Chapter 13

Light
z z
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
z
Core Supplement​​
•Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror, and Describe the formation of an optical image by
give its characteristics a plane mirror, and give its characteristics
• Recall and use the law angle of incidence = angle of reflection​​ • Recall and use the law angle of incidence
Describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light = angle of reflection​​
• Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of Recall and use the definition of refractive index n
refraction r and describe the passage of light through parallel-sided in terms of speed​​
transparent material • Recall and use the equation sin I / sin r=n​​
• Give the meaning of critical angle • Recall and use n = n = 1 / sin c​​
• Describe internal and total internal reflection​​ • Describe and explain the action of
Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light optical fibres particularly in
• Use the terms principal focus and focal length medicine and communications technology​​
• Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single
lens
• Describe the nature of an image using
the terms enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/inverted​​

Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a

virtual image by a single lens • Use and describe
the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass •
Show understanding of the terms real image
and virtual image​​
 z
13.1 Reflection of
light
▪ Objects that emit light are
luminous
▪ Non-luminous objects reflect
light

▪ Black absorbs most light

▪ White reflects most light

z

Light reflection
Features of light
z
▪ Light
▪ A form of radiation
▪ Light spreads out in rays

▪ Travels in straight lines

▪ Observe a laser beam

▪ Transfers energy
▪ Materials gain energy when they absorb light (solar cells)

▪ Travels as waves
▪ Can travel through empty space
▪ Travels through vacuum

▪ Fastest thing there is

▪ Speed of light is 300 000km per second
Wavelength and colour
z
Reflection in plane mirrors (1)
z
▪ The Laws of reflection
z
Reflection in a Plane Mirror

Plane mirror
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Plane mirror
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Incident ray

Plane mirror
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

Plane mirror
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

Plane mirror
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

Plane mirror

Laws of reflection: REMINDER: always use a

ruler to draw light rays
(light travels in straight
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. lines) and don’t forget to
include arrows showing
direction of light.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in
the same plane (i.e. the two rays and the normal can all be
drawn on a single sheet of flat paper).
Reflection in a Plane Mirror
Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

Plane mirror

Laws of reflection:

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in
the same plane (i.e. the two rays and the normal can all be
drawn on a single sheet of flat paper).
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

The image in the mirror

looks the same as the
object, but it is laterally
inverted (back to front).
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

The image in the mirror

looks the same as the
object, but it is laterally The image formed is
inverted (back to front). upright, but it is a
virtual image
(doesn’t really exist).
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

Dotted lines show the

construction of the
virtual image)
The image in the mirror
looks the same as the
object, but it is laterally The image formed is
inverted (back to front). upright, but it is a
virtual image
(doesn’t really exist).
DRAW
 Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

Finding this image by experiment.

Test the position

by putting a
second pin exactly
where the image
Put a mirror Line up one was marked. The
upright on a piece Take away the
edge of the second pin should
of paper. Put a Repeat with the ruler and mirror –
ruler with the stay in line with
pin in front of the ruler in a where the two
image of the the mirror image
mirror – mark the different lines meet is the
pin. Draw a line where-ever you
position of the pin position. position of the
to mark the view it from = no
and mirror. image.
position. parallax.
 Rules for mirror
images:
1. Image is the
same size as
the object.
2. Image is as far
behind the
mirror as the
object is in
front.
7.03 Reflection in plane mirrors (2)
z
z
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

Normal view from the

front.
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

Normal view from the Same view as seen in the

front. rear view mirror of a car.
Where is the image in a Plane Mirror?

Normal view from the Same view as seen in the

front. rear view mirror of a car.

The word AMBULANCE is laterally inverted so that

it reads correctly when seen in a driving mirror.
PG 234
 Recap

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Refraction of light
z The ripples seen on the bottom of
the pool are caused by water
bending the light
 Refraction
• Refraction is the
bending of light
when it travels from
one medium to
another.
 Refraction
• Refraction is the
bending of light
when it travels from
one medium to
another.

