ELECTRIC MOTORS

Energy Efficiency
Reference Guide

STATOR POLE

BRUSH

COMMUTATOR S

LINE
DISCLAIMER: Neither CEA Technologies Inc. (CEATI), the
authors, nor any of the organizations providing funding support
for this work (including any persons acting on the behalf of the
aforementioned) assume any liability or responsibility for any
damages arising or resulting from the use of any information,
equipment, product, method or any other process whatsoever
disclosed or contained in this guide.

The use of certified practitioners for the application of the

information contained herein is strongly recommended.

This guide was prepared by Carl Keyes, P.Eng., of Kinectrics Inc.

for the CEA Technologies Inc. (CEATI) Customer Energy
Solutions Interest Group (CESIG) with the sponsorship of the
following utility consortium participants:

© 2007 CEA Technologies Inc. (CEATI) All rights reserved.

Appreciation to Ontario Hydro, Ontario Power Generation and
others who have contributed material that has been used in
preparing this guide.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Table Of Contents 3
1 Introduction 7
2 Motor Classification 9
3 Operating Principles 13
a. Major Parts 13
b. Operation 13
c. Motor Power and Torque 15
d. Torque-Speed Characteristics of Motors 17
4 AC Motors 19
a. 3-Phase Induction Motors 21
b. Squirrel Cage Motors 22
c. Wound Rotor Induction Motor 25
d. Single Phase Induction Motors 27
e. Split Phase Motors 30
f. Capacitor Motors 31
g. Shaded Pole Motors 35
h. Synchronous Motors 37
i. Hysterisis Motor 41
j. Universal Motors 43
5 DC Motors 45
a. Separately Excited DC Motor 46
b. Series Field DC Motor 48
c. Compound DC Motor 49
d. Permanent Magnet DC Motors 50
6 Advanced Motors 51
a. Electronically Commutated Motor (ECM) 51
b. Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) 53
c. Permanent Magnet Motors 54
d. Other Advanced Motors 54
7 Motor Selection 59
a. Electrical Supply Considerations 59
b. Motor Considerations 68
c. Driven Load Considerations 73
d. Speed 76
e. Starting and Stopping 76
f. Custom 77
g. Environmental Factors 77
h. Physical Factors 80
i. Efficiency and Economics 85
8 Motor Controls 101
a. Motor Protection 101
 b. Motor Starting 104
c. Motor Stopping 116
d. Motor Speed Control 119
9 Maintenance 125
a. Common Failure Modes 125
b. Maintenance Frequency 125
c. Bearings 126
d. Vibration 129
e. Insulation 130
f. VFD Bearing Failure 133
g. Grounding 134
10 Repair or Replace? 137
11 High Efficiency Retrofit 139
a. Motor Resizing 139
b. Speed Adjustments 139
c. Load Adjustments 140
d. Power Factor 140
12 Recommended Web Links 141
13 Glossary 143
14 Bibliography 155
15 INDEX 159
 1 Introduction

1 INTRODUCTION
A world without electric motors is difficult to imagine. From
the tiniest motor found in a quartz watch to a million-plus
horsepower motor powering a ship, motors are used in many
diverse applications.

There are a multitude of motor types to choose from. Each has

its own unique characteristics, making one motor type a better
choice for an application than another.

This guide provides an overview of the major types of electric

motors available today, including advanced motor
technologies. It is not intended to turn the reader into a motor
expert, but rather to serve as a concise stand-alone reference
with emphasis on energy efficiency.
7
The basis for this guide is derived from the Ontario Hydro
rd
Motors Guide 3 Edition (Ref. 1) and as such the authors of
this guide wish to acknowledge the contribution of this work.
That said, the guide has been thoroughly updated and
reorganized with the latest in motor developments and related
information.

This guide is intended for both the novice and the experienced
user. Some motor theory is provided along with equations,
such as calculation of torque and horsepower. However, the
reader only needs to delve as deeply as they wish. Topics
covered in this guide include basic theory, motor types,
applications, control equipment and economics.

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motor

types are presented. The characteristics of each are discussed
 1 Introduction

along with typical applications. Some motors are noted as poor

choices for certain applications.

Proper motor maintenance is essential in ensuring long term

reliability and performance. Motor efficiency is very important
and is emphasized in this guide. Lifetime energy costs for high
usage motors will exceed the original purchase price many
times over. For some motors, the small incremental cost to buy
a more energy efficient motor is easily justified. Using simple
decision tools, the reader will learn how to decide whether it is
better to replace rather than repair a failed motor.

‘‘Rules of thumb,’’ examples and other anecdotal commentary

are sprinkled throughout the text. These commentaries are
formatted in an italic font, as are the equations.

Finally, links to websites for the latest in motor programs and

8 knowledge bases are included at the end of this guide.
 2 Motor Classification

2 MOTOR CLASSIFICATION
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy
into kinetic energy (i.e. motion).

Most motors described in this guide spin on an axis, but there

are also specialty motors that move linearly. All motors are
either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), but a
few can operate on both (See Figure 2-1). The following lists
the most common motors in use today. Each motor type has
unique characteristics that make it suitable to particular
applications.

AC DC

ASYCHRONOUS AC BRUSHED UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS COMPOUND SHUNT SERIES 9

3 PHASE SINGLE PHASE SINE WAVE STEPPER BRUSHLESS RELUCTANCE

PERMANENT
SQUIRREL SPLIT WOUND VARIABLE SYCHRONOUS
SPLIT
CAGE PHASE ROTOR RELUCTANCE RELUCTANCE
CAPACITOR

WOUND CAPACITOR SHADED PM SWITCHED

PM
ROTOR START POLE ROTOR RELUCTANCE

CAPACITOR VARIABLE SYNCHRONOUS

HYBRID
RUN RELUCTANCE CONDENSOR

Figure 2-1: Motor Family Tree

 2 Motor Classification

Alternating Current (AC) Motors

AC motors include 3-phase and single phase types.

3-phase AC induction motors are the most widely used

motors in industrial and commercial applications. They are
divided into two sub-categories:

•
•
Squirrel cage motors
Wound rotor motors

3-phase Synchronous motors are most commonly used in

very large industrial applications or where exact speed is
required.

Single phase induction motors are used where three phase

10 power is not available; typically in residential, commercial and
agricultural applications. They are also used in applications
with power requirements below 1 horsepower (HP). The main
sub-categories include:

•
•
Split phase

•
Capacitor run

•
Capacitor start

•
Capacitor start – capacitor run

•
Shaded pole
Universal motors

Universal motors are mostly operated on AC power, but they

can operate on either AC or DC. Tools and appliances are
among the most frequent applications.
 2 Motor Classification

DC motors are often used in applications where precise speed

control is required. They are divided into three sub-categories:

•
•
Series

•
Shunt
Compound

Advanced motors have been developed in recent years, a

number of which do not neatly fall within traditional motor
classifications. They are typically used in OEM applications.
Examples include:

•
•
Electronically commutated motors
Switched reluctance

11
 2 Motor Classification

12
 3 Operating Principles

3 OPERATING PRINCIPLES

a. Major Parts
All motors have two basic parts:

•
•
The STATOR (stationary part)
The ROTOR (rotating part)

The design and fabrication of these two components

determines the classification and characteristics of the motor.
Additional components (e.g. brushes, slip rings, bearings, fans,
capacitors, centrifugal switches, etc.) may also be unique to a
particular type of motor.

b. Operation 13

The motors described in this guide all operate on the principle

of electromagnetism. Other motors do exist that operate on
electrostatic and Piezoelectric principles, but they are less
common.

