great civilizations in China, the Middle East,
Greece, and Rome. The Greek philosophers are believed to be the first serious students of hydrology,
after which other scholars came in to advance their understanding of separate phases of water in the
natural environment. However, it was not until the 17th century that the work of a Frenchman, Perrault
through measurements of rainfall and stream flow in the catchment of the upper Seine River provided
convincing evidence of the form of the currently accepted hydrological cycle (Dooge, 1959). The
eighteenth century saw advances in hydraulics and mechanics of water movement by Bernoulli, Chezy,
and others while the nineteenth century saw experimental work on water flow by people like Darcy
and Manning, which are familiar works in groundwater and surface-water movement, respectively. In
the 1940s and onwards, hydrology became established in institutions of higher education as an
academic subject. As its importance in the assessment, development, utilisation, and management of
the water resources became increasingly realised at all levels, the United Nations proclaimed the period
1965-1974 as the International Hydrological Decade. During that period, intensive efforts in
hydrologic education research, development of analytical techniques and collection of hydrological
information on a global basis, were promoted in Universities, Research Institutions, and Government
Organisations. The promotion of hydrology continued afterwards and has become the norm over the
years till today.

In this course, a basic understanding and application of the principles of hydrology for solving
engineering problems are presented. This would involve an examination of the basic hydrologic
processes and their practical applications for engineering projects, especially in water resources
management, and deal with the different phases of the hydrologic cycle.

1
1.1 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle (Fig. 1.1) describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the earth. The cycle has no exact beginning or ending point but may be assumed to start
conveniently with evaporation of water from the oceans since most of the water on earth is in the
oceans. Solar radiation from the sun evaporates water in oceans (or surface water) into water vapour.
Moving air masses transport the vapour from the ocean surface into the atmosphere, by rising air
currents, where they condense to form clouds under right conditions. The clouds move in the
atmosphere until under suitable conditions when they condense and form water droplets. These
droplets may then fall as precipitation (i.e., rainfall, snow, hail, etc.) to the oceans, streams, land
surface, etc., or may re-vaporize while still aloft.

The precipitation that falls directly into the streams is known as channel precipitation. Portions of
the precipitation falling on the land surface may be intercepted by trees and vegetation, and eventually
evaporated back to the atmosphere, whilst the rest may reach the ground surface. The precipitation that
reaches the ground surface is known as throughfall.

Figure 1.1: The Hydrological Cycle (after Shaw, 1996)

2
Precipitation that falls on the land surface may be stored temporarily as snow and ice or as water in
puddles known as depression storage. Some of the precipitation (i.e., the rain and melting ice or snow)
will drain across the land surface as overland flow to stream channels. The total flow in a stream is
known as runoff. Portions of the precipitation will also seep through the surface soil by a process
called infiltration, and then move vertically downwards by gravity (in a process known as
percolation) into the saturated ground zone beneath the water table. Water stored in the saturated zone
beneath the water table is known as groundwater. Some of the infiltrated water, sometimes, stays
close to the land surface and may, laterally, flow back into surface water bodies in a process known as
interflow. More so, groundwater may, under favourable conditions, seep directly as baseflow into
surface water and vice versa. A spring is produced when the water table is intercepted by topography
and water gushes out from the land surface. Infiltrated water may, also, be transpired by plants and
evaporated subsequently to the atmosphere in a process known as evapotranspiration.

It should be appreciated that the description of the hydrological cycle in Fig. 1.1 is over simplified
because some of the water that enters the surface streams may percolate to the groundwater system
while, in other cases, the groundwater becomes the source of surface stream flows (i.e., effluent and
influent streams). Also, some precipitation may remain on the ground as snow for several months, and
in some cases years, before melting releases the water to streams or groundwater system. More so, it
should be noted, generally, that:
• The cycle may be short-circuited at several stages, e.g., precipitation may be trapped by
vegetation and re-vaporize back to the atmosphere.
• There is no uniformity in the time a cycle is completed.
• The intensity and frequency of the cycle depends on geography and climate, which varies
according to latitude and season of the year.
• Man can exercise control on certain parts of the cycle, e.g., runoff can be directed to a preferred
storage place instead of it flowing naturally to a stream or groundwater system.

The movement of water in the cycle on earth spans from an average depth of 1 km in the lithosphere
to a height of about 15 km in the atmosphere (Reddy, 2007). Four important phases of the cycle of
great interest to the engineering hydrologist are precipitation, evaporation (evapotranspiration), runoff,
and groundwater. The movement of water through the various phases of the cycle is very erratic, both
in time and area. On occasions, torrential rains may flood surface channels whilst at other times
precipitation and stream flow may appear to have stopped completely leading to droughts. More so,

3
the variations in the cycle may be quite distinct in adjacent areas. It is, precisely, these extremes of
floods and droughts that are often of most interest to the engineering hydrologist since many hydraulic
engineering projects are designed to protect the ill effects of extreme events.

The science of meteorology may explain the reasons for the climatic extremes. However, the engineer
must understand it, at least, in broad detail and be able to deal quantitatively with the interrelations
between the extremes and the various phases of the cycle in order to predict their influence on man-
made structures (quite) accurately. Also, the frequency with which the various extremes of the cycle
occur need to be of great concern to the engineer because those form the basis of economic analysis,
which is, or should be, the final determinant for all structures.

Quantitatively, the hydrological cycle is evaluated using the general water balance or hydrologic
equation expressed as:
Inflow – Outflow = Change in Storage (1.1)

This equation simply states that the change in water storage in an area is equal to the difference between
the total water inflow into the area and total water outflow from the same area. The relation is based
on the law of conservation of mass and can be applied to an area, catchment or reservoir of any size.
A catchment (synonymous with drainage basin or watershed) is defined as an area of land with
topographic divide that collects all surface runoff in the area and discharges most of this water to a
stream, river or a water body in the area. The equation is time-dependent; hence the elements of the
inflow must be measured over the same time period as the outflow and storage. For example, a simple
water balance equation of a catchment may be represented as:
S(catchment) = P − SR − ET ± G (1.2)

where P is precipitation, SR is surface runoff, ET is evapotranspiration, S is change in surface water

storage of the catchment and G is net groundwater flow.

The study of the hydrologic cycle is very important in many disciplines since the cycle traverses the
lithosphere through the hydrosphere to the atmosphere where it is related to hydrometeorology and
climatology. In the hydrosphere (i.e., all the water surrounding the earth), it embodies the domain of
potamology (the study of surface streams), limnology (the study of lakes, lagoons, etc.), cryology
(study of snow and ice), and glaciology (the study of glaciers). In the lithosphere, however, the cycle

4
relates to agronomy, hydrogeology, and geomorphology. Since water affects both plant and animal
lives, the hydrologic cycle extends to plant ecology, silviculture, biohydrology, and hydrobiology. The
cycle has important influence in agriculture, forestry, geography, watershed management, political
science, economics, and sociology. Other areas of practical importance of the hydrological cycle
include structural design, wastewater disposal, water supply and/or treatment, irrigation, drainage,
hydropower, flood control, navigation, erosion and sediment control, salinity control, pollution
abatement, recreational use, fish and wildlife, insect control, and coastal works.

Table 1.1 presents an estimate of world’s water resource distribution in the hydrological cycle and
indicates the relative importance of groundwater over the other components of the cycle. Ignoring the
over 90% of the earth’s water that rests in oceans and seas at high levels of salinity, groundwater
accounts for about two-thirds (2/3) of the freshwater resources of the world. However, if one limits the
consideration to only the utilizable freshwater reserves, then groundwater almost accounts for the total
body of fresh water. However, the volumetric superiority of groundwater is tempered by its average
residence times. Considering only the most active groundwater regimes estimated at about 4 x 106 km3
(Lvovitch, 1970), rather than the 60 x 106 km3, the freshwater breakdown comes to approximately 1.5
% for soil moisture, 3.5 % for surface water (i.e., rivers, reservoirs, swamps, etc.), and 95 % for
groundwater.

Table 1.1: Estimate of the world’s water resource (Source: UNESCO, 1971)
Parameter Volume (km3) Equivalent Average Residence
1
Depth (m) Time2
Oceans and Seas 1 370 x 106 2500 4000+ yrs
Freshwater Lakes and Reservoirs 125 000 0.25 ~ 10 yrs
Swamps 3 600 0.007 1 – 10 yrs
River Channels 1 700 0.003 ~ 2 weeks
Moisture in Soil and Unsaturated Zone 65 000 0.13 2 wks – 1 yr.
Groundwater 4 x 106 to 60 x 106 8 – 120 2 wks – 10000 yrs
Ice Caps and Glaciers 30 x 106 60 10’s – 1000’s of yrs
Atmospheric Water 13 000 0.025 8 – 10 days
Biological Water 700 0.001 ~ 1 week

1
Equivalent depth is estimated as though water storage were uniformly distributed over the entire earth surface.
2
Residence time is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through a subsystem of the hydrological cycle.

5
1.2 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROLOGY IN ENGINEERING

As stated earlier, the engineer basically applies the principles of hydrology in the design, building and
operation of engineering projects for the control and use of water. Thus, the engineer often needs to
have a good idea of the main processes within the hydrological cycle and be able to estimate the
quantity (as well as distribution, time of occurrence and frequency) of water to be expected at the
project site. The engineer can be able to do this by analysing and interpreting data on the processes in
the cycle and applying them effectively.

Some of the practical applications of hydrology in engineering are in:

• Estimation of the flood flows to be expected at a spillway, highway culvert or in a city
drainage system,
• Estimation of the reservoir capacity required to assure adequate water for irrigation, water
supply or hydroelectric power generation,
• Determining the effect reservoirs, levees, and other control works will exert on flood flows in
a stream,
• Estimation of the water budget of a catchment or region,
• Evaluating contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines, etc.

Depending on their scale of operations, certain organisations may employ their own specialist
hydrologist to analyse their problems for them whilst others will not need fulltime hydrologists.

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF HYDROLOGY

Hydrology deals with many topics, which may be classified conveniently into two phases, namely:
i. data collection, and ii. methods of analyses and application.

