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Development of Biomedical Implants through Additive

Manufacturing: A Review
M. Vignesh, G. Ranjith Kumar, M. Sathishkumar , M. Manikandan, G. Rajyalakshmi, R. Ramanujam, and N. Arivazhagan

Submitted: 7 January 2021 / Revised: 2 February 2021 / Accepted: 6 February 2021

Additive manufacturing (AM) is an expeditiously developing technology for the manufacturing of

biomedical implants. It provides an excellent and broad opportunity for the bio-mimicry of desired complex
profiles of bodily implants because of its customized fabrication, lower manufacturing time and cost. Metal
AM of biomedical implants has increased many medical practitionerÕs attention because of its increased
fatigue strength and excellent corrosion resistance properties, patient-specific implants for a speedy
recovery, and it is found to be a suitable alternative to amputation. But there are some issues related to
metal AM that are desired dimensional accuracy, preferred surface quality, strength, etc. Based on the said
shortcomings, the following properties are chosen for the present review article; mechanical and metal-
lurgical behavior. The main objective is to review the above-stated properties for 3D printed biomedical
implants manufactured through laser additive manufacturing (LAM), friction stir additive manufacturing
(FS-AM), paste extruding deposition (PED) and selective laser melting (SLM) techniques and its future
scope of AM processes.

3D printed components possess increased applications in the

Keywords 3D printing, additive, biomedical, implants,
mechanical, metallurgical areas like aerospace, structural, biomedical, complex component
fabrication, etc. Out of the said applications, 3D printing
possesses higher attention in the biomedical field because of its
flexible solution in producing cost-effective, quick surgical
instruments and patient-specific bio-implants (Ref 5-8). It is not
only used for the repair or fabrication of human body tissues like
1. Introduction dental implants, artificial liver, artificial cardiovascular systems
and orthopedic implants but also for the fabrication of medical
Advanced 3D printing has many advantages over conven- electronic and micro-fluidic devices.
tional and unconventional manufacturing techniques, in terms of Due to the mismatch of mechanical properties of the metal
cost reduction, speed, freedom in designing complex parts, implants and native body parts or organs, stress shielding would
manufacturing in single step and sustainability. Additive man- appear. This leads to the organ or part resorption and implant
ufacturing is a layer-by-layer manufacturing technique, which failure, repeatedly. The failure caused in the implants is due to the
reduces the process of machining and removing the excess implants manufactured through conventional manufacturing pro-
material from a larger stock. This process directly creates the cesses. Hence, the development of 3D printing technique has been
components to their final shape, with less material wastage and a viable alternative for the fabrication of prosthesis with controlled
attains required geometric dimensions. It is difficult to pick a strength and porosity matching the properties of the native bone
desired additive manufacturing technique for a particular mate- and organs, thus reduces the chances of stress shielding. The
rial and application due to availability of a wider range of 3D ability to produce customized products in 3D printing technique
printing techniques (Ref 1-4). Based on the materials to be created an unprecedented opportunity for the fabrication of
printed, various techniques offer difference in surface finish, personalized medical implants that could suit for the specific body
high-dimensional accuracy and post-processing requirements. part complications (Ref 9). Since, AM being a demand-based
manufacturing process and its ability to produce complex shaped
This invited article is part of a special topical focus in the Journal of implants has significantly made the process more economic and
Materials Engineering and Performance on Additive Manufacturing. cost effective. There is no any tooling involved in fabrication of
The issue was organized by Dr. William Frazier, Pilgrim Consulting, components and hence, the cost per component remains the same
LLC; Mr. Rick Russell, NASA; Dr. Yan Lu, NIST; Dr. Brandon D. in AM processes. While in conventional machining process,
Ribic, America Makes; and Caroline Vail, NSWC Carderock. tooling cost contributes more in deciding the cost of the AM
components. The cost analysis has created a rationale for the use of
M. Vignesh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Saveetha School
of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai, India; G. Ranjith Kumar, 3D printing technique for the fabrication of bodily implants (Ref
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of 10). The image of the biomedical implant fabricated through 3D
Engineering and Technology (Autonomous), Chittoor, India; printing technique is given in Fig. 1.
M. Sathishkumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita There are various techniques and processes involved in
School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Chennai, India; fabricating the biomedical implants and surgical components.
and M. Manikandan, G. Rajyalakshmi, R. Ramanujam, and In the present article, the various processes like friction stir
N. Arivazhagan, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore
Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India. Contact e-mail:
additive manufacturing (FS-AM), laser additive manufacturing,
[email protected]. selective laser melting (SLM), paste extrusion deposition,

