211 Determination of Young's modulus (Y) of the material of

a beam by the method of flexure :

Apparatus required :
() A bar of rectangular cro88-8ection, (ii)two vertical stands with
(it) slide callipers, (iv) travelling microsCope, (v) a frame with a craedle- tr
Descirption of apparatus
The given material in the form of abar (AB)of uniform rectangular cro tite.
and about a meter long is taken (Pig. 2.11-1). This bar is placed horizntally te
two knife-edges N, and N, whose sharp edges are kept upwards. The knifeedy
are fixedd on two vertical stands having levelling screws at their bass (nt shwr
in Fig. 2.11-1),. At the middle of the bar (AB) there is a frame k which
carries another
knife-edge N whose sharp edge is placed on the upper surface of the bar. At the
top of the frame there is a sharp pointer (P) which can be focussed by a
or a travelling microscope. The bottom of the frame (R) carries a cathetormeter
which a hanger () is suspended. Various loads can be placed on hook (K) frorn
to depress the middle point of the bar. this hanger (Hf)

N, R
N,
A
B

Theory : Fig. 2.11-1

If a beam of breadth b and
at a distance L apart then depth d is placed horizontally on two
load of mass M is connectedthewith
depression I of the middle poirnt of knife-edg
the the bar
Young's modulus Y of the material by
relation,
 (Geeral l'hysiws 3}3

l) (2.11-)

If b, d, L lare put in metre, M in kyg and g in m/s, then Y will be in N/m

Procedure :
(i) Put a transverse mark by ink or pencil iust at the middle of the bar and
also a pair of marks (say D, D) at equal distances (say 40or 45 cm) on the opposite
sides of the central mark.
(i) Place the beam on the knife-edges N, and N, so that N, and N, are on
the end nmarks D and D, respectively. By puting aspirit level on the central mark
of the bar adjust the levelling screws at the bases of the vertical stands of knife
edges N, and N, tobring the bubble of spirit level at the centre. The beam now
becomes horizontal.
(ii) Place the frame R containing the knife-edge N and the hanger H on the
beam so that the sharp edge of knife-edge N just touches the central transverse
mark on the beam.
(iv) Adjust the levelling screws at the base of a travelling microscope (or
cathetometer)until its vertical scale becomes vertical and the axis of microscpe (or
the axis of telescope of cathetometer) is horizontal. Determine the vernier constant
of the vertical scale of the travelling microscope (or of the cathetometer) and focus
its cross-wire. Then place the microscope (or the cathetometer) ata suitable distance
from the pointer P and clearly focus its sharp pointed end.
(v) Take the reading R, of the vertical scale and vernier of microscope (or
cathetometer) when the load on the hanger H is zero.
(vi) Repeat the operation (v) by increasing the loads on the hanger Hby steps
of 1/2 kg (or 1 kg) until readings for six or seven such steps are obtained.
(vii) Now decrease the loads on the hanger Hfrom its maximum value by the
same steps as in operation (vi) (i.e by steps of 1/2 kg or 1 kg) until this load on
H is reduced to zero Note the readings of the scale and vernier of microscope
(or of cathtometer) at each step.
(vii) Determine the mean of the two readings for each step (one during the
increase of load and another during the decrease of load). Subtract the reading
for zero load on the hanger from the reading for any load to get the depression
of the middle of the bar for that particualr load on the hanger.
(ix) If time permits, then repeat the operations (ii) - (vii) by turning the beam
upside down.
() Measure the breadth b of the bar by a slide callipers and its depth d by
a screw gauge at least at its five or six different places and find their mean values
after applying correction for instrumental error, if any.
(xi) Draw agraph on the graph paper by plotting loads (in kg) along x-axis
and its corresponding depression in cm along y-axis, the origin being (0, 0). The
graph would be a straight line passing through the origin (Fig. 2.11-2). The straight
line graph indicates that the maximum depression of the middle point of the bar
1S remaining within elastic limit.
T.B.P.P-5 L0/1720231
34 OAText Book on Practical I'hysics

Experimental data :
(A) Load-depression record by microscope (or cathetometer):
(Calculate the vernier constant, see examples (i) and (ii) t
TABLE I

Readings when load Readings when Joad

increasing decreasing

1.

2. 0-5
(a)
... (b)
etc. etc. etc.
(b) (a)
etc.
7. 3

[If time permits, make a similar table with the beam

upside down.]
(B) Measurement of breadth (b) of the bar by slide callipers :
[Calculate vernier constant and zero error, see
Art. 2.3.]
TABLE II
No. of Maín
Vernier Total = R
obs. Scale Mean Corrected
reading
S (cm)
(cm) reading value
1. (cm) (cm)
2.
etc. etc. ... (b) (b - e) =
etc. etc.
5. etc.
 General Physics 35

(O Measurement of depth (d) by screw gauge :

[Calculate least cont (l.c.) and zero error, see Art. 2.5.]
TABLE III
No of LS.R. Mean Corrected
C.S.R. Total
obs. S + n x l.c. depth depth
(cm) (cm) d' (cm) d= d' - e(cm)
1.
2.
etc.
5.
(D) Length of the bar between the two knife edges by a metre scale :
...t...t..
L= = ... Cm =... m
3
(E) Drawing of (M - d) graph :
Y
Draw a graph by plotting load (M)
in kg along I-axis and its cm
corresponding depression lin cm along in
yaxis. Take origin O as (0, 0). Draw a ()
Depression
mean straight line pasing through the
origin (O) (Fig. 2.11-2). Take a point P
on this straight line and find M = OM,
=... kg and l=dPM,
m.