The complex features of natural processes involved in hydrologic phenomena make it difficult to treat
many hydrologic processes by rigorous deductive reasoning. It is not always possible to start with a
basic physical law and determine the hydrologic result to be expected from it. Rather, it is necessary
to begin with a mass of observed facts, statistically analyse them and, from the analyses, establish a
systematic pattern that govern the events. The hydrologist is, thus, in a difficult position if adequate
historical data for a particular area of interest is not available. The collection of hydrologic data has,
therefore, been the life work of many hydrologists and is a primary function of many Hydrological

6
Services Departments, Weather Bureaux, and other related units. Hence, it is important to learn how
these data are collected and published, limitations of their accuracy, and the proper methods of their
interpretation and adjustments. The basic hydrological data required in most projects include
meteorological data (like temperature, wind velocity, humidity, etc.); precipitation data; evaporation
data; stream flow data; data on groundwater conditions; data on cropping patterns, crops and their
consumptive use; water quality data on surface streams and groundwater; and geomorphology.

Generally, each hydrologic problem is unique in that it deals with a distinct set of physical conditions
within a specific basin. Hence, the quantitative conclusions of one analysis are often not directly
transferable to another problem. However, the general solution for most problems can be developed
from application of few relatively standard procedures.

1.4 SOURCES OF HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION

The main source of hydrologic data in Ghana is from the Meteorological Services Department (MSD),
which has offices in all the regions. Other sources of information can be obtained from the
Hydrological Services Department, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Civil Aviation Authority, Ghana
Water Company Limited, Volta River Authority, Bui Dam Authority, Irrigation Development
Authority, CSIR, and other research institutions like the Universities. MSD has a number of
publications available for sale at their Accra office where some data may be obtained.

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 2. WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY

The hydrological characteristics of an area or a region depend, primarily, on its climate, and on the
geology and topography. The topography influence precipitation and the occurrence of lakes,
marshland and flow rates of runoff whereas geology has an influence on the nature of topography and,
sometimes, serve as water reservoirs (i.e., groundwater storage) and source of water supply to rivers
and lakes.

Climate is the average weather3 pattern in an area or a region over a long period of time; usually 30
years by the World Meteorological Organisation standard. The climate of a region depends on its
geographic position on the earth surface. The climatic factors that establish the hydrologic features of
a region are the amount and distribution of precipitation, the occurrence of snow and ice, and the effects
of wind, temperature and humidity on evaporation and snow melt. To estimate these parameters, daily
weather measurements have to be made over a long time period.

Although, in practice, the hydrologist will usually rely on the services of a professional meteorologist
for weather data and forecasts, it is essential for the hydrologist to have some understanding of the
atmospheric processes that defines a regional climate in order to “appreciate the complexities of the
atmosphere and the difficulties that the meteorologist often has in providing answers to questions of
quantities and timing” (Shaw, 1988). As a result, hydrometeorology has evolved as a specialized
branch of hydrology linking the fundamental knowledge of meteorology4 with the needs of the
hydrologist. Hydrometeorology is, basically, the study of atmospheric processes that affect water
resources.

2.1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a distinctive protective layer of air, water vapour and other gases of about 100 km
thick around the earth and has the structure shown in Fig. 2.1. The chemical composition of the layer
comprises Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (0.03%), Water Vapour (0
– 4%), and Trace amounts of other gases. These trace gases may include small proportions of inert

3
Weather is a mix of events that happen each day in the atmosphere in terms of temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc. It is
recorded daily and predicted worldwide by meteorologists.
4
Meteorology is the study of the changes in temperature, air pressure, moisture, wind direction, etc. in the atmosphere.

8
gases, ozone, hydrocarbons, ammonia, nitrates, man-made gaseous contaminants from industries,
radioactive isotopes from nuclear explosions, etc., which may exist temporarily in the atmosphere.

Figure 2.1: Structure of the atmosphere (after Shaw, 1996)

In the atmosphere, temperature varies in an irregular but characteristic way with increasing altitude
whilst both air pressure and density continuously decrease with increasing altitude. The irregular
variation of temperature divides the atmosphere into layers known as spheres (as shown in Fig. 2.1).
These may, mainly, be divided into upper and lower atmospheres with the demarcation at about 50 km
above sea level. The upper atmosphere plays a secondary role in climatic changes, while the lower
atmosphere is where most of the critical mass and energy transfer occur. The lower atmosphere is

9
divided into two as Stratosphere and Troposphere while the Mesosphere and Thermosphere
together forms the upper atmosphere.

Almost all the dust and moisture in the atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere. Also, the
temperature in the troposphere decreases with increasing altitude at 6.5 oC/km average rate and is
known as lapse rate. The top of the troposphere, i.e., the dividing line between the troposphere and
stratosphere, is called the tropopause and has an average height of about 11 km (see Fig. 2.1) but
ranges from 8 km at the Poles to 16 km at the Equator. This variation of the tropopause is caused by
changes in air temperature and pressure in the atmosphere. Generally, when surface temperatures are
high and pressure is high at sea level, there is the tendency for the tropopause to be at a higher level.
After a general decrease in temperature through the troposphere, the rise in temperature from heights
of 20 to 50 km above the tropopause (i.e., in the stratosphere) is caused by a layer of ozone, which
absorbs short wave solar radiation and releases some of the energy as heat. The stratosphere contains
very little moisture and dust but has a major portion of the ozone.

The troposphere is the most important layer to the hydrologists because it contains about 75 % of the
weight of the atmosphere and, virtually, all its moisture. Also, the atmospheric processes, which affect
water resources, mostly, take place in the troposphere. However, meteorologists are becoming
increasingly interested in the stratosphere and mesosphere since it is in these outer regions that some
of the disturbances affecting the troposphere and the earth’s surface have their origin. Some of the
parameters in the atmosphere pertinent to hydrology include temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind
speed.

2.1.1 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the coldness or hotness of a body. It is measured with a thermometer in
units of oC or K {K = 273 + oC; oC = 1.8 (oF – 32)}. A continuous automatic recording of temperature
with time can be done with an instrument called thermograph. Globally, temperature is generally
warmer in regions near the equator than at the poles. However, the effects of specific heat of the earth
and water, patterns of oceanic and atmospheric currents, the seasons of the year, topography,
vegetation, and altitude tend to vary this rule.

The variation of temperature with altitude in the atmosphere is as shown in Fig. 2.1 and was explained
in the previous section. Within a day, temperature varies from a minimum value at around sunrise to a
10
maximum value, after the sun has reached its zenith before it begins to fall through the night till sunrise
again. The average temperature for a day is taken as the average of the maximum and minimum
temperatures for the day. The mean monthly temperature is the arithmetic average of the mean daily
temperatures in the month. Similarly, the mean annual temperature is the arithmetic average of all the
mean monthly temperatures in a year.

2.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure and Density

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the weight of a column of air of unit cross-sectional area from the
level of measurement to the top of the atmosphere. It may be considered as the downward force on a
unit horizontal area resulting from the action of gravity (g) on a mass (m) vertically above it. The
pressure is, usually, measured with a barometer in bars or mm height of a column of mercury. In the
atmosphere, both the pressure and air density decrease with increasing altitude, however, the air
density decrease is more rapid (Fig. 2.1).

At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure (p) is 1 bar (≈ 100 kPa ≈ 100 kN/m2 ≈ 760 mmHg =
1013.25 mb = 1 atm). The pressure can be estimated using the ideal gas law expression given by:
P = ρRT (2.1)

where ρ is air density; R is the specific gas constant (= 2.87 X 10-3 mb cm3g-1K-1 for dry air); and T is
air temperature in Kelvin.

2.1.3 Water Vapour

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Water vapour is the most important
constituent in the atmosphere to the hydrologist and is usually measured as vapour pressure in millibars
(mb). The distribution of water vapour varies over the earth’s surface according to temperature; i.e. it
is highest at the equatorial regions and lowest at the poles. In any given area, warmer air would have
more water vapour than cold air.

The amount of water vapour in the air is directly related to the temperature. Thus, although water
vapour is lighter than air, it is restricted to the lower layers of the atmosphere. Water vapour movement
and phases are crucial to the earth-wide heat and mass balance. Upon evaporation and condensation of
water vapour, heat is absorbed and released respectively. Since the two processes rarely occur at the
11
same location, the vapour carries mass and energy from one part of the globe to another. It is the liquid
and solid precipitation of this vapour that, ultimately, controls the land based hydrological processes.
Humidity can be measured with a hygrometer. Some of the recognized physical parameters used in
determining water vapour in the atmosphere are:

1) Saturated Vapour Pressure: Air is said to be saturated when it contains the maximum amount of
water vapour it can hold at its prevailing temperature. The pressure exerted by water vapour molecules
in this state is known as saturated vapour pressure (SVP) at that temperature. SVP values vary with air
temperature as shown in Figure 2.2. At any temperature (T), saturation occurs at a corresponding
vapour pressure (еs). Saturated air may take up even more water vapour and become supersaturated if
it is in contact with liquid water in a sufficiently finely divided state (e.g., very small water droplets in
clouds). This supersaturated air mass will lie above the svp curve in Fig. 2.2, but an unsaturated
atmospheric air mass will be below the svp curve as indicated with point Y on Fig. 2.2.

35

30
Saturation Vapour Pressure (mmHg)

25
es
20

Ys
15
Yw
10
Y*
Y
5

0 Td
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature (oC)

Figure 2.2: Saturation vapour pressure curve of water vapour in air

The relation between saturated vapour pressure and temperature can be approximated by the equations
(2.2) and (2.3):
4278.6
𝑒𝑠 = 2.7489 × 108 exp. (− 𝑇+242.79) (2.2)
17.27 𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 6.11 exp. (237.3 + 𝑇) (2.3)

12
where temperature is in oC and еs is mb with T representing air temperature. These relations are used
to estimate saturated vapour pressure, es, at any air temperature, T.

2) Dew Point: This is the temperature at which a mass of unsaturated air becomes saturated when
cooled at constant pressure and water content (i.e., no change in humidity of the air) before
condensation starts. For example, if the unsaturated atmospheric air mass at Y (T, e) is cooled without
any change in humidity (Fig. 2.2), then Y would move horizontally until it intersects the curve at Y*
(Td, e) to become saturated. The temperature, Td, at this point of intersection is the dew point and e is
the vapour pressure of the air mass.