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 1 Image of the biomedical implant fabricated through 3D printing technique (a) cranial prosthesis (reprinted from Procedia CIRP, Vol 49,
A.L. Jardini, M.A. Larosa, M.F. Macedo, L.F. Bernardes, C.S. Lambert, C.A.C. Zavaglia, R. Maciel Filho, D.R. Calderoni, E.Ghizoni, P.
Kharmandayan, Improvement in Cranioplasty: Advanced Prosthesis Biomanufacturing, pages 203-208, Copyright 2016, with permission from
Elsevier); (b) surgical guide (reprinted from The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, Vol 85, Dov M. Almog, Eduardo Torrado, Sean W. Meitner,
Fabrication of imaging and surgical guides for dental implants, pages 504-508, Copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier); (c) scapula
prosthesis (reprinted from Journal of Bone Oncology, Vol 12, Dong Liu, Jun Fu, Hongbin Fan, Dichen Li, Enchun Dong, Xin Xiao, Ling Wang,
Zheng Guo, Application of 3D-printed PEEK scapula prosthesis in the treatment of scapular benign fibrous histiocytoma: A case report, pages
78-82, Copyright 2018, with permission from Elsevier); (d) knee prosthesis (reprinted from Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol 714,
Mahmoud Z. Ibrahim, Ahmed A.D. Sarhan, Farazila Yusuf, M. Hamdi, Biomedical materials and techniques to improve the tribological,
mechanical and biomedical properties of orthopedic implants – A review article, pages 636-667, Copyright 2017, with permission from
Elsevier); (e) dental implants (reprinted from The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, Vol 120, Michael Tischler, Claudia Patch, Avinash S. Bidra,
Rehabilitation of edentulous jaws with zirconia complete-arch fixed implant-supported prostheses: An up to 4-year retrospective clinical study,
pages 204-209, Copyright 2018, with permission from Elsevier); (f) interbody fusion cage (reprinted from Metallic Foam Bone, T. Matsushita, S.
Fujibayashi, T. Kokubo, pages 111-130, Copyright 2017, with permission from Elsevier); (g) acetabular cup (reprinted from Tribology
International, Vol 60, Vesa Saikko, Tiina Ahlroos, Hannu Revitzer, Oskari Ryti, Petri Kuosmanen, The effect of acetabular cup position on wear
of a large-diameter metal-on-metal prosthesis studied with a hip joint simulator, pages 70-76, Copyright 2013, with permission from Elsevier);
and (h) hip prosthesis (reprinted from Arthroplasty Today, Vol 2, Urban Hedlundh, Lars Karlsson, Combining a hip arthroplasty stem with
trochanteric reattachment bolt and a polyaxial locking plate in the treatment of a periprosthetic fracture below a well-integrated implant, pages
141-145, Copyright 2016, with permission from Elsevier)

(PED) are discussed. The methodology of the given processes, oped to resolve the challenges like internal cavities, inclusions,
various works carried out so far in the said areas is discussed in shrinkage, internal porosity and microstructural in-homogene-
detail. ity, and low mechanical properties due to its operation below
the melting point (Ref 11-14). FS-AM is a multiple variant
technique which deposits the materials layer by layer through
the thermo-mechanical stirring of tool rotation which causes
2. Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing (FS-AM) high temperature by significant plastic deformation. This
involves (i) surface cladding, (ii) friction surfacing, (iii)
Additive manufacturing is classified mainly based on raw modification of functionally graded composition, (iv) supplying
materialÕs physical state, as solid-based systems, powder-based innovative materials from wire/powder. The heat generation is
systems and liquid-based systems. FS-AM is a solid-state obtained due to the effects of plastic deformation (45.6% of
additive manufacturing process for metals and alloys, devel- total heat) and friction (54.4% of total heat) (Ref 15). The