In electric motors, the magnitude of the force varies directly

with the strength of the magnetic field and the amount of
current flowing in the conductor (Figure 3-1).
 3 Operating Principles

FORCE

N S

MAGNETIC
FLUX

CURRENT

Figure 3-1: Force on a Conductor in a Magnetic Field

14
F = ILB , where

F – Force (newtons)
I – Current (Amperes)
L – Length (metres)
2
B – Magnetic Flux (webers/m )

In general, the rotor of an electric motor lies within a magnetic

field created by the stator. The magnetic field induces a current
within the rotor, and the resultant force caused by the
magnetic fields in the stator and rotor (and thus torque) causes
it to turn.
 3 Operating Principles

c. Motor Power and Torque

The nameplate on electric motors expresses the mechanical
power rating in either horsepower or kilowatts.

Horsepower Rating =
Kilowatt Rating
0.746

Two important factors that determine mechanical power

output are torque and speed.

Torque is a measure of force that tends to produce a rotation.

It is often stated in pound-feet or Newton-metres.

To better understand the concept of torque, consider a large

one foot long wrench being used to remove a nut (See Figure 15
3-2). If one applies 2 pounds of force at the end of this
wrench, the torque would be 2 pound-feet. Until the nut starts
to turn, no work is actually being performed. When the nut
actually starts to turn, work is being performed. Assuming the
same force continues to be applied to the wrench handle, the
power is essentially the rotational speed times the torque
applied.
 3 Operating Principles

2 POUNDS
NUT

1 FOOT

T= 2 lb-ft

Figure 3-2: Torque Example

Motor speed is commonly stated in revolutions per minute

(RPM).
16
Motor horsepower is defined as the rotational speed of the
motor multiplied by the torque.

Speed ( RPM ) × Torque ( pound − feet )

Horsepower =
5.252

The slower the motor operates the more torque it must

produce to deliver the same power output. To withstand the
greater torque, lower speed motors need stronger components
and are generally larger, heavier and more expensive than those
of higher speed motors of the same power rating.
 3 Operating Principles

There is sometimes confusion with the concept of torque and

speed with horsepower. To illustrate the difference, consider
the starting motor for an automobile. This specialty motor is
designed for high torque but relatively low horsepower. Its sole
purpose is to slowly turn the car engine to get it started.
Conversely, the motor in a small fan rotates at high speed, but
is easily stopped. The latter motor produces low torque. A final
example is a 3 HP table saw motor. Shoving a piece of wood
into the spinning blade will barely slow the motor down as the
motor combines both speed and torque for the application.

d. Torque-Speed Characteristics of
Motors
Torque produced by a motor typically varies with speed.
17
Each motor type has its own torque speed relationship which
when plotted as torque vs. speed helps in the selection process
(Figure 3-3).

300

% c
RATED 200
TORQUE a
b
100 d

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 3-3: Typical Torque-Speed Graph

 3 Operating Principles

Some important points found on a torque-speed graph include:

(a) Starting torque – the torque produced at zero speed.

If the motor is to turn a load that is difficult to start (a
high inertia load) one would choose a motor with high
starting torque.

(b) Pull-up torque – the minimum torque produced

during acceleration from standstill to operating speed.
This may be critical for an application that needs
power to go through some temporary barriers before
achieving the working level output.

(c) Breakdown torque – the maximum torque that the

motor can produce before stalling.

18 (d) Full load torque (also braking torque) – the torque

produced at full load speed that gives the rated output
of the motor. At this point the torque times the speed
equals the nameplate horsepower rating.
 4 AC Motors

4 AC MOTORS
A common feature of all AC motors is a rotating magnetic
field produced by the stator windings.

This concept can be illustrated for three phase motors by

considering three coils placed equally around the rotor. Each
coil is connected to one phase of a three phase power supply
(Figure 4-1).

STATOR
A WINDING

ROTOR

19

B C

Figure 4-1: Development of a Rotating Magnetic Field

 4 AC Motors

A B C
1

1/2

0 1 2
PHASE
CURRENT

-1/2

-1 B,C A,C A,B

TIME

A
t=0 t=1 t=2

C B C B

20
B C
A A

Figure 4-2: Resulting Fields

o
The current through each coil varies sinusoidal with time, 120
out of phase with the other coils. This means that the current
in coil B is delayed by 1/3 of a period from that in A, and the
current in coil C is delayed 1/3 of a period from that in B
(Figure 4-2).

The rotor sees the net rotating magnetic field created by the
three coils and rotates, creating the torque on the motor drive
shaft. This field rotates either clockwise or counter clockwise,
depending on the order of the phases connected to the motor.
 4 AC Motors

Reversing a 3-phase motor’s direction is simply achieved by

changing the connection order of two of the three conductors.

The rotating field speed depends on the number of magnetic

poles in the stator and is referred to as the synchronous speed.

120 × Frequency
Synchronous Speed =
Number of Poles

Frequency refers to the power supply frequency (e.g. 60 Hz).

The number of magnetic poles (or simply poles) is the

principal design factor affecting speed in AC motors.

a. 3-Phase Induction Motors

21
The rotor of an induction motor does not rotate at
synchronous speed or the speed of the magnetic field of the
stator, but lags slightly. This lag is usually expressed as a
percentage of the synchronous speed called “slip.” Motor slip is
the result of the interaction between the magnetic field of the
stator and the magnetic field resultant from the induced
currents flowing in the rotor. The rotor bars cut through the
magnetic lines of force resulting in useful torque being
produced. As the motor slows down (i.e. slip increases) when
load is added, more torque is created.

Synchronous Speed − Running Speed

Slip = × 100
Synchronous Speed
 4 AC Motors

3-phase induction motors are very robust and reliable and are
the most common type of motor in use.

Unfortunately, power factor 1 tends to be poor for reduced

loads. This is due to the current that is supplied to just
maintain magnetic field.

b. Squirrel Cage Motors

The rotor of a squirrel cage motor is made of conductive bars
that are parallel to the shaft and short circuited by the end
rings in which they are physically supported (Figure 4-3).

22

Figure 4-3: Squirrel Cage

Bar size, shape and resistance significantly influence torque-

speed characteristics. A break in a rotor bar or end ring

1
For more on power factor, see also pages 63 and 100.
 4 AC Motors

connection can lead to a more serious condition including high

frequency vibrations and even motor failure.

In order to facilitate the selection of motors, NEMA (National

Electrical Manufacturers Association) has assigned letter
designations A, B, C and D to describe standard torque-speed
design characteristics of squirrel cage motors up to 200 HP
(Table 4-1 & Figure 4-4).

Table 4-1: Squirrel Cage NEMA Design Characteristics

Design Starting Starting Breakdown Full Typical

Type Torque Current Torque Load Applications
Slip
A
machine tools,
Seldom normal high high <5%
fans, pumps
used

B normal normal normal <5% same as A

23

compressors,
C high normal low <5% crushers,
conveyors
punch presses,
very
D low n/a >5% high inertial
high
loads elevators
 4 AC Motors

% RATED % RATED
TORQUE A TORQUE B
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED % RATED SPEED

% RATED % RATED
TORQUE C TORQUE D
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED % RATED SPEED

Figure 4-4: Torque-Speed Graphs of

Design A, B, C, D Motors
24
Design type B is the most common and suits the majority of
motor applications.