3) Saturation Deficit: If more water vapour is added to the unsaturated air mass at Y while
temperature is kept constant, the vapour pressure of the air mass will increase vertically up until it
intersects the curve at Ys (T, es) where the air mass becomes saturated. The difference between the
saturation vapour pressure (еs) and the actual vapour pressure of the air mass at that specific air
temperature is known as saturation deficit (also known as vapour pressure deficit). This deficit
represents the extra amount of water vapour the air can hold at temperature T before becoming
saturated. For the example in Figure 2.2, еs and е are 17 mmHg and 7 mmHg respectively, which imply
that the:
Saturation deficit = еs – е = 17 – 7 = 10 mmHg

If evaporation is allowed to take place in the unsaturated air mass Y, thereby increasing humidity and
vapour pressure, without controlling temperature, then the air mass will move diagonally until it
reaches saturation at point Yw (Tw, ew). The temperature Tw is called the wet-bulb temperature and
it is the temperature at which the original air can be cooled by evaporating water into it. This can be
measured using the wet bulb thermometer.

4) Relative Humidity: This is the relative measure of the amount of moisture in the air to the amount
needed to saturate the air at the same temperature (usually expressed in percentage). It is in fact the
amount of water vapour in a given volume of air expressed as a ratio of the maximum possible amount
of water vapour that the same volume of air can hold at the same temperature. From Figure 2.2:
Relative Humidity = е/еs x 100% = 7/17 x 100% = 41.18 %.

Relative humidity is usually measured with a psychrometer. This instrument consists of two glass
thermometers (viz. wet bulb thermometer and dry bulb thermometer), which are ventilated by a fan
13
and used to measure the wet bulb temperature and ambient air temperature, respectively. The wet bulb
thermometer has its mercury bulb wrapped with a wick with one end of wick submerged in distilled
water to ensure continuous moisture supply to the bulb. The measured values from the wet bulb
thermometer are always less than the dry bulb ones. The difference between the two temperatures (T
- Tw), known as wet bulb depression, is proportional to relative humidity. The measured values of
temperature from the psychrometer and atmospheric pressure are related by:
e = ew – γ (T - Tw) (2.4)

where e (mb) is vapour pressure at dry bulb temperature T (oC); ew (mb) is saturated vapour pressure
corresponding to wet bulb temperature Tw (oC); and γ is the psychrometer constant (γ = 0.66 mb/oC if
e is in mb; γ = 0.485 if e is in mmHg)

5) Absolute Humidity: This is equivalent to water vapour density (ρw) and may be defined, in simple
terms, as the amount of water vapour contained in a given volume of air. Vapour density is, generally,
expressed as the mass of water vapour per unit volume of air at a given temperature. Thus, if a volume
V m3 of air contains mw g of water vapour, then:
Absolute humidity = (mass of vapour, g)/(volume of air, m3) = mw/V (gm-3) (2.5)

6) Specific Humidity (q): It is defined as the mass of water vapour in a unit of moist air. This relates
the mass of water vapour mw (g) to mass of moist air (kg) in a given volume. It is given by the relations:
q = (mass of water vapour, g)/(mass of moist air, kg)
q = mw (g)/(mw + md) (kg) (2.6)
q = ρw/ρm (gkg-1) (2.7)

From ideal gas law in Eqn. (2.1), the density of dry air (ρd) and water vapour (ρw) can be given as:
𝑃𝑑 𝑃−𝑒 𝑒 0.622𝑒
𝜌𝑑 = = , and 𝜌𝑤 = = (since Rw = Rd/0.622).
𝑅𝑑 𝑇 𝑅𝑑 𝑇 𝑅𝑤 𝑇 𝑅𝑑 𝑇

Therefore, the density of moist air and specific humidity can be obtained from the relations:
𝑃 − 0.378𝑒
𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑 + 𝜌𝑤 = , (2.8)
𝑅𝑑 𝑇

𝜌𝑤 0.622𝑒
𝑞= = (2.9)
𝜌𝑚 𝑃 − 0.378𝑒

14
where md is the mass of dry air in kg; ρw is the density of water; ρm is the density of moist air; e is the
water vapour pressure; P is total air pressure (i.e., vapour pressure plus dry air pressure); Rd is dry air
gas constant; and Rw is the wet air gas constant.

7) Precipitable Water: It is the total amount of water vapour in a column of air expressed as the depth
of liquid water in mm over the base area of the column. In simple terms, precipitable water gives an
estimate of the maximum possible rainfall in an area under the unreal assumption of total condensation.
In a column of water vapour of unit cross-sectional area (Fig. 2.3), a small thickness, dz, of the moist
air contains a mass of water given by:
dmw = ρwdz

Thus, in a column of air from heights Z1 and Z2, corresponding to pressures P1 and P2, the total mass
of water would be given by:

Z2

But dp is related to height as: ,

dz This implies:
z

Thus: But

Z1 Hence,

Figure 2.3: A column of water vapour

Converting to height of water (W) in mm (NB: ρw = 1 g/cm3, area of column = 1 cm2) gives:

where p is in mb, q in g/kg and g = 9.81 m/s2.

In practice, q is not known to be a function of p. Hence, W is evaluated by summing the contributions
for a sequence of layers in the troposphere from series of measurements of specific humidity, q, at
different heights, and using the average specific humidity q over each layer with the appropriate
pressure difference. This is given as:
(2.10)

15
2.1.4 Sample Calculation
From a radiosonde (balloon) ascent, the pairs of measurements of pressure and specific humidity
shown in Table 2.1 were obtained. Calculate the precipitable water in the column of air up to the 250
mb level (g = 9.81 m/s2).

Table 2.1: Measurements from radiosonde

Pressure (mb) 1005 850 750 700 620 600 500 400 250
Specific Humidity g/kg 14.2 12.4 9.5 7.0 6.3 5.6 3.8 1.7 0.2
Pn – Pn+1 = 155 100 50 80 20 100 100 150

Mean q = 13.30 10.95 8.25 6.65 5.95 4.70 2.75 0.95

2061.5 1095 412.5 532 119 470 275 142.5

This implies,
Hence, the precipitable water up to the 250 mb level:

2.2 TRIAL QUESTIONS

1. At a weather station, the air pressure is measured to be 101.1 kPa, the air temperature is 22 oC and
the dew point temperature is 18 oC. Calculate the corresponding:
(a) saturated vapour pressure; (b) actual vapour pressure (c) relative humidity; and (d) air density.
[Ans.: (a) 26.40 mb; (b) 20.60 mb; (c) 78 %; (d) 1.2 kg/m3]

2. Air mass is at a temperature of 28 oC with relative humidity of 70 %. Using Figure 2.2, determine:
(a) saturation vapour pressure; (b) actual vapour pressure in mb and in mm Hg; (c) saturation
deficit; and (d) dew point.
[Ans.: (a) 28 mm Hg; (b) 19.6 mm Hg; (c) 8.4 mm Hg; (d) 21.5 oC]

3. A psychrometer recorded dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of 41 oC and 27 oC, respectively,

when the atmospheric pressure was 1001 mb. Determine:
(a) actual vapour pressure; (b) saturation vapour pressure; (c) relative humidity; and (d) dew point
[Ans.: (a) 26.4 mb; (b) 77.8 mb; (c) 33.9 %; (d) 22 oC]

16
 3. PRECIPITATION

Moisture in the atmosphere, although forming one of the smallest storages of the earth’s water
resource, is the most vital source of fresh water for mankind and life on earth. In the air, water is
present in its gaseous, liquid and solid states as water vapour, cloud droplets and ice crystals
respectively. The processes involved in the formation of precipitation can be summarized in the
following steps:

1. Supply of warm moist air (i.e., water vapour) to the atmosphere

2. Cooling of the warm moist air to its dew point
3. Condensation
4. Growth of particles (i.e., coalescence)

Basically, the moisture is supplied to the atmosphere through evaporation from wet surfaces (i.e.,
rivers, lakes, seas, etc.) and transpiration from vegetation. The warm moist air is then forced to rise to
its dew point through:

i. Orographic Lifting (i.e., adiabatic expansion of rising air): occurs when a volume of air is
forced to rise by a mountain range. The lifting of the air will reduce the pressure and cause a
lowering in temperature without any transfer of heat, which will lead to cooling of the air to
condense at dew point. The type of precipitation arising from this air lifting or adiabatic process
is termed as orographic precipitation.

ii. Convection (i.e., meeting of two different air masses): For example, when a warm mass of air
converges with a cold mass, the warm air is by convection forced to rise over the cold air to
cool to dew point, which leads to convective precipitation. Also, any mixing of contrasting
masses of air will lower the overall temperature, thereby leading to condensation and
subsequent precipitation. Convective rainfall is common in tropical regions and, usually,
appears as a thunderstorm in temperate climates during the summer period. Rainfall
intensities of convective storms can be very high locally; however, the duration is generally
short.

iii. Frontal Lifting: This occurs when a warm moist air mass comes into contact with a cold object
such as the ground or when a colder air mass intrude a slightly warm one and causes it to rise
and lose temperature to its dew point. This leads to frontal precipitation.

17
iv. Convergence: This occurs in a tropical region (i.e. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone) where
the air masses originating from the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn converge and is lifted.
The position of the ITCZ governs the occurrence of wet and dry seasons in the tropics and
determines the main rain-bringing mechanism, which is also called monsoon. In July, the ITCZ
lies to the North of the equator and in January it lies to the South. In certain places near the
equator, such as on the coast of Nigeria, the ITCZ passes two times per year, causing two wet
seasons; near the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer (e.g. in the Sahel). However, there is
generally only one dry and one wet season.

When the cooled air mass reaches dew point, condensation then begins. If the cooled air mass is pure,
condensation of the water vapour to water droplets will occur only when the air becomes greatly
supersaturated. However, the presence of small airborne particles called aerosols, or in this case
condensation nuclei, in the atmosphere provide the nuclei around which water vapour in normal
saturated air can condense. The condensed water droplets fuse or come together to form large droplets
(i.e., coalescence), which with time overcome air resistance in the atmosphere and fall as precipitation.

