On the Origins of

THE HORSE
by: Jovencio H.A. Abalos, DVM, MS
Asst. Professor in Equine Medicine

Evolution, first expounded by Charles Darwin more than a century ago, is a concept that has long been
accepted as a concept unifying all of the biological sciences. Most of the evidence in support of the theory
of evolution has been gleaned from examining fossil records.

The horse is an excellent example of how a species adapts to changing conditions in its’
environment, climate, food, and soil. There is an unusually complete fossil record dating back
more than 50 million years showing the evolution of the horse from a small forest dwelling
mammal barely the size of a dog, to its’ present form adapted to life on grass lands. However, it
is important to emphasize that the discovery of new fossils shows that the straight-line model of
horse evolution was an oversimplification. The ancestors of the modern horse were roughly
what that series showed, and were clear evidence that evolution had occurred. However, it is
misleading to portray horse evolution in a smooth straight line, for two reasons:
1. First, horse evolution didn't proceed in a straight line. Many other branches of horse
evolution are now known. Equus is merely one branch of a once-flourishing family of
equine species that survived.
2. Second, horse evolution was not always smooth and gradual. Various traits evolved at
different rates and didn't always evolve together. Occasional reverses in ‘direction’ of
evolution were also apparent. Also, horse species did not always evolve by gradual
transformation (“anagenesis”) of their ancestors; instead, sometimes new species
emerged from environmental pressures (“cladogenesis”) and then co-existed with those
ancestors for some time. Some species arose gradually, others suddenly.

Horses have been hunted by early man about 25,000 years ago and he thought of domesticating the horse
only as recently as 5,000 years ago. But the ancestors of the horse have been around for a far longer
period, measured not in thousands of years, but in millions of years spanning five epochs.

The story of the horse begins with Hyracotherium, sometimes called Eohippus or
the “dawn horse” which roamed in damp, hot jungles in Eurasia and North
America during the early Eocene epoch, 54 to 45 million years ago. It
stood between 10 and 20 inches high, had a long tail and was no bigger
than a fox. It had slender legs but unlike present-day horses, Eohippus
had four toes on the front feet and three on the back and they had pads
much like a dogs’. The eyes were set high and forward in the skull giving
the Eohippus lateral vision. Its’ back was arched, had a short neck and even teeth with a simple pattern of
bumps and ridges on their chewing surfaces. These characteristics suited it to moving swiftly and eating
on the soft leafy vegetation of swamplands and the warm subtropical forests of the Eocene epoch.
Although primitive and small-brained, this tiny animal remained mostly the same in its body and feet,
during the whole Eocene era, having only slight changes to the toes.

About 40 million years ago, cooler and dryer climates favored the spread of grasslands and a reduction in
forest lands. To exploit the more abundant grasses, new and more durable teeth evolved since the leaves
of grasses contain grains of abrasive silica.
 Eohippus gradually grew to about the size of a modern-day Collie
(about 24 inches at the shoulder) and lost the fourth digit in its’
forefeet with the middle toe becoming much larger than the lateral
toes. We now have the appearance of Mesohippus (Gr. meso,
intermediate – hippos) which first appeared about 38 million years ago
during the Oligocene epoch. Its’ back became straighter and it developed
low-crowned teeth with the pre-molars becoming larger and more complex,
till they resembled the molars. More complex patterns of bumps and ridges also
evolved to allow it to cut grass leaves more efficiently. Mesohippus remained for
about 10 million years before disappearing from fossil records.

Another horse ancestor, Miohippus assiniboiensis lived between 32 and 25 million years ago during the
Oligocene era. It was assumed that the Miohippus evolved from the Mesohippus but evidence now shows
that it split from the Mesohippus via cladogenetic evolution. (Evolution associated with altered habit and
habitat.). The Mesohippus and Miohippus co-existed for some 4 million years. A typical Miohippus was
larger than the Mesohippus and had a slightly longer skull. Required for muscle attachment of the snout
and upper lip, the depression in the skull, known as facial fossa, was also deeper and more expanded. The
upper cheek teeth began to show an extra crest and the ankle joint showed some changes. Fossils of the
Miohippus have been found at Oligocene localities in Western US, on The Great Plains and in Florida.
From this line evolved a family of tiny horses (Archeohippus), a family of three-toed, short-toothed
browsers called Anchitheres, and a third line transformed from browsing to grazing animals from which
another direct line ancestor of the horse, Parahippus, arose about 23 million years ago during the early
Miocene epoch. It had the same sized brain and shaped body as the Miohippus but was larger in size.