Design A motors are not generally specified today due to the

high starting current. Design B motors should be specified
instead.

Motors are also referred to as being general, definite or special

purpose.

A general purpose motor is any motor which is designed in

standard ratings, such as those specified in the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Standards
Publication MG1-1993, paragraph 14.02.
 4 AC Motors

A definite purpose motor is any motor designed in standard

ratings with standard operating characteristics or standard
mechanical construction for use under service conditions other
than usual, such as those specified in NEMA Standards
Publication MG1-1993.

A special purpose motor is any motor (other than a general

purpose motor or definite purpose motor) which has special
operating characteristics or special mechanical construction (or
both) designed for a particular application. Motors over 500
HP are usually considered special purpose rather than general
purpose, and are designed for the specific application.

c. Wound Rotor Induction Motor

The wound rotor induction motor operates on the same
principles as the squirrel cage motor, but differs in the 25
construction of the rotor. Instead of shorted bars, the rotor is
made up of windings which terminate at slip rings on the
shaft.

This type of motor is used in special applications where a high

starting torque is required. Connection of external resistance to
the rotor circuit via the slip rings permits variation of motor
torque-speed characteristics (Figure 4-5 & Figure 4-6). After
starting, the slip rings are shorted together.

Shorting the external connection results in operation similar to

squirrel cage motors.
 4 AC Motors

LINE

SLIP EXTERNAL
RINGS RESISTORS
STATOR

WOUND
ROTOR
LINE

LINE

Figure 4-5: Wound Rotor Induction Motor

26
Speed range variation of about 5:1 can be achieved by adding
external resistance to the rotor circuit; however, this is at the
expense of electrical efficiency unless a slip energy recovery
circuit is used.
 4 AC Motors

R1
200 R2
R3
% RATED R4
TORQUE 100
CONSTANT LOAD

R4>R3>R2>R1
0
0 100%
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-6: Wound Rotor Torque-Speed Graph

for Various External Resistances

The maximum torque that a wound rotor motor can produce is 27

determined by the design of its rotor, but the speed at which
this torque is developed depends on external rotor resistance.

Each wound rotor design has a family of torque-speed curves

that correspond to various values of external rotor resistance.

d. Single Phase Induction Motors

When a single phase induction motor is running it develops a
rotating magnetic field, but before the rotor begins to turn, the
stator produces only a pulsating stationary field.

To produce a rotating field, and thus a starting torque, an

auxiliary starting winding is placed at right angles to the main
 4 AC Motors

stator winding so that the currents through them are out of

o
phase by 90 (1/4 of a period in time). This places the magnetic
o
fields 90 out of alignment. As a result, the rotor wants to align
the magnetic poles, which creates a starting torque. The
physical placement of the start winding and its relative polarity
to the main winding results in the motor consistently turning
in one direction when started. Once the motor has started, the
auxiliary winding is often removed from the circuit by a
centrifugal switch.

A failed start winding circuit will result in a motor that makes

a low humming sound and will start in either direction by
carefully providing a slight spin by hand.

Single phase induction motors are used in applications where

three phase power is not available, and are generally in the
28 fractional horsepower to 10 HP range. Larger than 10 HP
single phase motors are possible and are usually matched with
power electronics to limit starting currents which would be
very high otherwise.
 4 AC Motors

Table 4-2: AC Single Phase Induction Motors (Ref. 23)

Motor Type Starting Efficiency Application

Torque
Shaded Pole Low Low Direct Drive Fans
Split Phase Low Medium Direct Drive Fans,
Centrifugal Pumps, Air
and Refrigeration
Compressors
Medium Medium Belted Fans, Air and
Refrigeration
Compressors, Major
Appliances
Capacitor Start Medium Medium Belted Fans,
Compressors, Centrifugal
Pumps, Industrial, Farm,
Major Appliances,
Commercial Appliances,
Business Equipment
High Medium Positive Displacement
Pumps, Air and
Refrigeration 29
Compressors.
Capacitor Start Medium High Belted Fans, Centrifugal
/ Run Pumps
High High Positive Displacement
Pumps, Air and
Refrigeration
Compressors, Industrial,
Farm, Major Appliances,
Commercial Appliances,
Business Equipment
Permanent Low High Direct Drive Fans,
Split Capacitor Refrigeration
Compressor, Business
Equipment
 4 AC Motors

e. Split Phase Motors

Split phase motors use a starting winding with a different
resistance/reactance ratio than that of the main stator winding
to produce the phase difference required for starting
(Figure 4-7).
o
The phase difference is not the desired 90 , and the magnetic
fields are not equal. This results in a lower starting torque than
other motor designs.

MAIN WINDING STARTING WINDING

30 LINE

CENTRIFUGAL
SWITCH
Starting and Running
Winding
400
Switching
Point
300

Running
% 200
Winding
RATED
TORQUE 100

0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-7: Split Phase Motor

 4 AC Motors

Split phase motor starting torque, however, is sufficient for

many applications such as refrigerated display case circulation
fans and some power tools (e.g. drill press). This type of motor
is cheap to produce and is therefore a favourite in OEM
products. Typical sizes range up to about 1/2 HP.

f. Capacitor Motors
Many single phase motors use a capacitor in series with one of
the stator windings to optimize the field phase difference for
o
starting. Capacitive current leads voltage by 90 . Adding
capacitance causes a phase shift in one winding relative to the
other. The result is a higher starting torque than a split phase
motor can produce.

Capacitor motors are used in high starting torque applications

such as compressors and air conditioners. Typical sizes range 31
up to about 10 HP.

Capacitor Run Motor

Capacitor run motors use a capacitor permanently connected
in series with one of the start windings, to achieve a
compromise between good starting torque and good running
characteristics (Figure 4-8). This design is lower in cost than
other capacitor motors that incorporate capacitor switching
systems.

These motors achieve better starting torque and running

characteristics than a split phase motor and are sometimes
called permanent split capacitor (PSC) motors.
 4 AC Motors

New furnace fan motors sometimes use capacitor run motors.

CAPACITOR

MAIN WINDING

LINE

CAPACITOR WINDING

% 200
RATED
TORQUE 100
32

0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-8: Capacitor Run Motor

Capacitor Start Motor

In capacitor start motors, a capacitor connected in series with
the starting winding is sized to maximize starting torque
(Figure 4-9).
 4 AC Motors
CENTRIFUGAL
STARTING
SWITCH
CAPACITOR

LINE

MAIN WINDING STARTING WINDING

Main and
400 starting
windings
300 Switching
Point

200 Main
% Winding
RATED
TORQUE 100
33
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-9: Capacitor Start Motor

The starting winding is removed from the circuit by a

centrifugal switch or electronic relay when the motor reaches
running speed. Starting torque is higher than for capacitor run
motors, with running performance similar to a split phase
motor.
 4 AC Motors

Capacitor Start – Capacitor Run Motors

This design uses a capacitor optimized for running
characteristics in series with the main stator winding (Figure
4-10). A second capacitor in series with the starting winding
optimizes starting torque. The starting capacitor is switched
out of the circuit at running speed.