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

components manufactured through FS-AM method provides strength, toughness, microhardness, yield strength, modulus of
low residual stress, refined microstructure, low distortion and elasticity and fatigue strength (Ref 8).
higher building rate when compared with fusion-based AM Yee-Hsien et al. (Ref 18) reported the bio-corrosion
techniques (Ref 16). The building rate of (i) metallic material demeanor of AZ31B magnesium alloy fabricated through FS-
(aluminum alloys) is 10 kg/hr, and (ii) harder material (nickel- AM in hydroxyapatite (bone mineral) environment considering
based alloys) is lower than 0.5 kg/hr, and its accuracy is it a suitable alternative for the natural bone because of its
increased with the reduced building rate. Besides, the accuracy improved mechanical properties and a better bio-corrosion
of the technique could be improved by controlling the process resistance due to the grain size refinement effects. Ni-Ti alloy is
parameters like forging pressure, traverse velocity, rotational also used to make biomedical implants to withstand high
speed, diameter, type of feeder, etc. toughness. But, the presence of Ni ion causes a toxic impact on
human cells (Ref 19).
2.1 Metallic Alloys for Biomedical Implants
2.2 Metallurgical and Mechanical characterization
Initially, the plates or sheets were prepared with appropriate
of FS-AM Components
size and shape and cleaned using acetone and are placed in
overlap condition with appropriate build orientation. The The microstructure of Inconel 625 fabricated through FS-
schematic representation of FS-AM process is displayed in AM technique exhibited a severe dynamic recrystallization,
Fig. 2 (Ref 17). The suitable process parameters were selected, which leads to the development of fine equiaxed structure with
and the layer placement was confirmed. The first run of friction better fatigue properties. The SEM microstructure of different
stir additive manufacturing should be checked for desired layer staked layers fabricated through FS-AM is illustrated in Fig. 4
height. If the obtained height is not sufficient, then the (Ref 16). Similarly, Ti-6Al-4V revealed refined grains with a
subsequent layer was added by placing the plates or sheets fully dense structure, resulting in a considerable increase in
over the fabricated plate. mechanical properties (Ref 20). Dilip et al. investigated the FS-
The metallic alloys are preferable for biomedical applica- AM of AISI 304 SS rod over the mild steel with an axial force
tions than polymers, composites and ceramics due to their of 9.8 kN, and a rotational speed of 800 rpm. The author
higher biocompatibility, hardness and strength. The estimated pointed out the axial reduction of consumable material was
contribution of FS-AM for the medical fields is illustrated in proportional to the built-up layer thickness. The microstructure
Fig. 3 (Ref 17). The bio-compatible materials such as cobalt reveals the fine equiaxed structure with an average grain size of
(Co), titanium (Ti), magnesium (Mg), and stainless steel are 20 lm (Ref 21).
most commonly used as biomedical implants which cannot Palanivel et al. (Ref 22) reported six times increase in the
react with human blood for release of ions and wear debris. The ductility (17%) of the FS-AM fabricated Mg-based alloy
implant material used in human environment must have good (WE43) specimen over base metal (2.9%). Also, the strength of
mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile 400 MPa is obtained through the FS-AM, which is higher than

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of FS-AM and bonding layers with step by step. Reprinted from Ref 17, with permission from Elsevier

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 3 Estimated contribution of FS-AM for the medical fields. Reprinted from Ref 17, with permission from Elsevier