There are two main types of condensation nuclei (according to Aitkin (Mason, 1975)), viz.:
i. hygroscopic particles having affinity for water vapour on which condensation begins before
the air becomes saturated; these are commonly salt particles from the ocean, and
ii. non-hygroscopic particles needing some degree of super-saturation, depending on their size,
before attracting condensation –e.g. natural dust and grits, soot and ash particles.

Condensation nuclei range in size from radius of 10-3µm for small ions to about 10µm for large salt
particles. The condensation of aerosols in time and space varies considerably. The number of particles
in a given volume depends on the size of the particles. A typical number for the smallest particle is
about 40,000 per cc whilst for giant nuclei of more than 1µm radius, there may be only 1 per cc. Large
hygroscopic salt nuclei are normally confined to maritime regions, but the tiny ones called Aitkin
nuclei can travel across continents and even circumnavigate the earth. Although condensation nuclei
are essential for widespread condensation of water vapour, only a small fraction of the nuclei present
take part in cloud droplet formation at any one time.

18
3.1 SITING OF RAIN GAUGES

The choice of a suitable site for a rain gauge is a professional job. It must be decided with competence
since the amount measured by the gauge should be representative of the rainfall in the surrounding
area. The measured rainfall is the sampled amount of rain that falls over the orifice area of the gauge
(i.e., 150 cm2). Therefore, it is best to find some level ground, if possible, in siting the gauge whereas
steep hillsides especially those sloping down towards the prevailing wind must be avoided. This means
it is important to know the prevailing wind direction of the country or the town in which the siting is
required. A sheltered, but not over sheltered, site is ideal.

In the case of an existing site, a modification of its surroundings like building of new structures,
collapsing of existing buildings, or vegetation growth can affect the readings. Usually, structures of
height, h, around the gauge should be at distance not less than 2h from the gauge. For over-exposed
areas where there is not much vegetation, like Accra plains and some parts of the Northern and Upper
regions, a turf wall may be required to provide the needed shelter. The outer face of the turf wall
should be made to slope (streamlining) to reduce the generation of eddy currents around as would be
experienced with vertical walls. The area must, also, be properly drained to prevent flooding and
possible submergence of the gauge. Rain gauge density refers to the number of rain gauges erected
in a given area. Commonly in most developed countries, one rain gauge station is erected in every 100
km2. However, these may vary depending on topographic and other considerations.

3.2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

In the measurement of precipitation, three basic rules must be observed viz.

i. All measurements must be comparable and consistent,
ii. Standard instruments must be installed uniformly in representative areas, and
iii. Regular observational procedures (e.g., daily, weekly, or monthly) must be followed.
(NB: Daily reading is the most reliable since it enables every change to be measured)

Precipitation is usually measured at a point using collectors of very simple construction. Essentially,
the collectors should be of standardised dimension for quality control checks and serve the purpose of
estimating the volume of precipitation per unit area. The different forms of precipitation available
include:

19
 i. Rain: is a liquid precipitation of drop size greater than 0.5mm to a maximum size of 6mm.
ii. Drizzle: is a fine sprinkle of rain with a diameter of 0.1 to 0.5mm and intensity <1 mm/hr.
iii. Dew: is moisture condensed from atmosphere in small drops on surfaces due to cooling at
night.
iv. Glaze: is freezing of drizzle or rain when they come into contact with cold objects.
v. Sleet: is, simply, frozen rain or rain drops that get frozen while falling through air at
subfreezing temperature.
vi. Snow: is precipitation in the form of small ice crystals (i.e., water vapour condenses to ice).
The fusing together of the ice crystals form snowflakes (i.e., the equivalent of rain).
vii. Hail: is a small spherical lump of ice (>5 mm in diameter) composed of concentric layers.
viii. Frost: is a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of exposed objects
by dew or water vapour that has frozen.
ix. Graupel: are pellets of ice 2 – 5 mm in diameter formed by collisions of snow crystals and
raindrops when the temperature of the cloud is near freezing.
x. Fog: is a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapour (interfering with visibility). Mist is a very thin fog.

Rainfall, which is the most common form of precipitation in Ghana, is measured with rain gauge.
Snow fall may be measured with a rain gauge fitted with a heating system or using a graduated
stick to determine snow thickness and densities at depth for estimating the equivalent amount of
water in a unit of snow. Rain gauges may be broadly classified under two main headings, namely:
recording and non-recording gauges.

3.2.1 Non-Recording Gauges

In this type of rain gauge, the amount of rainfall intercepted by a gauge is measured by an observer at
regular intervals; usually, every 24 hours but it could be weekly or monthly. The size of the gauge
varies between countries but is usually standardized within each country. Its collecting funnel is
usually 5 inches in diameter and 4 inches deep. The rain is led into the glass or polythene via the funnel,
and then read later by the observer. Normally, the gauge is set into the ground with its rim level 12
inches (300 mm) above the ground surface, which should ideally be covered with short grass,
chippings, or gravel to prevent in splash of water during heavy rains. In exceptionally heavy rains, the
water may overflow into the inner glass can, and, in very rare cases, these two may overflow into the
outer casing of the gauge. The outer and inner casings do not allow evaporation to take place.
20
3.2.2 Recording Gauges
Recording gauges automatically measure and record, continuously, the amount and time of a rainfall
event. The rainfalls collected by these gauges are usually recorded cumulatively (i.e., in a mass curve)
from which a hyetograph (i.e., plot of rainfall intensity with time) or depth of rainfall in a given time
can be derived. There are three basic types of recording gauges, namely: tilting siphon, tipping bucket
and weighing gauge types.

a) Tilting Siphon Gauge: The tilting siphon is classified under float gauges. The principle of all float
gauges is that rainfall is collected into a funnel and transferred into a float chamber. The vertical
movement of the float as the water rises in the chamber is transmitted by means of a pulley and pen
arm to a revolving chart.

In the tilting siphon, the float chamber is counterbalanced by a weight so that when 5 mm (or 0.2”)
of rain has been collected, the chamber tilts forward filling the siphon tube to, suddenly, start the
siphon action. Water flows out of the chamber until the level has fallen to that of the exit hole when
siphoning ceases and the lightened float chamber resumes its upright position. Normally, a daily plug
and chart are fitted such that the chart revolves at speed of 0.45 inch per hour. Other float gauges have
been fitted with electrical strip chart mechanism whereby the time scale is magnified.

b) Tipping Bucket Gauge: In this system, rain is transferred from the collecting funnel into one of
the two compartments of the tipping bucket system. When a definite small amount has been collected,
the bucket tips over to allow the falling rain to be collected into the other compartment while at the
same time emptying the earlier filled bucket. Each movement of the bucket is transmitted,
mechanically or electronically, to a moving strip chart to record the rainfall in stages representing the
small amount of rain (e.g., 0.01 mm per stage).

In relation to the tilting siphon, the main disadvantages of the tipping bucket gauge are that:
i. rainfall of less than the capacity of the bucket of the compartments are not recorded, and
ii. if rain ceases before the bucket tips, the surface area from which evaporation may take place is
large.
On the other hand, the tipping bucket is:
i. mechanically much simpler,
ii. able to record electronically at a distance, and
iii. less likely to be damaged by frost than the enclosed chamber of the tilting siphon type.
21
b) Weighing Type Gauge: In this type of rain gauge, when a certain weight of rainfall (or snow) is
collected in a tank, which rests on a spring-lever balance, it triggers a pen to move on chart wrapped
around a clock driven drum to record the weight of the rain. The rotation of the drum sets the time
scale while the vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.

Aside the above gauges, signals from radars and satellite images can also be used to determine the
magnitude, areal distribution and movement of rainfalls or storms. The radar works on the basis of the
reflection of an energy pulse transmitted by the radar, which can be elaborated into maps that give the
location and the height of storms. The data from these methods are, particularly, useful in remote
areas or areas where increased spatial or time resolution is required. However, they are usually used to
supplement data from a network of rain gauges.

3.3 ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL

Rainfall (or, in more general term, precipitation) data obtained from a single gauge station over a long
period of time can be presented in the form of chronological charts or bar graphs e.g., moving average
(or time series) curve, mass curve, hyetograph, etc. Hyetograph is a graph showing the variation of
rainfall intensity (or depth) with time whereas a mass curve is a graph of the cumulative depth of
rainfall against time. In analysing point rainfall data, these types of graphs are often used. If one needs
to determine the trend or pattern in a data more clearly, then the moving averages curve approach of
analysing the data is appropriate since it smoothens out extreme variations in the data.

Generally, the important parameters that define any rainfall are the:
1. Depth of rainfall expressed as the thickness of a water layer on the surface in mm or inches,
2. Intensity or rate of the rainfall (i.e., depth of water per unit of time in mm/s, mm/min, etc.),
3. Duration of the rainfall in seconds, minutes or hours,
4. Areal extent of the rainfall in km2, and
5. Frequency of occurrence, which is usually expressed by the 'return period' (e.g., once in 10 years).

One of the basic requirements in the hydrological study of a catchment area is an accurate evaluation
of the average rainfall over the entire area per year, month, or the duration of an individual storm.
Several methods may be used to determine the areal rainfall of a catchment. However, the basic
standard ones in use are the Arithmetic Mean, Thiessen Polygon, and Isohyetal Map methods.

22
3.3.1 Arithmetic Mean Method
This is the simplest method of estimation and involves the calculation of the arithmetic mean of all the
rain gauge measurements in the area under study. The technique may give adequate results if:
i. there is an even distribution of gauges, as for example in grid system, and
ii. the area has no marked diversity in topography (i.e., the range in altitude is small; thus, the
variation in rainfall amount is minimal).

The mean rainfall under this method is given by:

𝑅
Mean Rainfall, 𝑅 = ∑𝑛
𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑛 (3.1)

where n is the number of rain gauges and Ri is the rainfall of a particular station.

Shaw (1988) indicates that if accurate values of the areal rainfall are first obtained from large number
of gauge stations for a basin, then measurements from a small number of stations may give equal
satisfaction for the same basin. This was demonstrated for the Thames Basin (9981 km2) of England
where it was found that the annual areal rainfall could be determined by taking the arithmetic mean of
24 well-distributed and representative gauges to within +2% of the value determined from a more
elaborate method using 225 stations (IWE, 1937). In many areas, especially in mountainous areas,
where rain gauge sites may be unrepresentative and/or unevenly distributed, the results obtained from
the arithmetic mean method may have substantial errors.