About 18 – 17 million years ago the Parahippus rapidly evolved into the Merychippus gunteri or
“rudimentary horse” In the Miocene epoch. The middle toe gradually lengthened and became
stronger. By this time, the two lateral toes failed to touch the ground, the middle toe evolved a
horny covering known as the hoof. Strong ligaments, running beneath the fetlock, and longer
legs with the bones of the forearm had fused, made the Merychippus more agile and enabled it to
migrate longer distances in search of food. The muzzle was longer, the jaw deeper and the eyes
further back in the skull, and the teeth evolved high crowns and cementum was deposited around
the crowns forming hard surfaces. This allowed the teeth to become very tall and yet remain strong. This
adaptation afforded the teeth a longer time to eat abrasive grasses before they were worn down to the
roots. As it was exposed to more predators, it also became even more agile while its’ gradually elongating
neck and laterally placed eyes allowed it to scan for predators more easily. The Merychippus had a larger
brain and, being the tallest equine so far, began to be more recognizable as a horse and it grew to the size
of a modern-day Shetland pony (about 40 inches tall). During the middle to late Miocene epoch the
Merychippus gunteri evolved into the more advanced form of Merychippus primus which evolved into
Merychippus sejunctus and Merychippus isonesus who, in turn, gave rise to Merychippus intermontanus
who gave rise to Merychippus stylodontus and Merychippus carrizoensis. The last two looked quite
horse-like and were the ancestors of larger one and three toed animals known as the True Equines.
Merychippus was successful in surviving for up to 16 million years!

The first one-toed horse, with the lateral toes being reduced to splints appeared about 12 million
years ago during the Pliocene epoch and remained unchanged for about 11 million years. The teeth
also became progressively higher crowned and extended far into the sockets of the skull and jaw
from which they emerged as they wore down. The proportions and shape of the skull changed
dramatically to accommodate these teeth with the eye sockets moving from above the teeth in
hyracotherium to behind the teeth in Equus. The size of Pliohippus also grew to about the size of a
modern-day pony. Until recently, it was believed that Pliohippus was the direct ancestor of the Equus but
it was then discovered that their teeth were curved while those of Equus
are straight. It also had deep facial fossae, which is absent in Equus. The
Pliohippus is now believed to have given rise to both the Hippidion and
the Onohippidion, which thrived in South America for a short time, and
also to the Dinohippus which is now believed to be the immediate
ancestor of the Equus.

Dinohippus arose about 12 million years ago through the species Dinohippus spectans, Dinohippus
interpolatus and Dinohippus leidyanus. In these species the teeth were slightly straighter than the
Merychippus and the facial fossae smaller. The Dinohippus mexicanus was a later species in which the
teeth were even straighter and the fossae even smaller than in the earlier species. The Dinohippus was the
first horse to show the beginnings of the remarkable stay apparatus in its kneecaps. This enables modern
equines to lock the leg and prevent it bending while at rest or even to sleep in the standing position.
During the late Pliocene epoch the Dinohippus was the most common horse in North America and during
this time it smoothly evolved into the Equus as the teeth straightened and the facial fossae decreased.

Equus first emerged in fossil records a mere 1,000,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch. Such
fossils have been found in North America but they apparently disappeared from the continent towards the
end of the last Ice Age. Factors thought to have contributed to the demise of Equus from the prairies of
North America include (1) climatic change, (2) competition, (3) epidemic, and/or (4) failure to adapt. The
Americas remained without horses until the Spanish re-introduced them in the 1400’s. It is believed that
domestication of the horse began north of the Black Sea between 4,000 and 3,000 years Before Christ.

2½ million years ago during the late Pliocene era, when the first major
Ice Age began, some species of the Equus migrated, through land
bridges connecting Alaska and Siberia (now the Bering straight), to
the Mid-east, North Africa and Asia and evolved into the desert Asses
– Equus asinus. Others spread into Africa and diversified into the
modern Zebras. Other species that had also crossed into Europe, Asia
and the Mid-east gave rise to Equus caballus, the true horse. All of
these modern species are cross fertile but the resultant off-spring are
likely to be sterile.

When Equus disappeared from North America, three “primitive” stocks emerged. One was the Asiatic
Wild Horse (Equus przewalskii Poliakov) of which three bands still remain in
the remote deserts of Mongolia. Another is the Tarpan or plateau horse of
Eastern Europe (Equus przewalskii gmelini Antonius). The biggest of these
was Equus przewalskii Sylvaticus, also known as the Forest Horse
(Sylvaticus) or the Diluvian horse (because it became extinct during the
Diluvial (post-glacial) period). It is the forerunner of the draft breeds. The
Asiatic Wild Horse and the Tarpan are the forerunners of todays light breeds.