the base metal (357 MPa) strength. The process improves the area for repeated cooling and heating cycles of the material,
properties like ductility, mechanical property and strength of making the powder to solid (Ref 28). A laser beam focused on
the selected work material, which are not achieved by powder layers consecutively according to the 3D CAD model
conventional techniques (Ref 23, 24). Palanivel et al. (Ref to build a 2D cross-sectional profile with ultra-thinness (Ref
25) investigated the FS-AM of AA5083 and Mg-4Y-3Nd build. 29). The laser beam diameter used in SLM is typically 0.03 mm
The average microhardness value of Mg-4Y-3Nd alloy build and can build a step thickness of 0.05 mm, which is sufficient to
developed through FS-AM (120 HV) was relatively higher than build complex metal parts. The process starts with roller makes
the base metal (97 HV). Similarly, AA5083 build average a metallic powder layer upon the piston fabrication; the focused
microhardness (104 HV) was higher than base metal (88 HV). laser beam melts the powder bed in selective areas as a weld
The ultimate tensile strength (362 MPa) and yield strength (267 bead. Once the laser focusing is completed on selected areas on
MPa) of FS-AM are higher than the base metal strength of 336 the first layer of the powder bed, piston fabrication is lowered
MPa and 190 MPa, respectively. Hence, the results showed the in the Z direction with the prescribed length for next powder
potential benefit of FS-AM for both Al and Mg alloy build. The bed deposition (Ref 30). The second powder bed layer when
tensile strength and microhardness distribution of the different focused with laser, the powder melts and merges with the
materials fabricated through FS-AM are illustrated in Fig. 5 previous melted areas. In this approach, the parts are fabricated,
and 6 (Ref 17). layer-upon-layer with ultra-thinness. The process is the inter-
action of laser radiation and metal powder, which may include
the phase transformation, heat transfer and chemical reactions.
The process has building speed of 5 cm/h 1 offering com-
3. Laser Additive Manufacturing (LAM) pletely homogeneous and dense with no pores and mechanical
properties of the elementary powder. The schematic view of
At the present time, polymers and selected grades of metals selective laser melting process is given in Fig. 8.
(stainless steel, Inconel, aluminum and titanium) are predom- A huge number of process parameters and their levels like
inantly used in 3D printing (Ref 26). Most aerospace materials powder layer thickness, laser power density, scanning speed,
consist of aluminum composites, which can be produced with scanning strategy, powder bed temperature and powder prop-
near net shape and high-performance parts using laser additive erties of SLM have its combined effect on fabricated parts
manufacturing (LAM) (Ref 27). LAM is capable of printing in properties (Ref 31). Changes made in the process parameters
short period of time with controlling materialÕs mechanical have unfavorable results in surface morphology and mechanical
properties and forming accuracy. The high energy density of the properties of fabricated parts. SLM has its beneficial applica-
laser makes the material to fuse rapidly, resulting in improved tions in biomedical implants and tissue engineering for printing
mechanical properties with refined grain structure. The LAM is dental prostheses with Ti6Al4V (Ref 32). The laser energy
further classified based on partial and complete melting of supplied by the laser beam to the unit volume of Ti6Al4V is
powders, as shown in Fig. 7. 195 J/mm with a scanning speed of 1.8 cm3/h that is high when
compared with Co-Cr-Mo alloys when checked with the diode-
3.1 Selective Laser Melting (SLM) pumped Nd:Yag laser (Ref 33).
Among the entire laser-metal additive manufacturing pro- SLM is capable of creating fine porous structures with a
cesses, selective laser melting (SLM) tends to be a selective variety of shapes; this made the process preferable in making

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 4 SEM microstructure of different staked layers fabricated through FS-AM. Reprinted from Ref 16, with permission from Elsevier

implants. For biomedical implants, parts should have high duction between the human bone and implanted part. Adopting
porosity compared with their volume that can be controlled the sheet-based gyroid microarchitecture fulfills the criteria in
with the SLM scanning strategy parameter. One can achieve offering high permeability, surface area and negligible mean
more than 450 channels and holes per 1 cm3 (Ref 34). The curvature (Ref 35). Scaffolds with thicker wall size of
porous microstructure helps in improving the mechano-trans- microarchitecture and unit cell size within the range of