• A ‘medium’ is glass,
or air, or water
 Refraction

Air

Glass
block
 Refraction
Light passing through a
glass block at right angles
to the surface will not be
refracted. The rays will
pass straight through. Air

Glass
block
 Refraction

Air

Glass
block

Normal
line
 Refraction
Angle of
incidence Incident
Air light ray

Glass
block

Normal
line
 Refraction
Angle of
incidence Incident
Air light ray

Glass
block

Refracted
light ray Angle of
refraction
Normal
line
 Refraction
Angle of
incidence Incident
Air light ray

Glass
block

Refracted
light ray Angle of
refraction
Normal
line
 Refraction
Angle of
incidence Incident
Air light ray

Glass
block

Refracted
light ray Angle of
refraction
The ray emerges from
the block parallel to Normal
its original direction. line
 Refraction
So why is
light
refracted?
Air

Glass
block

Normal
line
 Refraction
So why is
light
refracted?
Air

Glass Light is
made up of
block many tiny
waves

Normal
line
 Refraction
So why is
light
refracted?
Air

Glass Light is
made up of
block many tiny
When light beams pass
waves
from air into glass one
side is slowed before the
other. This causes the
light beam to ‘bend’
Bending patterns
z z
Refraction of light
z
Real and Apparent Depth
Real & Apparent depth
z
 What is the
‘refractive index’?
 What is the
‘refractive index’?

The refractive index

of a medium (glass,
water) is defined as
the speed of light in
a vacuum divided by
the speed of light in
the medium.
 What is the
‘refractive index’?

Refractive
Medium
index
The refractive index
Vacuum 1.0000
of a medium (glass,
water) is defined as Air 1.0003

the speed of light in Water 1.3333

a vacuum divided by Glass 1.5200
the speed of light in Diamond 2.4170
the medium. Perspex 1.4900

Refractive index = Speed of light in a vacuum

Speed of light in medium
Refractive index
z
 What is the
‘refractive index’?
 What is the
‘refractive index’?

The refractive index

of a medium (glass,
water) is defined as
the speed of light in
a vacuum divided by
the speed of light in
the medium.
 What is the
‘refractive index’?

Refractive
Medium
index
The refractive index
Vacuum 1.0000
of a medium (glass,
water) is defined as Air 1.0003

the speed of light in Water 1.3333

a vacuum divided by Glass 1.5200
the speed of light in Diamond 2.4170
the medium. Perspex 1.4900

Refractive index = Speed of light in a vacuum

Speed of light in medium
Refraction of light by a
prism.

White light
Refraction of light by a
prism.

Refraction
 Refraction of light by a
prism.

Monochromatic light - 1 frequency / 1 wavelength

Refraction of light by a
prism.

This effect is called dispersion

Refraction of light by a
prism.

This effect is called dispersion

Refraction of light by a
prism.

This effect is called dispersion

It happens because white is a mixture

of all the colours in the rainbow
Refraction by a prism
z
7.05
Total internal
reflection
z
 LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Core Supplement
• Describe the formation of an optical image by Describe the formation of an optical image by a
a plane mirror, and give its characteristics plane mirror, and give its characteristics
• Recall and use the law angle of incidence = • Recall and use the law angle of incidence =
angle of reflection angle of reflection
Describe an experimental demonstration of Recall and use the definition of refractive
the refraction of light index n in terms of speed
• Use the terminology for the angle of • Recall and use the equation sin I / sin r=n
incidence i and angle of refraction r and • Recall and use n = 1 / sin c
describe the passage of light through parallel- • Describe and explain the action of optical
sided transparent material fibres particularly in medicine and
• Give the meaning of critical angle communications technology
• Describe internal and total internal
reflection
Describe the action of a thin converging lens
on a beam of light
• Use the terms principal focus and focal
length
• Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of
real image by a single lens a virtual image by a single lens • Use and
• Describe the nature of an image using the describe the use of a single lens as a
terms enlarged/same size/diminished and magnifying glass • Show understanding of the
upright/inverted terms real image and virtual image
 z

▪ Inside surface of water, glass, or other

transparent material can act like a perfect
mirror → depending on the angle

mirror water glass

Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.
Refracted Ray

Angle of
R
Refraction

Angle of
I
Incidence

Incident Ray
Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.
Refracted Ray
When a ray of light travels
through a semi-circular block,
the ray will be refracted ………
Angle of
R
Refraction

Angle of
I
Incidence

Incident Ray
Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.
Refracted Ray
When a ray of light travels
through a semi-circular block,
the ray will be refracted ………
Angle of
R
Refraction

Angle of Reflected Ray

I
Incidence

…… but there will also

be some reflection.
Incident Ray
Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.
As the incident ray approaches
the ‘critical angle’
(approximately 42o) the
refracted ray travels at right-
angles to the normal. Refracted Ray

Incident Ray
Reflected Ray

There is now
more internal
reflection
Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.