Immediately prior to domestication in Central Asia or Persia more than 3,000 years ago, there existed two
pony types and two horse types.

Pony type 1 (altso termed the “Celtic Pony”) lived in northwest Europe and was about 12-12.2 hands tall,
with stocky build and is thought to be a descendant of the Tarpan. The waterproof Exmore pony today is
its’ closest representation and retains a number of characteristics in the jaw formation, the “toad” eye and
“ice fan” tail.
A heavier type of pony standing at 14 – 14.3 hands or 1.4 – 1.5 metres was established in Northern
Eurasia. This was named Pony Although it has a different chromosome count, it type 2. looks similar to
Przewalski’s Horse. The modern equivalents are Norwegian Fjords, the Norikers and Highland Ponies. It
is bigger and coarser than Pony type 1.

Horse type 3 is a desert horse that is resistant to heat and drought measured upwards of 14.3 hands, had a
long and narrow body, was goose rumped and long eared. It inhabits Central Asia and Spain. The Akhal-
Teké of Turkmenistan , a breed of great endurance and resistant to excessive heat, is its’ closest
representation.

Horse type 4 is of greatest importance because it is the prototype of the Arabian, a progenitor of nearly all
modern breeds of horses. It is a relatively small, heat resistant horse standing at 12 hands or 1.2 metres
with a concave rather than a convex profile of the head, and silky, fine coat, mane and tail like the modern
Arab. It is native to Western Asia and its closest living relatives are believed to be the Arab and the
Caspian breeds.
APPENDIX A. THE EVOLUTIONARY TREE OF THE HORSE
Horse Evolution by Kathleen Hunt (Copyright ©1995-2003). http://www.talkorigins.org

2My Old & New World Equus

\ | /
\ | /
4My Hippidion Equus Stylohipparion
| | Neohipparion Hipparion Cormohipparion
| | Astrohippus | | |
| | Pliohippus ---------------------------
12My Dinohippus Calippus \ | /
| | Pseudhipparion \ | /
| | | |
------------------------------------------- Sinohippus
15My \ | / |
\ | / Megahippus |
17My Merychippus | |
| Anchitherium Hypohippus
| | |
23My Parahippus Anchitherium Archeohippus
| | |
(Kalobatippus?)-----------------------------------------
25My \ | /
\ | /
|
35My |
Miohippus Mesohippus
| |
40My Mesohippus
|
|
|
45My Paleotherium |
| Epihippus
| |
Propalaeotherium | Haplohippus
| | |
50My Pachynolophus | Orohippus
| | |
| | |
------------------------------
\ | /
\ | /
55My Hyracotherium
APPENDIX B. SURVIVING SPECIES OF EQUUS
Horse Evolution by Kathleen Hunt (Copyright ©1995-2003). http://www.talkorigins.org

Order Perissodactyla, Family Equidae, Genus Equus

 Equus burchelli: the Plains zebra of Africa, including "Grant's zebra", "Burchell's zebra", "Chapman's
zebra", the half-striped Quagga, and other subspecies. The Plains zebra is what people usually think of as
the "typical zebra", with rather wide vertical stripes, and thick horizontal stripes on the rump.

 Equus zebra: the Mountain zebra of South Africa. This is the little zebra with the dewlap and the gridiron
pattern on its rump.

 Equus grevyi: Grevy's zebra, the most horse-like zebra. This is the big zebra with the very narrow vertical
stripes and huge ears.

 Equus caballus, the true horse, which once had several subspecies.

 Equus hemionus: the desert-adapted onagers of Asia & the Mideast, including the kiang (formerly E.
kiang).

 Equus asinus: the true asses & donkeys of northern Africa. (The African wild asses are sometimes called
E. africanus.)

REFERENCES:

Ensminger, M.E. 1977. Horses and Horsemanship, 5th ed. Interstate Printers and Publishers. Ill.
Evans, J.W., A. Borton, H.F. Hintz and L.D. Van Leck. 1977. The Horse. W.H. Freeman and Feltham.
England
Evolution. http://www.horsematters.net/evolution.htm
Horse Evolution by Kathleen Hunt (Copyright ©1995-2003). http://www.talkorigins.org
Wild Horses. An American Romance. http://www.pbs.org/wildhorses/wh_origin/wh_origin_intro.html

Last updated: 12 April 2004