3.3.2 The Thiessen Polygon

The Thiessen method (Thiessen, 1911) is, also, an objective method in which the rainfall amounts at
individual stations are weighted by the fractions of the catchment area represented by the gauges and
then summed. The rain gauge stations are plotted on a map and the catchment area is divided into
polygons by lines that are equidistant between pairs of adjacent gauges. The procedure may be
summarised into the following steps:
i. Connect adjacent stations with straight lines to form triangles with the stations as the apexes.
ii. Draw perpendicular bisectors to all lines in (i).
iii. Use the points of intersection of the bisectors in (ii) to draw polygons, which will have the
stations as their centres on a one-to-one basis.
iv. Determine the area of each polygon or part therefore and associate it with the respective
stations.

23
 v. Sum up the product of the areas (ai) and gauge readings (Ri) to obtain the mean areal rainfall,
which is given by:
𝑅𝑎
Mean Rainfall, 𝑅 = ∑𝑛
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝐴 (3.2)

where A is the total area; ai is the individual polygon area; and the ratio ai/A is dimensionless and is
known as the Thiessen Coefficient.

The use of the Thiessen polygon makes allowance for uneven distribution of gauges in an area and,
also, enables data from adjacent outside stations to be incorporated into the mean. Such stations may
be more influential to segments of the study area than the nearest station inside the study area. The
polygons are usually drawn once and may be used for the analysis of subsequent readings so long as
the stations are unchanged.

3.3.3 Isohyetal Method

Isohyets are contours linking points of equal rainfall. The Isohyetal method is considered one of the
most accurate methods, but it is subjective and dependent on skilled experienced analysts having a
good knowledge of the rainfall characteristics of the region containing the catchment area. This method
also uses values from external stations, where available, in its estimations.

Isohyets are drawn at chosen intervals across the catchment by interpolating between the gauge
measurements. The areas between the isohyets and the watershed are measured (e.g. with a
planimeter). Then the areal rainfall is calculated from the product of the inter-isohyetal areas (ai) and
the corresponding mean rainfall between the isohyets (ri) divided by the total catchment area (A). It is
given by:
𝑎𝑟
Mean Rainfall, 𝑅 = ∑𝑛
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝐴 (3.3)

In drawing the isohyets for monthly or annual rainfall over a catchment, topographical effects on the
rainfall distribution are incorporated. The isohyets are drawn between the gauges over a contour base
map taking into consideration the exposure and orientation of both gauges and the catchment surface.
It is in this subjective drawing of the isohyets that experience and knowledge of the area are essential
for good results. The isohyetal method is, generally, used for analysing storm rainfalls since these are
usually localized over small areas with a range of rainfall amounts recorded over short distances.

24
3.3.4 Missing Data Estimation
Missing data is simply unrecorded data or breaks in data from a particular gauge station in a given
time. The causes of these may be due to instrumental failure, disaster, sickness or death of attendant,
laziness or drunkenness of attendant, industrial action, etc. In analyses of data from such stations, it is
better to estimate the missing records and fill the data gaps rather than doing the analyses with the
gaps. The missing records may be estimated from gauge readings surrounding the gauge of concern as
follows:

1. Interpolation of the missing record from isohyetal maps that cover area of concern.

2. The station average method given by the relation:

𝑃𝑗
𝑃𝑚 = ∑𝑁
𝑗=1 (3.4)
𝑁
where Pm = the missing station value, Pj = rainfall at known stations around the missing gauge, and
N = number of stations of known rainfall; and

3. The normal ratio method given by the relation:

𝑃𝐴(𝑚) 𝑃𝑗
𝑃𝑚 = ∑𝑁
𝑗=1 (3.5)
𝑁 𝑃𝐴(𝑗)

where PA(m) = average rainfall at missing station; PA(j) = average rainfall at the known stations.

25
 4. INFILTRATION

In any part of this world, a portion of the precipitation that falls as rain and/or snow on a pervious land
surface first wets the vegetation or bare soil and then infiltrates into the subsurface formation. Some
of the water that infiltrates will remain in the shallow soil layers as soil water. Other portions of the
infiltrated water, gradually, move vertically and/or horizontally through the soil and may eventually
seep into streams or recharge groundwater aquifers. The water may travel long distances or remain in
groundwater storage for long periods before returning to the surface or seeping into water bodies like
streams, oceans, etc.

How much water infiltrates depend greatly on the ability of the soil to absorb the falling precipitation.
The surface soil pores largely control the rate at which infiltration occurs. The maximum rate at which
a soil in any given condition can absorb water is known as the infiltration capacity. The infiltration
capacity varies from soil to soil. It is also different for the same soil type in dry and moist conditions,
i.e. decreases as the soil becomes saturated. Studies (Horton, 1940; etc.) have shown that for any soil
under constant rainfall, the infiltration rate can be described by the relation:
ft = fc + (fo − fc)e − kt (4.1)
where ft is the infiltration capacity (L/T) at time t,
fc is the constant or equilibrium infiltration capacity (L/T) after the soil has been saturation,
fo is initial infiltration capacity and k is a constant for specific soil and surface texture (T-1).

The value of k is small if vegetation is present on the soil whilst a smoother surface texture like bare
soil will yield large values of k. Also, fc and fo are functions of soil type and cover. For example, bare
sandy or gravelly soils will have high fc and fo values while bare clayey soils have low values; but fc
and fo will increase for both soils if they are turfed. The equation (4.1) applies for the situation of
ponded infiltration, i.e., when there is standing water on the surface, for instance, when using
infiltrometer rings.

4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

The factors that influence infiltration include the following:

(i) Precipitation: The greatest factor controlling infiltration is the amount and characteristics
(intensity, duration, size, etc.) of precipitation that falls as rain or snow. If the arrival of rainfall at
the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, all of the water will infiltrate. However, if rainfall

26
 intensity at the soil surface exceeds the infiltration capacity, some of the water will remain on the
land surface and lead to runoff once depression storage is filled. Large drops of rain may sometimes
render bare soils impermeable, by their compacting action and tendency to wash fine particles into
the voids, and lower infiltration rate.

(ii) Soil type and characteristics: The surface soil pores, mineralogical composition and water content
largely control the infiltration rate. For example, coarse-grained sandy soils have large spaces
between each grain and allow water to infiltrate quickly while clayey soils hinder infiltration (since
the clay minerals absorb water, expand and reduce porosity) leading to more overland flow into
streams. Also, soil already saturated from previous rainfall cannot absorb much more water and,
thus, less rainfall will be infiltrated.

(iii) Vegetation cover: Dense vegetation cover –like forest or grass– tends to make soils more porous
when the root systems, layers of organic debris, burrowing animals and insects open up the soil and
serves as preferential paths for infiltrating water. Also, vegetation cover and top layer of non-
decomposed leaf litter can protect the soil from pounding rainfall and help infiltration process. The
vegetation cover can also slow the movement of runoff, allowing more time for it to seep into the
ground. This is the reason forested areas have the higher infiltration rates than other vegetation types.

(iv) Land use practices like man/animals treading on land surfaces, vehicular movements and
construction of roads, parking lots, buildings, etc., often lead to compaction of land surfaces and can,
severely, reduce infiltration.

(v) Slope of land surface: Water that falls on steeply sloping land areas will run off the surface more
quickly and infiltrate less than water than falls on flat land.

4.2 MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION OF INFILTRATION

Some of the methods for measuring or estimating the rate of infiltration include the following:

(a) Infiltrometer: The infiltrometer can be used to measure the rate at which water infiltrate into soils.
The commonest type of this instrument, known as double ring infiltrometer, consists of inner and outer
tubes (or rings), inserted vertically into the ground and supplied with a constant head of water from
Marriot bottle (or a graduated burette). Water draining from the inner ring is measured by addition of

27
water to maintain the constant head, at regular time intervals, and then used in determining the
infiltration rate. The water that drains from the outer ring contributes to lateral flow and prevent lateral
seepage from the central core. Some of the drawbacks of the double ring infiltrometer are:
i. it is very time consuming, requiring trial and error to get equal water levels in the rings,
ii. the rings are extremely heavy to move and, thus, reduce the practicality of the instrument,
iii. and it also requires a flat undisturbed surface, which is sometimes not available.

(b) Water Budget Method: Infiltration is one of the components of the hydrological cycle, hence the
general mass balance hydrologic equation, described in previous sections, can be used to determine its
rate or volume. Given all the other variables with infiltration (in volume or depth per unit time) as the
only unknown, simple algebra can be used to determine the infiltration as:
IF = BI + P − ET − S − R − IA (4.2)

where BI is the boundary input (i.e., output from adjacent directly connected impervious areas);
P is precipitation; ET is evapotranspiration; R is surface runoff; and S is the storage through
depressions or detention areas.

(c) Sprinkling Tests: This also known as artificial rainfall simulation. Sprinklers are used in simulating
a known intensity of rainfall i, which is greater than the infiltration capacity (i > ft). This is carried
out on a well-defined slightly sloping plot of a few tens of square meters in size and the water that
runs off over the surface (i - fp) is collected in a gutter and continuously measured. After a long time,
the surface runoff becomes approximately constant, indicating that ft is approaching a constant value
fc. The sprinkling is then terminated, and the runoff monitored until it has ceased. The sprinkling
tests infiltration values are, normally, about half those obtained from the flooding-type infiltrometers
because of the dynamic action of falling water drops.

28
 5. EVAPORATION

This is a physical process by which water vapour escapes from a free wet surface like land, roofs, road,
oceans, streams, etc., at a temperature below the boiling point of water. In addition to loss of water by
evaporation from soil, water is also lost by transpiration from vegetation covering the soil or water
surface. The water mainly passes through the roots to the stem or trunk and is lost to the atmosphere
through the pores (i.e., stomata) in the leafy parts of the plants. The combined water loss by evaporation
and transpiration is known as evapotranspiration. Water vapour is the principal participant in the way
energy changes in the atmosphere and the energy changes are responsible for the weather phenomenon,
which serves as an important link between the various phases of the hydrological cycle.