If the incident ray now enters the block at an

angle greater than the critical angle (42o) no
light is refracted.

Incident Ray Reflected Ray

Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.

If the incident ray now enters the block at an

angle greater than the critical angle (42o) no
light is refracted.

Incident Ray Reflected Ray

All light is now reflected at the boundary. This

is known as TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Refraction of light by a
semi-circular block.
Medium Critical
angle
If the incident ray now enters the block at an
Water 49o angle greater than the critical angle (42o) no
Perspex 42o light is refracted.
Glass 41o
Diamond 24o

Incident Ray Reflected Ray

All light is now reflected at the boundary. This

is known as TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 z

--- refraction = bending of

light
No refraction = total internal
reflection

▪ Critical angle c – depends on material

▪ Angle of incidence i – angle between the incident ray and the

normal

▪ Total internal reflection – all light reflected INTERNALLY

z
z
z
z
z
Critical angle
z
z
APPLICATION OF TIR
z
Reflecting prisms
▪ In prisms angle of incidence I = 45°

▪ Usage:

Periscope Rear refractor Binoculars

Optical fibres
z ▪ An optical fibre is a thin strand of high-quality glass.

▪ Very little light is absorbed in the glass.

▪ Light getting in at one end is totally internally reflected, even

when the fibre is bent.

▪ Optical fibres are used in telecommunication because they can

carry enormous amounts of information in light pulses trapped
inside them.

▪ This information is carried at very high speed (approximately 2 x

108 m/s) along an optical fibre cable.
z
Refraction calculations
z
▪ Snells Law

▪ Increase in I (angle of incidence) = increase in r (angle of

refraction)

▪ I and 2 sines are proportional

▪ Sin i/ sin r = constant

Refraction Calculations
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law
When light is
refracted, an increase
in the angle of
incidence i produces
an increase in the
angle of refraction r.
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law
When light is
refracted, an increase
in the angle of
incidence i produces
an increase in the
angle of refraction r.

Sin i = constant
Sin r
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law

Air i = 15o

Glass r = 10o

sin 15o = 0.26

sin 10o = 0.17

= 1.5
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law

Air i = 15o i = 45o

Glass r = 10o r = 28o

sin 15o = 0.26 sin 45o = 0.71

sin 10o = 0.17 sin 28o = 0.47

= 1.5 = 1.5
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law

Air i = 15o i = 45o i = 60o

Glass r = 10o r = 28o r = 35o

sin 15o = 0.26 sin 45o = 0.71 sin 60o = 0.87

sin 10o = 0.17 sin 28o = 0.47 sin 35o = 0.57

= 1.5 = 1.5 = 1.5

 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index

 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index

Refractive Index = Sin i

Sin r
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index

Air
Refractive Index = Sin i
Sin r i = 45o

RI =
1.33
?
Water
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index

RI = sin i
sin r
Air
Refractive Index = Sin i
Sin r 1.33 = sin 45o
i= 45o
sin r

sin r = sin 45o

RI =
1.33
? 1.33

sin r = 0.532
Water
r = 32o
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

If the angle of incidence is

greater than the critical
angle, we will get total
internal reflection.
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

If the ray direction is

Critical angle
Incident Ray reversed, the angle of
incidence is now 90o, and the
c angle ‘c’ is now the angle of
refraction (critical angle).
Refracted Ray
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

If the ray direction is

Critical angle
Incident Ray reversed, the angle of
incidence is now 90o, and the
c angle ‘c’ is now the angle of
refraction (critical angle).
Refracted Ray
RI = sin i = sin90o
sin c sin c
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

If the ray direction is

Critical angle
Incident Ray reversed, the angle of
incidence is now 90o, and the
c angle ‘c’ is now the angle of
refraction (critical angle).
Refracted Ray
RI = sin i = sin90o
sin c sin c
RI = 1 sin c = 1
sin c RI
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

If the RI of glass = 1.5: sin c = 1 = 0.67 c = 42o

1.5

If the ray direction is

Critical angle
Incident Ray reversed, the angle of
incidence is now 90o, and the
c angle ‘c’ is now the angle of
refraction (critical angle).
Refracted Ray
RI = sin i = sin90o
sin c sin c
RI = 1 sin c = 1
sin c RI
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

The refractive
If theindex of =a1.5:
RI of glass medium
sin c = 1 is usually
= 0.67 c = 42o
1.5
denoted as ‘n’.
Critical angle
For a medium ofIncident
refractive
Ray index n: sin c = 1
c n
 Supplement
Refraction Calculations

Snell’s Law …and Refractive Index …and Critical Angles!