Sometimes the capacitor fails and the motor will not start. A
simple test is to remove the capacitor and check with an
ohmmeter (Ref. 2). If possible set to the highest ohms scale.
Upon contact with the terminals, the ohm value should drop
rapidly and then slow down and rise again. This means the
capacitor should be operational. However, if the ohms go
immediately to a low value near zero, the capacitor is shorted.
If the value stays very high, the capacitor is open circuited.
34 Installing a new capacitor of equal rating should remedy the
problem.
 4 AC Motors

STARTING
CAPACITOR
RUNNING
CAPACITOR
CENTRIFUGAL
SWITCH

LINE

MAIN WINDING
STARTING WINDING
Starting and
Running Switching
Winding Point

300
Running
% 200 Winding
RATED
TORQUE
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-10: Capacitor Start – Capacitor Run Motor

Both starting torque and running characteristics are optimized.

g. Shaded Pole Motors

A shaded pole motor is the simplest form of a single phase
motor and is very low in cost (Figure 4-11).

It develops a rotating field by delaying the build up of

magnetic flux through part of the pole structure.
 4 AC Motors

SINGLE TURN
COPPER CONDUCTOR SHADED PORTION
OF POLE

LINE

UNSHADED PORTION
OF POLE
% 300
RATED
TORQUE 200

36
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-11: Shaded Pole Motor

The shaded portion of the pole is isolated from the rest of the
pole by a copper conductor that forms a single turn around it.

The magnetic flux in the unshaded portion increases with the

current through its winding. Magnetic flux increases in the
shaded portion; however, it is delayed by the current induced
in the copper field.
 4 AC Motors

The magnetic field sweeps across the pole face from the
unshaded portion to the shaded portion, developing a torque
in the squirrel cage.

To maximize torque, the rotor is made with relatively high

resistance.

Shaded pole motors are used where low torque is acceptable

(such as fans) and are usually less than 1/4 HP.

Due to their very low efficiency, shaded pole motors should

only be used in applications where the motor is either very
small or operates for very short periods of time (e.g. shower fan
motor).

h. Synchronous Motors
37
A synchronous motor produces magnetic poles at fixed
positions on the rotor.

These poles lock onto the rotating field of the stator and turn
the rotor at synchronous speed based on the 60Hz supply
frequency.

A simple way to determine the speed of a synchronous motor

is to divide 3600 by half the number of poles. For example a 2
pole machine will turn at 3600 rpm, a 4 pole 1800 rpm, 6 pole
1200 rpm, etc.

There are several different types of single and 3-phase

synchronous motors.
 4 AC Motors

Synchronous motors are significantly more expensive than

induction motors. Their use is typically limited to applications
where uniform speed is absolutely required and motor slip
cannot be tolerated (See Section 4 a).

Excited Rotor Synchronous Motor

The magnetic poles on the rotor are electromagnets supplied
with direct current either by slip rings from a stationary
external DC power supply or internally by an alternator
mounted on the rotor shaft (brushless type) (Figure 4-12).

AC EXCITER RECTIFIER CONTROL MOTOR

ARMATURE DIODES CIRCUIT FIELD
WINDING

38

FIELD DISCHARGE
RESISTOR

Figure 4-12: Exciter for Brushless Synchronous Motor

The amount of excitation can be adjusted by varying the rotor

current on the brush-type motor or the alternator field
excitation on the brushless type.
 4 AC Motors

Altering the level of rotor excitation changes the power factor

of the motor.

The motor can run with a lagging power factor (underexcited)

or a leading power factor (overexcited).

An overexcited synchronous motor can be used to correct poor

power factor in a plant and can be adjusted as needed. Such a
setup is sometimes referred to as having a “synchronous
condenser.”

Non Excited or Reluctance Rotor Synchronous Motor

This design uses an iron rotor shaped to favour fixed paths for
magnetic flux (Figure 4-13). They typically range from
fractional horsepower to about 30 HP.
39

Figure 4-13: Non Excited Synchronous Motor Rotor

 4 AC Motors

Permanent magnets are sometimes used on the rotors of

smaller motors.

Reluctance rotor motors have low power factors during

operation. They are also physically larger than the excited type
motors of similar power rating.

Single Phase Synchronous Motors

Any single phase stator configuration can be used to make a
reluctance type synchronous motor (Figure 4-14).

The rotor is essentially a squirrel cage with some of its bars

removed in positions that favour specific magnetic flux paths.

During start-up the rotor lags the rotating magnetic field,

40 similar to an induction motor.

When the motor approaches synchronous speed, reluctance

torque causes the rotor to synchronize with the stator field.

This design is used in low power applications where

synchronous speed is required.
 4 AC Motors

ROTOR SHAPE
Starting and
Main
300
Windings
Switching
250 Point

200
Main
% Winding
RATED 150
TORQUE
100

50
41
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-14: Single Phase Reluctance Motor

i. Hysterisis Motor
For a hysterisis motor, the rotor is typically a cylinder of
magnetically hard steel without any windings or teeth (Figure
4-15).

Stator windings are usually a split capacitor type, with the

capacitor chosen to approximate two phase operation as closely
as possible.
 4 AC Motors

Stator

Stator

100

% RATED
42 TORQUE

0
0 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-15: Hysterisis Motor

The high retentivity of the rotor material causes its magnetic

orientation to lag behind the rotating magnetic field by a
fraction of a rotation.

Interaction between the rotating field and the rotor’s magnetic

polarity subjects the rotor to a torque which is consistent from
standstill to synchronous speed.

This design allows synchronization of high inertia loads.

 4 AC Motors

Operation is generally smooth and quiet because of the smooth

rotor periphery.

Hysterisis motors are generally used in low power application

such as clocks.

j. Universal Motors
Universal motors are series wound, with rotor circuitry similar
to DC motors (Figure 4-16).

The term universal results from their ability to operate on

either DC or AC power.

The operation and construction of these motors closely

resemble DC motors, with components designed for efficiency
on AC up to the line frequency (See Section 5 b). 43

Operating speeds typically range from 3,000 to 15,000 RPM.

The speed will drop with increasing load.

A high horsepower to size ratio is characteristic of this design.

Maintenance requirements per hour of operation are higher

than other designs due to the brush/commutator setup.

On motors with accessible brushes (typically coin-slot screw

plugs on either side of the motor), brush condition should be
checked occasionally to ensure adequate brush material
remains. When the brush is getting close to the holder or
braided end lead, it should be replaced with the same size and
type of brush. If the brush runs out and the holder touches the
 4 AC Motors

commutator, there will be a lot of sparking when the motor is

operated. Should this occur, stop the motor immediately.
Permanent damage may have been caused, but new brushes
may remedy the situation.

Common uses of these motors include low duty cycle

applications such as power saws, drills, vacuum cleaners and
lawn mowers. Sizes up to about 2 HP are common.

STATOR POLE

BRUSH
44
COMMUTATOR
S

LINE

DC
400

300
%
RATED 200
TORQUE
100
60 Hz AC 0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED

Figure 4-16: Universal Motor

 5 DC Motors

5 DC MOTORS
DC motors possess characteristics that make them attractive
for certain applications. For example, very high torque at low
speeds makes the series DC motor attractive for traction and
engine starting applications.

Rotational speed can easily be controlled by varying the supply

voltage.

The following is a general description typical of the DC

motors:

The rotating part (rotor) of a DC motor is called the armature,

and consists of windings similar to those in a wound rotor
induction motor (Figure 5-1).
45
The stationary part (stator) introduces a magnetic field by
either permanent magnets or field windings which act on the
armature.