5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

The physical processes that aid in the change of state from liquid to vapour operate in both evaporation
and transpiration. Thus, the general physical factors that influence evaporation rates are common to
transpiration as well. These factors include:

(i) Latent heat: This is the energy required to break the bonds that hold water molecules together and
bring them to vapour state without temperature change. The energy is provided by the sun (i.e., solar
radiation) and it affects evaporation amounts over the surface of the earth according to latitude and
season of year.

(ii) Temperature: Water molecules in a system are always in motion. When the temperature is
increased, the water molecules gain more energy, move faster and break away from the surface into
the atmosphere as water vapour, which increases the rate of evaporation. Also, the higher the air
temperature, the more water vapour it can hold; thus, the faster the evaporation rate.

(iii) Humidity: When humidity is high, the ability of air to absorb more water vapour decreases and
the rate of evaporation decreases. Likewise, when humidity is low, more water vapour can be absorbed
into the atmosphere and, thus, increase evaporation rate.

(iv) Wind Speed: When water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the boundary layer between the
evaporating surface and air becomes saturated. This layer must be removed and continually replaced
by drier air if evaporation is to proceed. The vapour removal process depends on wind and air

29
turbulence, hence making wind speed very important. Higher wind speed increases evaporation rate
and vice versa. However, if the wind speed is great enough to remove all the vapour as it is formed,
then any further increase in wind speed would not increase evaporation appreciably.

(v) Weather Pattern: Damp unsettled weather –mainly along coastal regions– usually has its air content
saturated with water vapour and is not conducive to aid in evaporation. However, more evaporation
occurs when the air in the atmosphere is dry and warm (e.g., in inland areas).

(vi) Nature of Evaporating Surface: Increase in size of an area increases the exposure of the area to
solar radiation and, therefore, increase evaporation amounts, but the depth of evaporation decreases.
Evaporation rate also varies with the colour and reflective properties of the surface (i.e., albedo).
Irregular surfaces have the tendency to cause wind turbulence and enhance evaporation. However,
wind passing over smooth even surfaces yield little turbulence and does not influence evaporation.

(vii) Quality of Water: The presence of solute (or any impurity) in water reduces evaporation since
more energy would then be needed to cause evaporation than water in its pure form e.g., evaporation
from sea water is less than that of pure water.

5.2 DEFINITION OF COMMON TERMS

a) Transpiration is the loss of water to the atmosphere in the form of water vapour through the
stomatal pores of plants. The factors influencing this process may be grouped into three, namely:
i. Plant type – i.e., extent and efficiency of the roots in absorption of moisture, stage of growth,
leaf area, and stomata openings.
ii. Properties of the soil – i.e., water holding capacity, available water, and depth of soil.
iii. Meteorological factors – includes solar radiation, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.

b) Potential Evaporation is the quantity of water vapour that can be lost by a surface of pure water
per unit area per unit time under the existing atmospheric conditions such as wind, pressure,
temperature and humidity.

c) Potential Evapotranspiration is the maximum amount of water capable of being lost as water
vapour in a given climate by a continuous stretch of vegetation covering the whole area/ground when

30
 the soil is kept saturated. Simply, it is a measure of the ability of atmosphere to remove water from
a surface assuming there is no limitation on water supply. This includes evaporation from soil and
transpiration from vegetation in a specified region for a given time interval.

d) Actual Evapotranspiration is the amount of water vapour evaporated by the soil and transported
by plants under existing conditions.

e) Bowen’s Ratio is the ratio of the loss of upward energy flux as sensitive heat to the energy used in
the evaporation at an evaporation surface.

f) Albedo is the amount of incident light reflected from a surface or an indication of a body’s diffuse
reflectivity. It is a dimensionless constant and defined as the ratio of reflected to incident solar
radiation.

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

Measurements of evaporation (and transpiration) are important to many scientific fields, although they
are among the most difficult parameters in the hydrological cycle to quantify. Evaporation data is
indispensable in the solution of many water management problems. For example, reliable evaporation
data is required for planning, designing and operating reservoirs, ponds, shipping canal, irrigation and
drainage systems. Estimating evaporation is, especially, very important in arid zones where water must
be used in the most efficient way. Also, knowledge of the water requirements of crops depends partly
on accurate determination of the loss of water by evaporation.

Direct measurement of evaporation can be made with an evaporation pan whenever possible. The
pans are of standard dimension (e.g., B.S. 183 mm square and 610 mm deep), filled with water to a
depth of 550 mm and set in the ground so that the rim of the pan is 76 mm from the surrounding
ground. Observations of the water level are made at regular time intervals to determine the evaporation.

Pan evaporation measurements are usually too high, due to the relatively small capacities and shallow
depths of the pans, in comparison to evaporation from lakes and other evaporative surfaces. Hence, a
pan coefficient (depending on the dimensions and siting of the pan) must be applied to the measured
values to reduce the disparities [i.e., Eactual = Epan × K; where K is pan coefficient].

31
Another device used in measuring direct evaporation is known as the Atmometer. This device is made
up of a water supply system connected to a porous surface and the amount of evaporation for a given
time is given by change in the water storage. The device is simple, inexpensive and easy to operate.
However, care must be taken to ensure that the porous surface for evaporation is kept clean. Two types
of this device available are the Piche atmometer and Bellani atmometer.

Evapotranspiration, on the other hand, can be measured using a lysimeter. It consists of a circular tank
of about 60 to 90 cm in diameter and 180 cm deep, filled with soil and natural vegetation of the area
where evapotranspiration is required, and then buried to ground level. The set up in the tank is designed
to accurately reproduce the soil type and profile, moisture content, and type and size of vegetation of
the surrounding area. Measurements of precipitation into the tank, drainage out of the tank and weight
of moisture retained in the soil are used in determining the evapotranspiration by simple water budget
approach. This method is time consuming and very expensive.

Another indirect way of measuring evapotranspiration from large areas is through remote sensing using
satellites or airplanes. The images obtained from this method give information on the type of crop and surface
temperatures of the crop, which are used in combination with a soil moisture simulation model (e.g.,
Nieuwenhuis et al., 1985) to determine evapotranspiration.

5.4 ESTIMATION OF EVAPORATION

Some of the methods used in the estimation of evaporation, Eo, from open waters include:
i. Mass transfer (Aerodynamic method),
ii. Water Budget Method,
iii. Energy Budget Method,
iv. Energy Flux Method, and
v. Penman’s Formula (a combination of mass transfer and energy balance methods)

5.4.1 Mass Transfer (aerodynamic method)

The most straight forward method used to estimate evaporation from open water surface, Eo, is the
bulk aerodynamics equation originating with Dalton, which is given as:
Eo = f(u).(es – ed) (5.1)
where f(u) is a function of wind speed, and (es – ed) is the saturation deficit.

32
f(u) takes two forms: f(u) = a(b + u) and f(u) = Nu, where a, b, and N are empirical mass transfer
coefficients. Thus, evaporation is related to wind speed and is proportional to the vapour pressure
deficit. Detailed studies by Penman (1948) using the first form resulted in the commonly used, Eo,
expression given as:
Eo = a(b + u).(es – ed)
Eo = 0.35 (0.5 + u/100).(es – ed) (5.2)

The Eqn. (4.2) is for air measurements made at 2 m above the surface with vapour pressure in mm of
Hg, wind speed in miles/day and Eo in mm/day. The other form of the equation is given as:
Eo = Nu. (es – ed) (5.3)

The value of the mass transfer coefficient, N, is dependent on the height and units of air measurements
of the evaporating surface. From a study of numerous sizes of reservoirs, Harbeck (1962) incorporated
a further factor of the surface area into Eqn. (5.3) to determine evaporation loss from a reservoir as:
Eo = 0.291 A-0.05 u (es – ed) mm/day, (5.4)
where A is in m2, u is in m/s at height 2 m, and es and ed are in mb.

5.4.2 Water Budget Method

This method involves accounting for all the water entering and leaving a particular catchment or
drainage basin. Regular and systematic measurements of rainfall over the whole area would lead to a
close approximation of the amount of water arriving from the atmosphere. Again, stream gauging of
the channels draining the area and, accurately, prepared flow rating curves would indicate the water
leaving the area by surface routes. The difference between the two (i.e., water entering and leaving the
catchment area) can be accounted for in only three ways by:
i. the change in the storage within the catchment either in surface lakes and depressions or in
underground aquifers,
ii. the difference in underground flow into and out of the catchment, and
iii. evaporation and transpiration losses.

The first and second can “easily” be evaluated and the difference accounts for the third. The general
water balance equation for such a situation is, therefore, given as:
E=P+I±U–O±S (5.5)

33
where E is evapotranspiration, P is total precipitation, I is surface inflow, U is underground flow, O is
surface outflow, and S is change in both surface and subsurface storage.

If observations are made over a sufficiently long time, the significance of S, which is not cumulative,
will decrease and can be ignored if the starting and finishing points are chosen to coincide as nearly as
possible with the same seasonal conditions. The significance of U cannot be generalized but can, in
many cases, be assigned a second order of importance for known geological conditions that predict
large underground flows. In such cases, a good estimation of evaporation becomes possible, and the
method becomes the means of arriving at a first approximation.

5.4.3 Energy Budget Method

Like the water budget approach, this method involves accounting for all thermal energy involved in
effecting evaporation from a surface. Evaporation from a lake or reservoir may be calculated on a
weekly or monthly basis by taking into consideration the energy required to effect the evaporation. A
heat balance following the principle of the conservation of energy is evaluated from incoming,
outgoing, and stored energy. The elements of the heat energy are shown in Fig. 5.1. In the Fig. 5.1, Qs
is the short-wave solar radiation, Qrs is the reflected short-wave radiation, Q1 is the long wave radiation
from the water body, Qc is sensible heat transfer to the air, Qg is the change in stored energy, and Qv
is the energy transfer between water and bed. The energy, QEo, required for evaporation, can be
calculated as follows:
QEo = Qs – Qrs – Ql – Qc ± Qg ± Qv (5.6)

Care must be taken to ensure that all the terms have the same energy units, W/m 2. The evaporation
from open water, Eo, is given by:
Eo = QEo/λ mms-1 (5.7)
where λ is the latent heat of vaporisation of water (J/kg).