Calculations :
We have g= 9.8 m/s, b= ... cm=
m, d m, L ... m, M O0 M X
=... kg, l= ... m. Load (M) in kg
Fig. 2.11-2
M N/m?
Y=
4bd8 1
Precautions and discussion : (L)
the expression for Young's modulus Y contains the cube of length
(i) As carefully, otherwise a large error will occur
and depth (d), they are measured very
measured by a screw gauge.
in the yalue of Y. For this d is middle
The beam is made horizontal arnd the loading is made exactly at the
(ii)
of the bat.
breaking load of the bar is very high, the maximum load on the
(iii))As the unnecessary to find the
load. Hence it is
hanger is usually far below the breaking
breaking load of the bar. better to find Yfor three different
error in measuring Y, it is
(iv) To minimise the
bar is taken large.
lengths of the bar and the length of the
measuring depression, to avoid back-lash error the microscope screw
(v) While
same direction.
1S always rotated in the
 Physics
36 ATextBook on Practical
reading is taken after
a load to
(vi) After adding depression
the hanger,
is complete.
waiting for
sometime so that the
Maximum proportional error :

4bd3

() max
=3+
|Assuming M to be known fairly accuratelyl
where SL = 0.2 cm [two divisions of a metre scale]
Sb = Sd= 0.01 cm [one verneir constant of slide callinereel
S/ = 2 x 0.001 cm [2 x v.c. of travelling microscope, as l is
measured by taking the difference of two readings]
Now, substituing a typical set of observed values of L, b, d and I we can calculato
SY and then multiplying it by 100 mnay obtain % error in Y.
max

Oral Questions and Answers

1. What do you mean by the terms beam and cantilever?
Ans. If the length of the rod of uniform cross-section is very long in comparison with
its breadth, so that shearing stress over any section of the bar may be negligible then
that rod is called a beam.A bar fixed at one end and loaded at the free end is called
a cantilever.
2. How are longitudinal stress and strain produced by bending?
Ans. The upper surface of the bent bar will be concave which will be shorter while the
lower face of the bent bar will be convex and hence this face will be
the normal length. This increase and decrease of the length of bar longer than
is due to forces
acting along the length of the bar and due to these forces
be developed. longitudinal stress wl
3. What is neutral surface of the bent
beam?
Ans. In between the upper concave surface and
the bar which retains its original length. Thislower convexX surface there is a layer o
layer of the bar is called
4. What are the (i)
geometrical moment of inertia and (iü) flexural neutral surtae.
Ans. i)Geometrical moment of inertia (I) of a rigidity?
section of the beam the
is
of the radius of 8yration (K) product
(A) of that section and the of the a
the line which represents the square of the section about
For a beam of rectangular transverse section of theneutral surface. Thus I= A
cross-section A = b xd and K² = d/ 12.
(ii) Flexural rigidity is measured by
required to bend the beam so as toY x Iand it represents external bending nol
section. produce unit radius of curvature of its neutral
5. How would you
Ans. The bar should besupport the beam of given length to produce minimum be
6. What is bending supported on depth.
moment?
 ANs. Whon a beam is fixed at one cnd and loaded nt the fee nd a unigole wll art a
it due to which it will bend. Due to thin bending, the lengtt, d dßerent layers
(excepting the neutral layor) will chauge due to which yjtudinal fhurs ill t
developed. These forces acting on acONA-HeCtlon of the bar will mstitae anngule
known as the bending moment and is measured by the produt (7 Ilp whee
is the radius of curvature of the neutral section of the beatn In the uslihour
condition this bending moment will be equal and opposite to th zternal terninz
couple.
7. To determine Y what quantities in the expreNs0on for Yshouled her measred yery
carefully?
Ans. See precaution (i).
& Define (a) stress, (b) strain, (c) elastic limit and (d) Young's muadulbus
Ans. See questions 1 and 2 of Expt. 2.12.
9. Will the value of Y change if , b or d is changed?
Ans. No; Y is a property of the material of the beam only.
10. Why don't you take into account the depression due to the hanger?
Ans. Depression caused by the weight of the hanger cancels out becaus we measure
depression by taking difference of two readings.
11. Why do you support the beam with smaller dimension (d) in the vertical d1reton'
1
Ans. Since depression Ia i t causes greater depression. If b and d are interchanygd
Iwill be very small.
12. Does the weight of the beam have any effect on the result?
Ans. The weight causes somne depresslon, but since depressions for different loads are
calculated by taking difference of two readings, the initlal depression cancels out.
So the weight of the bar does not affect the result.
13. State Hooke's law.
Ans. Within elastic limit stress is proportional to straln.