Current flows through the armature windings via carbon

brushes and a commutator assembly. The commutator
assembly is easily recognizable as a ring of parallel diametrically
opposite pairs of rectangular shaped copper contacts at one end
of the armature. Each pair of contacts is connected to a coil
wound on the armature. The carbon brushes maintain contact
with the commutator assembly via springs. When the motor is
turned on, current flows in through one brush via a
commutator contact connected to a coil winding on the
armature, and flows out the other carbon brush via a
diametrically opposite commutator contact. This causes the
 5 DC Motors

armature to appear as a magnet with which the stator field

interacts. The armature field will attempt to align itself with
the stator field. When this occurs, torque is produced and the
armature will move slightly. At this time, connection with the
first pair of commutator contacts is broken and the next pair
lines up with the carbon brushes. This process repeats and the
motor continues to turn.

ARMATURE

ROTATION B
N . S
46 ROTATION
A

Figure 5-1: Torque Production in a DC Motor

a. Separately Excited DC Motor

The field (or stator) coil contains a relatively large number of
turns which minimizes the current required to produce a
strong stator field (Figure 5-2). It is connected to a separate
DC power supply, thus making field current independent of
load or armature current.
 5 DC Motors

Excellent speed regulation is characteristic of this design which

lends itself well to speed control by variation of the field
current.

Separately excited DC motors can race to dangerously high

speeds (theoretically infinity) if current to the field coil is lost.
Because of this, applications should include some form of field
current protection as an unprotected motor could literally fly
apart.

ARMATURE
CURRENT

FIELD
COIL
ARMATURE 47

100

75

% 50
RATED
SPEED
25

0
0 25 50 75 100
% LOAD TORQUE

Figure 5-2: Separately Excited DC Motor

 5 DC Motors

b. Series Field DC Motor

The field coil has a relatively small number of turns, and is
connected in series with the armature (Figure 5-3). Because it
carries full armature current, the magnetic field strength
increases with load and armature current.

Very high starting torque is the characteristic of this design.

Speed regulation is poor with a very high no load speed.

FIELD
COIL
ARMATURE

FIELD CURRENT =
48 ARMATURE CURRENT

Series

100

75

% 50
RATED
SPEED
25

0 25 50 75 100
% LOAD TORQUE

Figure 5-3: Series Field Motor

 5 DC Motors

c. Compound DC Motor
The compound DC motor uses both series and shunt field
windings, which are usually connected so that their fields add
cumulatively (Figure 5-4).

This two winding connection produces characteristics

intermediate to the shunt field and series field motors.

Speed regulation is better than that of the series field motor.

SERIES
FIELD COIL

SHUNT
FIELD
COIL
ARMATURE CURRENT

49
SEPARATE
DC SUPPLY

100
%
RATED 75
SPEED
50

25

0 25 50 75 100
% LOAD TORQUE

Figure 5-4: Compound DC Motor

 5 DC Motors

d. Permanent Magnet DC Motors

These motors use permanent magnets in place of field
windings to establish the stator magnetic field (Figure 5-5).

Permanent magnets provide constant field strength, with

motor characteristics similar to that of the shunt field DC
motor.

Permanent magnet motors are often used in low horsepower

applications, particularly those that are battery operated (e.g.
windshield wiper motor). However, with recent developments
in magnet technology, permanent magnet motors can be
greater than 200 HP.

ARMATURE
CURRENT
50

PERMANENT
MAGNETS

100

75
%
RATED
SPEED 50

25

0
0 25 50 75 100
% LOAD TORQUE

Figure 5-5: Permanent Magnet DC Motor

 6 Advanced Motors

6 ADVANCED MOTORS

a. Electronically Commutated Motor

(ECM)
An ECM is an electronically commutated permanent magnet
DC motor (Figure 6-1).

Electronics provide precisely timed voltages to the coils, and

use rotation position sensors for timing.

A' A'

51
D' B

D B'

C' C

Figure 6-1: Electronically Commutated Motor (ECM)

The electronic controller can be programmed to vary the

torque speed characteristics of the motor for a wide variety of
OEM applications such as fans and drives.
 6 Advanced Motors

Although presently more costly than alternative motor

technologies, the higher efficiency and flexible operating
characteristics of these motors make them attractive.

An ECM is essentially a brushless DC motor with all speed

and torque controls built in (Ref. 3). Typical applications
include variable torque drives for fans and pumps, commercial
refrigeration, and appliances.

For furnace fans, efficiency can be 20 to 30 percentage points

higher than a standard induction motor at full load. However,
for constant air circulation ECM’s have a definite advantage
over standard direct drive blower motors. At half speed, the
ECM might consume as little as 10% of the energy of a multi
speed blower motor.

52 For appliances such as washing machines, the ECM can

replace the mechanical transmission due to wide range of
torque speed characteristics it can produce.
 6 Advanced Motors

b. Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

The advantage of a switched reluctance motor is high torque at
low speed, plus a very high speed range (Figure 6-2).

% RATED % RATED
TORQUE A TORQUE B
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED % RATED SPEED

% RATED % RATED
TORQUE C TORQUE D
300 300

200 200

100 100 53
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% RATED SPEED % RATED SPEED

Figure 6-2: Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

As with the ECM, electronics provide precisely timed voltages

to the coils and use rotation position sensors for timing.

Switched Reluctance motors are used for several hundred

thousand premium washing machines per year. No
transmission is needed (Ref. 20).
 6 Advanced Motors

c. Permanent Magnet Motors

New high strength magnetic materials and power electronics
have been combined to produce high efficiency variable speed
motors ranging from sub fractional to multiple horse power
units. Generally these motors/controls are purpose built and
are therefore incorporated into OEM products.

d. Other Advanced Motors

Written Pole Motor
Written-Pole motors are special single-phase AC motors
which can change the position of magnetic poles while the
motor operates (Figure 6-3) (Ref. 4).
54
In written-pole motors, “permanent” magnet poles are
continuously and instantaneously written on a magnetic layer
in the rotor by an exciter pole in the stator. The magnetic poles
are written to a different spot on the rotor during each
revolution when rotor speed changes. This keeps the pole
pattern at a constant poles/sec speed.

Most written-pole motors feature an external rotor that spins

around an internal stator, opposite that of conventional
motors. This inverted structure creates a flywheel effect that
allows the machine to ride through brief power disturbances. A
3-phase generator built into the motor provides power to
external loads for up to 15 seconds at full load.
 6 Advanced Motors

The rotor’s construction with permanent magnets reduces

starting current. Written-pole motors need only one-third the
amount of starting current as conventional induction motors.

The written pole motor has found a market in areas with a

large number of external power line disturbances brought on
by lightening, as they are more immune to such disturbances
than power electronics.

Stationary
stator with
Rotor squirrel main windings
cage

Exciter coil
windings
write poles
as rotor's
high coercive
magnetic
55
layer
passes by

Ferrite
magnetic
ARMATURE
layer
CURRENT
accepts
written-pole

Figure 6-3: Written Pole Motor

Linear DC Motors
A linear DC motor, like a rotating DC motor, generates
mechanical force by the interaction of current in conductors
and magnetic flux provided by permanent rare-earth magnets
(Ref. 5).
 6 Advanced Motors

These motors are constructed of a stator assembly and a slider.

The stator assembly contains a laminated steel structure with
conductors wound in transverse slots. The slider houses
magnets, commutation components and a bearing surface.