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 5 Tensile strength of different materials fabricated through FS-AM. Reprinted from Ref 17, with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 6 Microhardness distribution of different materials fabricated through FS-AM. Reprinted from Ref 17, with permission from Elsevier

trabecular bone showed improved tensile and compressive A series of diamond-based Pentamode material (PM)
deformations. Tailoring the SLM parameters with thicker- scaffolds fabricated with SLM technique showed an
walled gyroid construction resulted in further dominated results adjustable deformation with a change in strut slandering ratio.
of tensile fatigue testing. Heat treatment of Co-Cr removable Application of double cone strut topology enhanced the cell
particle denture (RPD) frameworks has a significant role during migration, waste removal and supplement of nutrients to
fabrication through SLM (Ref 36). Heat-treated SLM fabricated scaffold region as well as circumambient bone tissue. The
framework showed that the formation of c-face-centered with permeability values and mechanical properties of SLM fabri-
submicron scale grains exhibits highest retentive forces and cated PMÕs are in the range of trabecular bone (Ref 38).
elongation compared with SLM and casted fabrications (Ref Research toward developing Ti6Al4V alloy interbody fusion
37). Build orientation during the SLM process will affect grain cages for lumbar spine made with SLM process acquires
growth direction, surface roughness and Von Mises stress attention. It is evident that the average compressive modulus of
accumulation of fabricated clasps. SLM build Ti6Al4V at 90° SLM fabricated Ti6Al4V is 3 GPa, which falls between
orientation showed co-mixture of a+b phase with b grains trabecular and cortical bone compressive module (0.5–15 GPa).
sandwiched between acicular a grains. Among all the tested SLM process facilitates in fabricating Ti6Al7Nb multi-spiked
build directions, SLM90 clasps have good fatigue resistance periarticular trabecular bone implants that offer cementless
and low surface roughness (Ref 36). fixation (Ref 39). This implant has shown minimal invasive

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 7 Classification of laser-metal additive manufacturing process

and integrity of melting powder and depositing on the substrate

are found to be outstanding. But, this stands challenging during
fabrication of high functioning magnesium alloy implants,
which is very risky on melting and depositing. Magnesium is
one of the viable alternatives for biomedical implants; the
material should resemble bone tissue structure for effective
growth of the blood tissues. The material used for bone tissue
development is collagen type I and hydroxyapatite (Ref 42).
Since the material is an organic- and inorganic-based substance;
it could not withstand the temperatures generated during
melting and deposition seen in previous AM-based processes.
Hence, the paste extrusion deposition (PED) could be the best
technique for fabricating such biomedical implants (Ref 43).
Though the implants produced through this technique possess
lesser strength when compared with other AM-based processes,
the paste material used for the fabrication of magnesium
implants has drugs which could contribute more in quick
healing of the wounded part of the body. Another advantage of
using magnesium as an implant in the human body is that
removing implants from the body after the tissue gets healed is
completely eradicated. The elastic modulus of the magnesium
Fig. 8 Schematic view of selective laser melting process. Reprinted
from Ref 29, with permission from Elsevier
alloys (41-45 GPa) is almost closer to that of natural bone
elastic modulus (3-20 GPa), while other metals (Fe and Zn)
possess 211.4 GPa and 90 GPA as elastic modulus, respectively
resurfacing even with multi-spiked scaffold. SLM is potential
(Ref 6).
in fabricating the customized Mg-based composites for
Paste extrusion deposition (PED) is a process of extruding
advanced corrosion resistance and cytocompatibility. Mg-based
paste from the syringe over the base plate, resulting in required
composite with KZ30 as matrix and 10 wt.% of bioactive glass
3D profile generation. After the deposition, the extruded
45S5 as reinforcement has shown more cytocompatible in
component is allowed to get dried and made hardened.
in vitro cell viability test (Ref 40). Novel face and body
Throughout the entire fabrication process, the application of
centered structured b Ti35Zr28Nb alloy fabricated with SLM
heat is completely eluded, thus the fabrication process does not
process showed elastic modulus and plateau strength as 1 GPa
affect the organic material present in the paste used for the
and 58 MPa, respectively, and are in the range of trabecular
extrusion process (Ref 44). During the PED of magnesium
bone mechanical properties (Ref 41). The SLM process
alloys, different percentages of gelatin are added to the Mg
structure exhibits healthy growth, spreading and attaching
powders, which adds strength to the scaffolds. The layout of the
osteoblast cells on a surface when cultured for 28 days.
PED process is shown in Fig. 9 (Ref 45).