The refractive
If theindex of =a1.5:
RI of glass medium
sin c = 1 is usually
= 0.67 c = 42o
1.5
denoted as ‘n’.
Critical angle
For a medium ofIncident
refractive
Ray index n: sin c = 1
c n

eg. What is the critical angle for diamond if the refractive index (n) = 2.42?

sin c = 1 = 1 = 0.413 critical angle for diamond = 24.4 o

n 2.42
 Refraction
z • change in direction of propagation
Refractive index of a wave due to a change in its
transmission medium
• Bending effect of light

▪ Refractive index = speed of light in vacuum/ speed of light in

medium
z
z

Speed of light in a vacuum = 300 000 km/s

z
 LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Core Supplement
• Describe the formation of an optical image by Describe the formation of an optical image by a
a plane mirror, and give its characteristics plane mirror, and give its characteristics
• Recall and use the law angle of incidence = • Recall and use the law angle of incidence =
angle of reflection angle of reflection
Describe an experimental demonstration of Recall and use the definition of refractive
the refraction of light index n in terms of speed
• Use the terminology for the angle of • Recall and use the equation sin I / sin r=n
incidence i and angle of refraction r and • Recall and use n = 1 / sin c
describe the passage of light through parallel- • Describe and explain the action of optical
sided transparent material fibres particularly in medicine and
• Give the meaning of critical angle communications technology
• Describe internal and total internal
reflection
Describe the action of a thin converging lens
on a beam of light
• Use the terms principal focus and focal
length
• Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of
real image by a single lens a virtual image by a single lens • Use and
• Describe the nature of an image using the describe the use of a single lens as a
terms enlarged/same size/diminished and magnifying glass • Show understanding of the
upright/inverted terms real image and virtual image
Lenses and Refraction

Convex lens Concave lens

Lenses and Refraction

Convex lens Concave lens

Converging Diverging lens

lens
Lenses and Refraction

Convex lens Concave lens

Converging Diverging lens

lens
Principal focus

Focal length
Lenses and Refraction

Convex lens Concave lens

Converging Diverging lens

lens
Principal focus Principal focus

Focal length Focal length

Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?
Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?
Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?
 Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?

As light passes through the

first face of the lens it
bends towards the normal
(refraction)
 Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?

As light passes through the

first face of the lens it
bends towards the normal
(refraction)
As light passes through the
second face of the lens it
bends away from the normal
(refraction)
 Lenses and Refraction

What happens to Convex lens

light as it passes
through the lens?

As light passes through the

first face of the lens it
bends towards the normal
(refraction)
As light passes through the
second face of the lens it
bends away from the normal
(refraction)
Lenses and Images
Rays from a distant object brought to focus on
a screen by a convex lens.

Object Convex Image

lens
Lenses and Images
Rays from a distant object brought to focus on
a screen by a convex lens.

Object Convex Image

lens
The image on the
screen is real and
inverted (upside-
down)
 Lenses and Images
Rays from a distant object brought to focus on
a screen by a convex lens.

Object Convex Image

lens
Light rays from a distant object are The image on the
considered to be parallel to each screen is real and
other, so the image passes through inverted (upside-
the principal focus. down)
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

F1 F
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens

object

F1 F
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens Standard Ray 2 – parallel to
the principal axis, and then
passes through F after leaving
object
the lens.

F1 F
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens Standard Ray 2 – parallel to
the principal axis, and then
passes through F after leaving
object
the lens.

F1 F

Standard Ray 3 – passes

through F1, and then leaves
the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens Standard Ray 2 – parallel to
the principal axis, and then
passes through F after leaving
object
the lens.

F1 F
The image
produced is
Standard Ray 3 – passes real, inverted
through F1, and then leaves and smaller
the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
than the
object.
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens Standard Ray 2 – parallel to
the principal axis, and then
passes through F after leaving
object
the lens.