Some linear DC motors use a brushless slider that contains an

additional set of magnets which activate hall-effect sensors and
solid-state switches to commutate the motor windings. This
type of motor is capable of precision accuracy to 0.1 micron
and does not deteriorate with wear. It can drive loads directly
with a wide range of thrust and travel.

Linear AC Motors
Linear AC motors (LIMs) are often used in rail propulsion
systems. Stator coils are embedded along the track. Examples
56 of linear AC Motors include the Vancouver Sky Train and the
Tomorrowland Transit Authority at Walt Disney World.
Speeds of up to 400 km/h are achievable.

Hybrid Motor
The hybrid motor combines the qualities of variable reluctance
(VR) and permanent magnet (PM) motors, to achieve
desirable features of each (Figure 6-4). They have high detent
torque and excellent holding and dynamic torque, and they can
operate at high stepping speeds. Normally, they exhibit step
angles of 0.9 to 5 degrees. If the phases are energized one at a
time in the order indicated, the rotor would rotate in
increments of 1.8 degrees. This motor can be driven two
phases at a time to yield more torque. It can also be driven to
 6 Advanced Motors

alternate between one and two phase to produce half steps or

0.9 degree increments.

Stator Winding
A
Stator
B
S
D' Rotor (PM)
N N

C S S C'

N N

D S B'

A'
57
Figure 6-4: Hybrid Motor
 6 Advanced Motors

58
 7 Motor Selection

7 MOTOR SELECTION

a. Electrical Supply Considerations

The electrical supply distribution system must supply the
correct voltage and have sufficient capacity to start and operate
the motor load. Table 7-1 provides a cross comparison of
nominal system voltage to show what one might find on a
typical motor nameplate.

The limit to the supply voltage is dependent on the current

required to operate the motor. For example, a 50 HP motor
will require 150 Amps to operate at 208/120 volts, but requires
only 50 Amps at 600/347 volts. Therefore, it would not be
economically practical to provide motors beyond a certain HP
rating for a given voltage when the conductor size becomes too 59
large both in the supply to and within the motor.

Single Phase:

Single phase motors are rated for 120/240 volts at 60 Hz.

3-Phase:

3-phase motors up to 100 HP are available for 200, 240/460,

460 or 600 volts at 60 Hz. For 125 HP and up, they are
available for 460, 600, 2400 or 4160 volts at 60 Hz.
 7 Motor Selection

Voltage and Frequency

Motors can be specified to operate on voltages and frequencies
other than standard. An example of this is low voltage 400 Hz
motors that are used in the aircraft industry, as well as some
mine tool applications.

The nominal supply voltage of the power system and the

utilization or nameplate voltage on the motor often differ.
The following table (Table 7-1) shows the relation between
motor nameplate voltage and the correct supply voltage for
that motor.

Table 7-1: Nominal System vs. Motor Nameplate Voltage

Nominal System Voltage Motor Nameplate Voltage

60
120 – 1 phase 115
208/120 – 3 phase 200
240 – 1 phase or 3 phase 230
480/277 – 3 phase 460
600/347 – 3 phase 575
2400 – 3 phase 2300
4160/2400 – 3 phase 4000

The following should be considered when selecting a motor for

a particular application:

1. The mechanical requirements of the driven load.

2. Motor classification.
3. The electrical distribution system.
4. Physical and environmental considerations.
 7 Motor Selection

The ultimate selection will be a motor available from a

manufacturer that meets or exceeds the required specifications.

with voltage variations of ± 10%. Table 7-2 shows the effects

3-phase induction motors are designed to operate successfully

of a 10% variation on a typical Design B induction motor at

full load.

Table 7-2: Motor Characteristic vs. Voltage

Voltage
Characteristic
110% 90%
Slip -17% +23%
Efficiency +1% -2%
Power Factor -3% +1%
Current -7% +11%
o
Temperature C -4% +7%
Starting Torque +21% -19% 61
Starting Current +10% -10%

The use of a motor with a non-standard or incorrect utilization

voltage from the supply system should be avoided. For
example, a motor with a nameplate voltage of 440 V is
sometimes connected to a 480 V system. While the maximum
allowable voltage for the motor is 484 V (110% x 440) there is
no allowance for an upward supply voltage variation (for
example, the utility can supply 500 volts and be within
accepted tolerances) as the motor is already operating at its
upward supply voltage limit. A motor of the proper voltage
rating should be used, or a transformer should be installed to
supply the correct voltage.
 7 Motor Selection

Phase voltage unbalance must be less than 1% for proper

motor operation. A phase unbalance of 3.5% results in a
temperature rise of 25% and a current increase of 6-10 times
the voltage unbalance. These effects occur due to negative
sequence currents flowing in the motor. Voltage unbalance is
calculated as follows:

V Unbalance = × 100
Maximum Deviation from Average
V Average

As an example, if line voltages were measured as 600, 585, and

609 volts, the average is 589 volts. The maximum deviation
from average is 13 volts (598-585), and thus the voltage
unbalance is (13/598) x 100 = 2.2%.

62 If a motor must be operated with a phase unbalance of greater

than 1%, then the motor should be derated according to the
following graph:

1.0
DERATING FACTOR

0.9

0.8

0.7
0 1 2 3 4 5
PERCENT VOLATAGE UNBALANCE

Figure 7-1: 3-phase Squirrel Cage Induction Motors

Derating Factor Due to Unbalanced Voltage
 7 Motor Selection

A motor should not be operated if the phase unbalance is

greater than 5%.

Frequency variation of up to 5% is permitted for normal motor

operation. However, this should never be a problem if the
system is supplied from a utility. Motor speed varies directly
with the frequency of the power supply.

Power Factor
Most AC motors require reactive power from the supply
system to develop magnetic fields. Measured in kVARs,
reactive power does not provide any mechanical work.

Useful mechanical work is developed from real power supplied

by the supply system and is measured in kilowatts (kW).
63
The supply distribution system provides both real and reactive
power to operate the motor. The vector sum of real and
reactive power is called the apparent power and is expressed in
kVA.

The reactive component stays essentially constant whether a

motor is lightly or heavily loaded. Therefore lightly loaded
motors are said to have a lower power factor than a fully loaded
motor. A facility with a very low uncorrected power factor is
indicative of a significantly high number of under loaded
motors.

If you are billed for kVA, then you are paying for the reactive
power component and you are not getting any useful work.
The measure of real power (kW) divided by total power (kVA)
 7 Motor Selection

is defined as the “power factor.” The highest power factor

achievable is 1 or “unity” power factor and is often expressed as
a percentage with 1 equal to 100%.
Industrial customers install capacitors to cancel the inductive
component of motor loads to improve their power factor. In
Figure 7-2, the vertical vector above the real power line
represents the inductive component and the horizontal vector
represents the real power. The hypotenuse vector equals the
square root of the sum of the squared real and reactive vectors
(See the equation following Figure 7-2). The vertical vector
pointing below the horizontal line represents the capacitive
reactance. When the capacitive reactance equals the inductive
reactance, the two vertical vectors cancel each other out,
leaving only the real power component (i.e. unity power
factor). However, if capacitance exceeds inductance, a leading
power factor will result which could result in over voltage and
64 harmonic problems. To avoid this, capacitors should be
switched on and off to match at the service entrance or better
still installed at the motor load.
 7 Motor Selection

TOTAL POWER (VOLT AMPHERES) INDUCTIVE

(LAGGING)