4.1 Classification of Extrusion Methods

4. Paste Extrusion Deposition The PED method possesses two different phases of extru-
sion, namely steady-state and transient phase. In the steady-
The above-discussed techniques on additive manufacturing state phase of extrusion, the paste is extruded from the ram at a
of various materials ultimately depends on melting and uniform rate for printing continuous filament, while in a
deposition of material over the base substrate. The strength

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 transient phase of extrusion, the rate of extrusion varies during
the process, especially at the start and stop of printing process
(Ref 46).
The PED process is classified into three different methods
based on the method of extrusion, namely ram extruder, shutter
valve-based extruder and Auger extruder. The classification of
the PED process is given in Fig. 10. Out of three different
extrusion processes, the ram type paste extrusion deposition is
commonly used for fabricating components used for various
applications like biomedical, structural, semiconductors, etc.
The ram extruder consists of the ram-driven plunger and a
syringe, in which the flow of paste is controlled and regulated
by the plunger movement (Ref 47). The flow rate of the paste,
start and stop of the extrusion process completely depends on
the plunger velocity and the force applied by the plunger on the
paste material. The various types of extrusion mechanism are
shown in Fig. 11 (Ref 47).

4.2 Fabrication through PED

Based on the advantages of PED process of additive
manufacturing and various mechanisms used for extrusion
processes, various researchers had experimented on different
Fig. 9 Layout of PED process. Reprinted from Ref 45, with materials fabrication. The alumina components produced
permission from Elsevier through free-form extrusion fabrication technique depend upon

Fig. 10 Classification of paste extrusion deposition

Fig. 11 (a) Ram extruder, (b) shutter valve-based extruder and (c) Auger extruder. Source: Extrusion-on-demand methods for high solids
loading ceramic paste in free-form extrusion fabrication, Wenbin Li, Amir Ghazanfari, et al., Virtual & Physical Prototyping, Jul 3, 2017,
reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com)

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

the rate of extrusion, stability and 3D motion of the ram used ing and photo-polymerization. In future, additively manufac-
for extrusion. Other parameters which affect the quality of the tured medical products are mostly categorized as Prosthesis &
deposition is the minimum deposition angle, which is helpful in implants, surgical instruments, surgical guides and tissue
fabricating the overhanging features of the component without engineering products. Additive manufacturing is one of the
any support structures. Also, the defect obtained during most advanced techniques used in the growing health care
fabrication is the under-filling of the alumina paste during industry for the ease to develop customized implants. Due to its
extrusion, which would reduce the strength of the fabricated advanced nature, the implants fabricated through this technique
component (Ref 48). Another group of researchers studied the have better biocompatibility than conventional techniques and
filament printing quality of extrusion-on-demand method using play an important role in bioprinting of complex organs.
three different extrusion mechanisms. Based on the filament Several additive manufacturing companies like Envision TEC,
line quality, repeatability and process robustness, the auger 3D Systems, Inc., EOS GmbH Electro Optical Systems and
valve and needle valve-based process showed better results others are now concentrated on launching innovative high-
than the ram-based extruder. As for as continuity of the filament speed bioprinters, especially for dental laboratories. Increasing
line is concerned, the ram type and needle valve type extruder adaptation of additive manufactured surgical implants has been
show flow rate fluctuations in the paste used, compared with the continuing to account for more than 60% of market revenue. In
auger type extrusion process (Ref 49). The materials like less than 20 years, we can expect a fully functioning heart
barium titanate (BaTiO3), N, N-dimethylformamide and printed through additive manufacturing. In future, it could be
polyvinylidene fluoride are mixed through a simple mixing possible to collect stem cells from infantÕs teeth and use it as a
process and introduced into PED setup extrusion. This has wide tool kit for his entire life for organs and tissues replacements
applications in the areas of sensors, harvesting and energy through additive manufacture.
storage. Hence, this simple mixing and PED combination help
produce customizable and design flexible piezoelectric and
dielectric devices for the future generation (Ref 50).
Apart from fabricating components for various structural References
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Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

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