F1 F
The image
produced is
Standard Ray 3 – passes real, inverted
through F1, and then leaves and smaller
the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
than the
object.

Only two of the

standard rays are
required to work
out where they go.
 Lenses and Ray Diagrams
- Predicting where a convex lens will form an image.

Standard Ray 1 – passes

through the centre of the lens Standard Ray 2 – parallel to
the principal axis, and then
passes through F after leaving
object
the lens.

F1 F
The image
produced is
Standard Ray 3 – passes real, inverted
through F1, and then leaves and smaller
the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
than the
object.
As the object is
moved closer towards
Only two of the the lens, the image
standard rays are becomes bigger and
required to work further away.
out where they go.
 Uses of Convex Lenses

1. In a projector
 Uses of Convex Lenses

1. As a magnifying glass

F1 F
Object
between F1
and lens
 Uses of Convex Lenses
2. As a magnifying glass

F1 F
Object
between F1
and lens
 Uses of Convex Lenses
2. As a magnifying glass The rays appear to be coming from a
position behind the lens. The image
is upright and magnified, and it is
called a virtual image because no
rays actually meet to form it and
the image cannot be formed on a
screen.

F1 F
The image Object
is virtual, between F1
upright and lens
and
magnified.
Ray Diagram for a Concave Lens
- Predicting where a concave lens will form an image.

F
Ray Diagram for a Concave Lens
- Predicting where a concave lens will form an image.

object

F
The image is
virtual,
upright and
diminished
(smaller
than the
object).
Real images formed by convex lenses
z
▪ Rays from a single point on a distant object arrive at the lens parallel to one another.

▪ Converging lenses refract these parallel rays so that they are come together at a point called
the principal focus (labelled F on a diagram).

Light rays enter in to a

converging lens. The rays
merge into a central focal
point. The distance taken to
achieve this is the focal
length.

▪ These lenses focus the rays of light to produce a real image - an image that can be projected
onto a screen.

▪ The focal length is the distance between the centre of the lens and the image.
z
Ray diagrams
z
▪ Ray diagrams allow us to work out the nature of the image that
will be produced. The nature of images can be described as:
▪ magnified or diminished (how big the image is compared to the
object)
▪ upright (the same way up as the object) or inverted (upside
down compared to the object)
▪ real or virtual
 Any 2 of these rays are
z needed to fix the image
position and size

A ray parallel to principal A ray through F leaves

A ray through the centre
axis passes through F the lens parallel to the
of lens
after leaving lens principal axis
z
7.08 Lenses (2)
z
• Closer the image to convex lens than principal focus – rays don’t converge
• Image is upright and magnified – virtual image
• This convex lens is known as magnifying glass
Drawing ray diagrams
z
z
z
z
Image formed by concave lenses
z
z
7.09 More lenses in action
z
The camera
The Human Eye
z
z
The projector
z
z
7.10 Electromagnetic waves (1)
z
▪ Electromagnetic waves - transverse waves
made of vibrating ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC
fields
▪ They transfer energy called electromagnetic
radiation

▪ Do not require a medium (transfer waves through

vacuum)

▪ Move at the speed of light (300,000 km/s)

z
z
z
The electromagnetic spectrum
▪ z
EM spectrum – is the full range of electromagnetic waves
Where electromagnetic waves come from
▪ z
Electromagnetic waves are emitted whenever charged particles
oscillate or lose energy in some way
z
7.11 Electromagnetic waves 2
z
Radio waves
z
z
z
7.12 Sending and storing
▪ z
How is information sent?

▪ Telecommunications involves sending, receiving & storing

information – sound, images, computer data

▪ Information is sent/transmitted as signals

▪ 2 types of signals
▪ analogue

▪ digital
z
Analogue and digital transmission
▪ z signals –sound, light, temperature
Analogue

▪ Has value within continuous range

▪ Can be converted into and electric signal

▪ Voltage of an analogue signal varies with time

z
▪ Most forms
z of communication – television &
radio involve digital signals

▪ Digital signals have 2 main advantages

over analogue
▪ No loss of signal quality

▪ More information can be conveyed

z
z
Optical Fibres
z
▪ Thin strands of solid glass about the width of human hair

▪ Light can travel along optical fibre even if it is ben due to total
internal reflection
Storing & retrieving information
z