This approach involves a great deal of instrumentation and the data processing involved is very
extensive and time consuming. However, the method is reliable and can be used over a suitable period
for a specific reservoir until satisfactory mass transfer coefficient have been determined (Shaw, 1988).

34
Figure 5.1: Energy budget measurements

5.4.4 Vapour Flux Method

The vapour flux method uses air measurements at close levels above the water surface and considers
the turbulent transfer of water vapour through the small height difference. The equation due to
Thornthwaite and Holzmann (1939) takes the form:

cm/s (5.8)

where the wind speeds are in cm/s at heights z1 and z2 (cm), vapour pressure in mb, p is atmospheric
pressure in mb,  is air density (g/cm3) and k is Von Korman’s constant (= 0.41).

The above equation is valid for normal conditions when the vapour transfer is by frictional turbulence.
With greater heating of the ground and increased lapse rate, the vapour flow is affected by the wind
speed and the relationship with the height used in Eqn. (5.8) does not hold.

5.4.5 Penman’s Theory

Penman (1948) presented a theory and a formula for the estimation of evaporation from weather data;
viz. mean air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity at a standard height, and hours of sunshine.
The theory is based on two conditions, which must be met, if continuous evaporation is to occur, and
these are that there must be:
i. a supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporisation; and
ii. a mechanism for removing the vapour once produced.

35
The Penman’s formula for open water evaporation is given by:

, (5.9)

where Ea = 0.35 (0.5 + u/100).(ea – ed) and H = RI(1 – r) – RO

H is the availability heat;  is the hygrometric constant (= 0.27 mm of Hg/oF); ∆ is the slope of saturated
vapour pressure curve; RI and RO are incoming and outgoing solar radiation, respectively, dependent
on sunshine hours, temperature and humidity; r is the albedo; Ea is evaporation for a hypothetical case
of equal temperatures of air and water.

5.5 ESTIMATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Empirical methods are often used to estimate potential evapotranspiration (ETo) for most hydrological
modelling and irrigation planning studies. Over the past decades, many empirical methods have been
developed for the calculation of ETo from climate data. These methods vary from simple relationships
(e.g., Blaney and Criddle (1962), USDA SCS (1970), Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977), Hargreaves and
Samani (1985), etc.) to complex methods based on physical processes (e.g., Allen et al. (1998), Walter
et al. (2000), etc.). The choice of any of the methods for use depends on the location, climate of the
location, and availability of input data.

Commonly, the FAO56 Penman-Monteith (i.e., Allen et al., 1998) and, sometimes, the standardized
ASCE Penman-Monteith (i.e., Walter et al., 2000) equations are accepted and used as standards for
estimating potential evapotranspiration (Itenfisu et al., 2003). These methods, however, require
extensive meteorological data, which is not always available in most locations especially in the
developing world. Therefore, the simple and accurate methods are relied upon under such
circumstances. One of such simple methods is the Hargreaves method (Hargreaves and Samani, 19825;
19856), which is amongst the most accurate of the simple methods, requires very minimum data and
does not dependent on any local calibration. The method estimates ETo based on mean temperature,

5
G. Hargreaves and Z. Samani (1982). Estimating potential evapotranspiration. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering-ASCE, 108(3): 224–230.
6
G. Hargreaves and Z. Samani (1985). Reference crop evapotranspiration from temperature. Applied Engineering in
Agriculture, 1(2): 96–99.

36
temperature difference and regression of global radiation (Rs measured at the Earth’s surface) that
takes account of regression of extra-terrestrial irradiance (Ra) and is given by:

ETo = 0.0023Ra (T + 17.8)TD0.05 (5.10)

Where ETo = potential evapotranspiration in mm/day,

Ra = extra-terrestrial radiation in mm/day,
T = mean daily temperature in oC, and
TD = difference between maximum and minimum daily temperatures in oC.

37
 6. RUNOFF

Runoff is a term used to describe the total flow from a basin collected at its outlet to a stream, river or
reservoir. It, generally, comprises direct runoff and baseflow. The direct runoff is the sum of surface
runoff and interflow. The term surface runoff (or overland flow) is used to describe water that flows
on the land surface after precipitation either before it enters a watercourse or after it leaves a
watercourse as flood water. It is a major component of the hydrological cycle and is easily observed if
the flow is down a driveway to a curb and into culverts. However, it is harder to notice if flowing
overland in a natural setting.

During heavy rains, surface runoff may be noticed as small rivulets of water flowing downhill along
channels into creeks, streams, and rivers. These surface water bodies serve as tributaries to a large river
somewhere downstream and will, eventually, flow into a lake and then an ocean. Thus, the runoff,
generally, serves as the source of replenishment for most streams, rivers, lakes, oceans and other water
bodies. On the other hand, runoff may be diverted by humans for their own usage.

Generally, surface runoff may be generated from precipitation in three main ways, namely:

i. Infiltration excess overland flow: This occurs when the rate of precipitation on a land surface
exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression storage on the surface
is already filled. Thus, the excess rate of precipitation would end up as runoff. This is also known
as Hortonian overland flow (after Robert E. Horton) or unsaturated overland flow. It, commonly,
occurs in arid and semi-arid regions where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration
capacity is reduced because of surface sealing or paving of areas.

ii. Saturation excess overland flow: This takes place when the surface soil is saturated, all
depression storages are filled, and rain continues to fall to immediately produce surface runoff.
This runoff is also referred to as saturated overland flow.

iii. Subsurface return flow: After precipitation has infiltrated through the soil, especially on an up-
slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil and out of the soil (i.e.,
interflow) along the sloping sides of the hill to contribute to the runoff. On other occasions,
groundwater may seep out at locations where the topography intercepts the water table at the
sloping sides of land areas to contribute to runoff. These sources of runoff are known as subsurface
return flow.

38
6.1 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS

A land area whose runoff drains toward a common point or through a single stream is called drainage
basin (watershed or catchment area). The boundary line, along a topographic ridge, separating two
adjacent drainage basins is called drainage divide. A point or location at which all surface runoff from
a basin comes together or concentrates as outflow from the basin is called concentration point or
measuring point (i.e., since the stream outflow is usually measured at this point). The time required
for rain falling at the most distant point in a drainage area (i.e., on the boundary of a basin) to reach
the concentration point is called the concentration time. This is a very important variable because
only rainfalls of duration greater than the time of concentration are able to produce runoff from the
entire catchment area and cause high intensity floods.

The characteristics of a drainage basin may be, physically, described by: (i) the number of streams, (ii)
the length of streams, (iii) stream density expressed as the number of streams per the area of the basin,
and (iv) drainage density expressed as the total length of all stream channels (perennial and
intermittent) per unit area of the basin. The drainage density varies inversely as the length of overland
flow and indicates the drainage efficiency of the basin. A high value indicates a well-developed
network with great potential for causing intense floods while a low value indicates moderate runoff
with high terrain permeability.

A stream within a catchment may be classified as: (i) Influent Stream when its bed is above the
groundwater table and seepage from the stream feeds the groundwater resulting in a buildup of water
mound; (ii) Effluent Stream when its surface water elevation is below the groundwater table and,
thus, the groundwater feeds the stream; (iii) Ephemeral Stream if the stream will, usually, dry up
completely in rainless periods; and (iv) Perennial Stream if the stream flows throughout the year,
even in the most severe drought situations. Perennial streams are, mostly, associated with effluent
streams while ephemeral conditions are, usually, with influent streams. There is also a situation where
the groundwater table will be above the bed of the stream during the wet season but drop below the
bed during the dry season. Hence, the stream flows during wet season (due to surface runoff and
groundwater contribution) but becomes dry during dry seasons. Such a stream is called an intermittent
stream.

39
6.1.1 Drainage Pattern
The arrangement and disposition of streams, which a drainage system etches into the land surface, and
which may reflect the total of the factors influencing the number, size, and frequency of streams in a
particular area is called a drainage pattern. These patterns develop when surface runoff is enhanced,
and earth materials provide the least resistance to erosion. Their shapes or patterns are, generally,
influenced by:

i. Initial slope,
ii. Lithology and lithological variations,
iii. Structure (in its broadest sense),
iv. Geological and geomorphological history of the area, and
v. Climate and rainfall regime of the area.

The three main available drainage patterns are:

i. Dendritic drainage pattern, which is the most common form and looks like the branching pattern
of tree roots. This is developed in regions underlain by homogeneous material, i.e., where the
subsurface geology has a similar resistance to weathering; hence there is no apparent control over
the direction of the tributaries. It is characterized by tributaries joining larger streams at acute
angle.

ii. Trellis drainage pattern is similar to common garden trellis, but this develops in structurally
controlled topographic environment. It is characterized by short tributary streams that join a main
stream at nearly right angles.

iii. Radial drainage pattern develops around a central elevated point like round uplifted land areas. It
is characterized by tributary streams extending outward to a well-defined point.

6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

As with all aspects of the hydrological cycle, the interaction between precipitation and surface runoff
varies according to time and geography. Thus, similar storms occurring at locations with different
geological and topographic features will produce different surface runoff effects or amounts. The
surface runoff for any given watershed or catchment is affected by meteorological factors, physical
characteristics of the land surface and land use practices.

40
The meteorological factors include the type of precipitation (i.e., rain, snow, sleet, etc.), rainfall
characteristics (i.e., intensity, size of rain drops, duration, etc.), and evapotranspiration factors like
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, etc. as discussed in previous sections. It should be noted
that runoff will, generally, decrease as infiltration and evapotranspiration increases, and vice versa.
Hence the various factors (discussed in previous sections) that influence evapotranspiration and
infiltration also influence runoff rate and volume.

The physical characteristics of a land surface are, mainly, defined by its geology, topography, and
vegetation. The soil characteristics, slope, and type of vegetation cover, as well as the presence of
ponds and other surface water reservoirs in a drainage basin will either ease or hinder runoff rates and
volume. For example, the presence of many surface water reservoirs (e.g., ponds, puddles, etc.) would
prevent or delay runoff from continuing downstream until their storage is full.