φ REACTIVE POWER (VARS)

REAL POWER (WATTS)

CAPACITIVE
(LEADING)

= COS φ
POWER FACTOR

= REAL POWER
TOTAL POWER

Figure 7-2: Power Factor Triangle

Apparent Power = Re al Power 2 + Re active Power 2

65

Voltage Flicker
Starting motors or other large loads causes a voltage drop on
the supply system due to the effect of their high inrush
currents on the circuit impedance. This may be perceived as a
flicker in lighting circuits. As the motor comes up to speed, the
current falls to normal operating levels and system voltage
rises. This flicker becomes objectionable when the magnitude
of the voltage drop and the frequency of occurrence exceed
certain thresholds. This threshold of objection is shown on a
voltage flicker curve (Figure 7-3).
 7 Motor Selection

7.0

6.0

5.0
% VOLTAGE DIP

OBJECTIONABLE RANGE
4.0

Threshold
3.0 of Objection

7.0
NOT
OBJECTIONABLE
1.5 RANGE
Threshold of
1.0 Preception

0.5
4 8 12 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30
PER DAY PER HOUR PER MINUTE PER SECOND

FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION

OR NUMBER OF STARTS

Figure 7-3: Voltage Flicker Curve

66 If the magnitude of voltage drop and the frequency of

occurrence lie below the threshold of objection, but about the
threshold of perception, people notice the light flicker, but
generally do not find it irritating.

If the magnitude of the voltage drop and the frequency of

occurrence lie below the threshold of perception, people do not
generally notice any flicker.

Some electronic devices such as PCs, televisions and PLCs

may not be able to tolerate voltage flicker as well as others.
While some devices can ride through minor flicker incidents,
others may lock up or suffer component failure.
 7 Motor Selection

As an example, consider a 5 HP motor supplied by a 208 V

feeder which also supplies 120 V lighting circuits (Figure 7-4).

Assume: 5 HP motor
Full Load Amps = 16 A

Feeder impedance = 0.06 Ω

Starting current = 96 A

Calculate Feeder Voltage Drop:

feeder impedance Ω
Voltage drop along feeder = starting current (A) x

=96A x 0.06Ω
=6V

7.0

6.0
67
POINT A
5.0
% VOLTAGE DIP

OBJECTIONABLE RANGE
4.0

POINT B Threshold
3.0 of Objection

7.0
NOT
OBJECTIONABLE
1.5 RANGE
Threshold of
1.0 Preception

0.5
4 8 12 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30
PER DAY PER HOUR PER MINUTE PER SECOND

FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION

OR NUMBER OF STARTS

Figure 7-4: Voltage Flicker Curve - Example

The 6 V drop along the feeder is equal to 5% of the voltage on

the 1320 V lighting circuit and causes a noticeable flicker.
 7 Motor Selection

If the motor is started once every hour then the point on the
flicker curve is in the objectionable range (point A).

To correct this problem, the lighting circuits can be supplied

from a separate feeder, or the voltage drop along the feeder can
be reduced. In this case, a drop of 3.6% or less is not
objectionable.

Supplying the lighting from a different feeder or upgrading the

feeder is one approach that is often used.

A reduced voltage starter for the motor is another alternative

and is often a very cost effective solution.

If the starting current is limited to 70% of its normal value by

use of a reduced voltage starter, the voltage dip is 3.5% (70% x
68 5%) and the motor starting once per hour is not objectionable
(Point B).

b. Motor Considerations
3-Phase Motor
Induction Motor Selection:

Wound rotor induction motors are often referred to as squirrel

cage. They are considered the workhorse of the industry
because of their relatively low cost, high availability, and
minimal maintenance requirements.

3-phase squirrel cage induction motors in the 1 to 200 HP

range are specified by their design type: A, B, C or D.
 7 Motor Selection

These standard designs are suited to particular classes of

applications based on the load requirements typical of each
class.

Wound rotor induction motors are useful in some applications

because their rotor circuits can be altered to give the desired
starting or running characteristics; however, they require brush
servicing maintenance.

Table 7-3 can be used to help determine which design type

should be selected.

Design B motors are by far the most common and satisfy

virtually all applications, except where high starting torque or
high peak loads are encountered.

Design A is rarely used in new applications as the starting 69

current is higher than design B for virtually the same starting
torque. Design A is included here for completeness only.
 7 Motor Selection

Table 7-3: Induction Motor Selection

Starting Breakdown
Torque Torque
Starting Typical
Classification (Percent (Percent Slip
Current Applications
Rated Load Rated Load
Torque) Torque)
Fans, blowers,
Design A and B
centrifugal pumps
Normal starting
and compressor,
current
100-200% 200-250% Normal <5% etc., where starting
torque
requirements are
relatively low.
Conveyors,
crushers, string
machines,
Design C High agitators,
starting torque reciprocating
200 – 250% 200-250% Normal <5%
and normal pumps and
starting current. compressors, etc.,
where starting
under load is
required.
High peak loads
with flywheels
such as punch
presses, shears,
70 Design D High elevators,
starting torque 275% 275% Low >5% extractors,
and slip. winches and
hoists, oil-well
pumping and
wiredrawing
machines.
Where high
starting, or limited
Any torque Depends
Depends on (2:1) speed are
up to the on
Wound rotor 225-275% Rotor required and
breakdown starting
resistance where high inertia
value torque.
loading must be
accelerated.

Synchronous Motor Selection

A synchronous motor is sometimes selected instead of an

induction motor because of its operating characteristics. It is
significantly more expensive and only used if it can be justified
by the following considerations:
 7 Motor Selection

Speed:
Synchronous motors operate at synchronous
speed with no speed drop over the load range.
They should be selected if exact speed is required.

Power Factor Correction:

Synchronous motors can generate reactive power to

correct poor supply system power factor while
delivering mechanical power. When supplying reactive
power they are said to be operating at a leading power
factor.

Lower Operating Costs:

Synchronous motors are often more energy efficient

than induction motors, especially in the larger 71
horsepower ranges.

A general rule of thumb is that a synchronous motor should be

selected where the horsepower requirement exceeds the speed
(in RPM) of the motor.

Direct Current Motor Selection

DC motors are often selected where precise speed control is

required, as DC speed control is simpler, less costly and spans
a greater range than AC speed control systems.

Where very high starting torque and/or high over-torque

capability is required, DC motors are often selected.
 7 Motor Selection

They are also appropriate where equipment is battery powered.

Single Phase Motor

Single phase motors are selected according to the type of load
or application for which they are intended. Table 7-4 lists
motor types, characteristics and typical uses for single phase
motors.

Table 7-4: Single Phase Motor Selection

Starting
Torque
as
Typical Comparative
Type Percent Typical Applications
RPM Efficiency
of Full-
Load
Torque
72 1050, Very
Shaded
1550, Low 50- Low Small direct-drive fans and blowers.
Pole
3000 100%

Permanent
825,
Split Low 75-
1075, Moderate Direct-drive fans and blowers
Capacitor 150%
1625
(PSC)

Low to
1140, Belt-drive and direct-drive fans and
Moderate
Split-Phase 1725, Moderate blowers, small tools, centrifugal
130-
3450 pumps, and appliances
170%
Moderate
1140, Pumps, compressors, tools,
Capacitor- to High Moderate to
1725, conveyors, farm equipment, and
Start 200- High
3450 industrial ventilators
400%
 7 Motor Selection

c. Driven Load Considerations

For a motor to drive a load properly, it must produce enough
torque to accelerate from standstill to operating speed, and it
must supply enough power for all possible demands without
exceeding its design limits.