As more people inhabit an area, more development and urbanization occur leading to more of the
natural landscape being replaced by impervious surfaces (like roads, houses, parking lots, markets,
etc.) that reduce infiltration of water into the ground and accelerate runoff to ditches, culverts and
streams. In addition to increasing imperviousness, removal of vegetation and soil, grazing the land
surface, constructing drainage networks, and certain agricultural practices (e.g., tilling and leaving
farmlands bare) increase runoff volumes and shorten runoff time into streams from rainfall (and
snowmelt, in places with snow falls). As a result, the peak discharge, volume, and frequency of floods
may increase in nearby streams.

6.3 MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF

Several approaches can be used to estimate runoff volume or rate. Some of these approaches are:

1. Water Budget Method: Similar to the approaches discussed in previous sections, it involves
accounting for all the water entering and leaving a catchment area with runoff as the unknown. This
unknown term can, subsequently, be estimated using a water balance equation of the area. To
effectively apply this method, the catchment under consideration needs to be appropriately defined.
This can be done by catchment delineation, mostly, from a topographic map. The delineation of a
catchment involves the following steps:
i. Locate the river, lake, stream, wetland, or water bodies of interest on a topographic map(s).

41
 ii. Trace the watercourse from its source to its mouth, including the tributaries, to help determine the
general beginning and ending boundaries.
iii. Examine the contour lines on the topographic map that are near the watercourse and use their
intervals to determine the final elevation of your location. Normally, contour lines spaced far
apart indicate a landscape that is more level and gently sloping (i.e., flat areas) while contour
lines with much closed spacing indicate dramatic rise or fall in elevation over a short distance
(i.e., steep areas).
iv. Check the slope of the landscape by locating two adjacent contour lines and determining their
respective elevations. The slope is calculated as the change in elevation, along a straight line,
divided by the distance between the endpoints of that line. Usually, a depressed area (e.g. valley)
on the map is represented by a series of contour lines “pointing” towards the highest elevation
while a higher area (e.g. ridge, hill, etc.) is represented by a series of contour lines “pointing”
towards the lowest elevation.
v. Determine the direction of drainage in the area of the water body by drawing arrows perpendicular
to a series of contour lines that decrease in elevation. Runoff seeks the path of least resistance as
it travels downslope; this path is the shortest distance between contours, hence a perpendicular
route.
vi. Mark the break points surrounding the water body. The “break points” are the highest elevations
where half of the runoff would drain towards one body of water, and the other half would drain
towards another body of water.
vii. Identify the break points and connect the break points with a line following the highest elevations
in the area; this completed line represents the boundary of the watershed.
viii. Once the watershed boundary on the map has been outlined, imagine a drop of rain flowing down
the slopes at different points on the watershed boundaries to the nearest stream that flows to the
water body of interest to verify that the boundaries are correct.

2. Discharge Formulae: Runoff from a catchment into streams or open channels can be calculated
using the empirical open channel flow equations (6.1) and (6.2) derived by Chezy and Manning
respectively. The equations apply to steady uniform flow condition. This condition means that within
the reach of the channel under consideration, the velocity (v), the cross-sectional area (A) and bed
slope (S) are constant and do not change with time.
Chezy formula: v = C√𝑅𝑆 (6.1)
1
Manning equation: v = 𝑛 R2/3 S1/2 (6.2)

42
Where v is average flow velocity, C is Chezy coefficient, R is hydraulic radius (=A/P), A is cross-
sectional area of channel, P is wetted perimeter, S is channel bed slope, and n is Manning coefficient.
The velocities obtained from equations (6.1) and (6.2) are multiplied by the channel cross-sectional
areas to obtain the runoff (or discharge).

3. Rational Method: The rational approach uses equation (6.3) to obtain the yield (or runoff) of a
catchment by assuming a suitable runoff coefficient. This yield of the catchment is the net quantity of
water available for storage, after all losses, for the purposes of water resources utilisation and planning,
like irrigation, water supply, etc.
Runoff = C x A x R (6.3)

Where A is the catchment area, P is the precipitation and C is the runoff coefficient. The value of C
varies depending on the soil type, vegetation, geology, etc. and is available in literature.

4. Velocity-Area Method: is a direct method of obtaining a discharge value to correspond with a stage
measurement in which the flow velocities are measured at selected verticals of known depth across a
measured river section. This section of a river is referred to as a river gauging station. At the river
cross-section, mean velocities (𝑣̅𝑖 ) for small sub-areas of the cross-section obtained from point velocity
measurements at selected verticals across the river are multiplied by the corresponding sub-areas ( )

and their products summed to give total discharge, Q, given by:

𝑄 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣̅𝑖 𝑎𝑖 (6.4)
where n = the number of sub-areas.

The river flow velocities at the selected sampling verticals across the river cross-section are measured
with a current meter. The average velocity of flow across the vertical (strip) is determined in two
ways: (i) velocity at 0.6 depth, and (ii) mean of velocity measurements at 0.2 and 0.8 depths below the
water surface.

Using the velocity and depth measurements across the river cross-section (or gauge station), discharge
may be estimated in two ways (Fig. 6.1), namely:

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(i) Mean Section Method – In this method, the averages of the mean velocities in the verticals and
the depths at the boundaries of a section sub-division are taken and multiplied by the width of the sub-
division or segment:

(6.5)

where bi is the distance of the measuring point (i) from the bank datum and n is number of sub-areas.

(ii) Mid-Section Method – Under this method, the mean velocity and depth measured at a subdivision
point are multiplied by the segment width measured between the mid-points of the neighbouring
segments with n being the number of measured verticals and sub-areas. In calculating flow under this
method, the first and last verticals should be sited as near as possible to the banks to make flows at the
edges very negligible since they are not considered in the estimation. The total flow is given by:

(6.6)

Figure 6.1: Using mean section and mid-section methods to calculate discharge from velocity and
depth measurements for a cross-section.

5. Dilution Gauging: The method involves adding a chemical solution or tracer of known
concentration into a stream and measuring the dilution of the tracer downstream after it has completely
mixed with the stream water. The method is very suitable in measuring discharge in small turbulent

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flowing streams with steep gradients where current metering is not practicable, and the use of flow-
structures would be unnecessary expensive. The tracer (of concentration Ct and flow rate qt) can be
added either by constant-rate injection until the sampling downstream reveals a constant
concentration level or administered in a single dose as quickly as possible, known as gulp injection.
The discharge, Q, of stream flow with background concentration (Co) in each case can be obtained
from sampling point concentration (Cs) and flow rate (qt) by:

(i) Constant-Rate Injection: (6.7)

(ii) Gulp Injection: (6.8)

The tracer or chemical that can be used in this method must meet the following requirements:
i. At the point of measurement or sampling, the chemical tracer should be completely mixed with
the stream (i.e., the flow before dropping the tracer should be turbulent).
ii. The chemical should have high solubility and be stable (not reactive) in water.
iii. The chemical should be non-toxic to fish and other aquatic life.
iv. The background concentration of chemical should be low in the flowing water.
v. The chemical should be capable of accurate quantitative analysis in very dilute solutions.
vi. The chemical should be cheap and readily available.

6. Flow Rating Curve: A rating curve is a graph that shows the connection between the water level
elevation, or stage of a river channel at certain cross-section, and the corresponding discharge at that
section (e.g., Fig. 6.2). The curve is obtained from measurement of discharge and stage readings at the
river section over a long period of time to establish their relationship at the section. This enable future
discharges (runoff) to be estimated from the stage readings alone. Aside the rating curve, a rating
equation and rating table of a river cross-section can also be used to establish a stage-discharge
relationship. The stage readings are, usually, measured with a staff. River discharge measurements at
the cross-section can be made using velocity-area methods, flow-measuring structures (e.g., weirs,
flumes, etc.), dilution gauging, etc.

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 Figure 6.2: Flow rating curve for a stream section

7. Hydrograph Analysis: A hydrograph is a plot of the discharge (or stage) against time at a location
along the river. It includes the integrated contributions from surface runoff, groundwater seepage,
drainage, and direct precipitation. The shape of a hydrograph of a single storm occurring over a
catchment area follows the general pattern shown in Fig. 6.3. This pattern shows a period of rise that
culminates in a peak followed by a period of decreasing discharge (called recession), which may, or
may not, decrease to zero discharge depending on the amount of groundwater seepage.

Figure 6.3a: Components of a hydrograph Figure 6.3b: Hydrograph with bank storage

The hydrograph has two main components; namely, a broad band near the time axis representing
baseflow contribution from groundwater, and the remaining area above the baseflow representing the

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surface runoff (or direct runoff) produced by a storm. At the beginning of rainfall, river discharge is
low and a period elapses before the river begins to rise. During this period the rainfall is intercepted
by vegetation or soaks into the ground to make up the soil moisture deficit. The length of the delay
before the river rises depends on the wetness of the catchment before the storm and on the intensity of
the rainfall.

When the rainfall has made up the catchment deficits and when surfaces and soils are saturated, the
rain begins to contribute to the stream flow. The proportion of rainfall that finds its way to the river is
known as effective rainfall; the rest is “lost” in evaporation, detention on the surface or detention in
the soil. As the storm proceeds, the proportion of effective rainfall increases and that of lost rainfall
decreases resulting in a strongly rising limb. The peak of the hydrograph, usually, occurs after the
effective rainfall has reached its maximum. The time from the beginning of the rainfall to the peak of
the hydrograph is, generally, called ‘time to peak’. The time between the centre of gravity of the
effective precipitation and the centre of gravity of the direct runoff is called lag or lag time.

Time is required for the surface runoff to reach the station where the hydrograph is observed. First, the
area closest to the station contributes to the surface runoff and is followed by the other areas further
upstream. This means that in a small catchment, for a given uniformly distributed rainfall, the time to
peak, and also the lag time, will be shorter than in a large catchment. In fact, the shape of the
hydrograph is influenced by climate, topography, and geology of the catchment. The climate and
topography influence the rising limb whilst geology influences the recession (de Laat and Svanije,
2006)

The boundary between surface runoff and baseflow is usually difficult to define. However, if this
boundary is ably defined, for a hydrograph, makes it possible to determine the runoff from a catchment
arising from a rainfall event. Two approaches used in defining the boundary are by:

i. the empirical relationship N = 0.827A0.2; where N is time in days from peak to end and A is
the catchment in km2, and
ii. determining a master depletion curve for a particular gauge station and applying it to a given
storm to determine the baseflow.

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