For example, a motor with inadequate starting torque for the

connected load will either not turn or will act sluggishly during
acceleration. The starting current may persist for too long and
consequently trip overload protection. While running, an
undersized motor may stall if the load suddenly increases (e.g.
too many sheets fed into a paper shredder).

To specify the motor properly, certain characteristics of the

load should be considered.
73
Motors must be sized to accommodate the running load’s
speed and torque requirements. Load types can be classified
into different duty cycles describing operating time and load
variations.

If replacing an existing motor is considered, monitoring the

power input to the motor over a period of time will determine
an optimum size. Inexpensive battery powered data loggers
work well for load trending.

There are three general classifications of duty cycle that

describe most motor loads: continuous, repetitive and
intermittent duty.
 7 Motor Selection

Continuous Duty – Torque Constant

The majority of motor applications are continuous duty.
This cycle has essentially a constant motor load for an
indefinitely long period of time.

Size motors for the horsepower requirement of the continuous

load.

Repetitive Duty Cycle – Variable Torque

This motor application has various loads that are well defined
and repeating. For example, a plastic injection molding
machine.

For repetitive duty cycle loads, the motor rating is determined

74 form the root-mean-square or RMS horsepower.

The RMS horsepower is calculated by the following equation:

∑ HP t
∑t
=
2

HP RMS

The RMS horsepower is the square root of the sums of the

horsepower squared, time the time interval; divided by the
sums of the time intervals.

For example, consider the following horsepower-time curve

(Figure 7-5).
 7 Motor Selection

10
8
HP Load

6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60
Time (seconds)

Figure 7-5: Repeating Duty Cycle Curve

For this load the time interval and load are: 75

Table 7-5: Repetitive Duty Cycle Example

Time
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
(sec)
Load
5 7 1 9 1 8
(HP)
2
HP t 250 490 10 810 10 640

The RMS horsepower is calculated as:

∑ 250 + 490 + 10 + 810 + 10 + 640 = 6.07

∑10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10
HP RMS
=
 7 Motor Selection

The next higher standard rating, a 7.5 HP motor would be the

appropriate choice since 6.07 HP motors aren’t available.

Intermittent Duty
This cycle alternates between indefinite intervals of load and
no-load; load and rest; or load, no-load and rest. For example,
a garage door opener.

Select motor so the horsepower rating of the motor matches

the loaded power requirement.

d. Speed
Constant speed Example – vent fan.
76
Multi-speed Example – furnace fan.

Adjustable speed Example –transmission free

washing machine.

e. Starting and Stopping

Frequency of starting and stopping. For frequent starts, ensure
winding and core temperature do not exceed motor rating.

Starting torque requirement. Pay special attention to high

inertia loads to ensure motor starting torque is adequate.

Acceleration restrictions. Ensure the motor driving the load

reaches full speed quickly enough to avoid tripping the
 7 Motor Selection

overload protection. Conversely, some loads require time to

accelerate to full speed, e.g. a conveyor belt – a variable speed
drive may be justified to achieve this and keep current lower
when starting up.

f. Custom
Manufacturers’ lines of “standard” motors offer models that
suit most applications. Standard motors are less expensive,
have proven engineering and are available on shorter lead
times. However, motors can be ordered with myriad of
variations to fit special applications where a standard motor is
not suitable. Each motor supplier can provide specific
information on availability lead time and price.

g. Environmental Factors 77

Usual Service Conditions

Motor ratings apply to motors operating under usual service
conditions.

NEMA Standard MG 1 specifies usual environmental

conditions as:

1. Exposure to an ambient temperature in the range of

o o
0 C to 40 C; when water cooling is used, in the range
o o
of 10 C to 40 C.
2. Exposure to an altitude which does not exceed 3300
feet (1000 metres), (See MG 1-14.04).
3. Installation on a rigid mounting surface.
 7 Motor Selection

4. Installation in areas or supplementary enclosures

which do not seriously interfere with the ventilation of
the machine.

Unusual Service Conditions

The manufacturer should be consulted if the motor is to be
operated in unusual service conditions.

NEMA standards specify typical unusual service conditions as:

1. Exposure to:
a. Combustible, explosive, abrasive, or conducting
dusts.
b. Lint or very dirty operating conditions where the
accumulation of dirt may interfere with normal
78 ventilation.
c. Chemical fumes, flammable or explosive gasses.
d. Nuclear radiation.
e. Steam, salt-laden air, or oil vapour.
f. Damp or very dry locations, radiant heat, vermin
infestation, or atmospheres conducive to the
growth of fungus.
g. Abnormal shock, vibration, or mechanical loading
from external sources.
h. Abnormal axial or side thrust imposed on the
motor shaft.
 7 Motor Selection

2. Operation where:
a. There is excessive departure from rated voltage or
frequency, or both (See MG 1012.44 for
alternating current motors and MG 1-16.64 for
direct-current motors).
b. The deviation factor of the alternating-current
supply voltage exceeds 10%.
c. The alternating-current supply voltage is
unbalanced by more than 1% (see MG 1-12.45
and MG 1-14.35).
d. The rectifier output supplying a direct-current
motor is unbalanced so that the difference
between the highest and lowest peak amplitudes
of the current pulses over one cycle exceed 10% of
the highest pulse amplitude at rated armature
current.
79
e. Low noise levels are required.

3. Operation at speeds above the highest rated speed.

4. Operation in a poorly ventilated room, in a pit, or in

an inclined position.

5. Operation subject to:

a. Torsion impact loads.
b. Repetitive abnormal overloads.
c. Reversing or electric braking.

6. Operation of a machine at standstill with any winding

continuously energized, or of a short-time-rated
machine with any winding continuously energized.
 7 Motor Selection

7. Operation of a direct-current machine where the

average armature current is less than 50 percent of the
rated full-load Amperes over a 4-hour period, or
continuous operation at armature current less than 50
percent of rated current for more than 4 hours.

h. Physical Factors
Enclosure
The enclosure for the motor should be chosen to protect it
from the expected operating environment.

Table 7-6 lists standard enclosures as specified by NEMA.

80
 7 Motor Selection

Table 7-6: Standard Motor Enclosures

Types Characteristics

Open:

Drip-proof (ODP) Operate with dripping liquids up to 15’ from vertical

Operate with splashing liquids up to 100’ from
Splash-proof
vertical
Guarded Guarded by limited size openings (less than ¾ in.)
Semiguarded Only top half of motor guarded.
Drip-proof fully guarded Drip proof motor with limited size openings.
Ventilated with separate motor driven blower, can
Externally ventilated
have other types of protection.
Pipe ventilated Openings accept inlet ducts or pipe for air cooling.
Ventilating passages minimize entrance of rain,
Weather protected type 1 snow, and airborne particles. Passages are less than
¾ in. in diameter.
Motors have in addition to type 1, passages to
Weather protected type 2 discharge high-velocity particles blown into the 81
motor.

Totally enclosed:

Nonventilated (TENV) Not equipped for external cooling.

Fan-cooled (TEFC) Cooled by external integral fan.
Withstands internal gas explosion. Prevents ignition
Explosion-proof (TEXP)
of external gas.
Excludes ignitable amounts of dust and amounts of
Dust-ignition-proof
dust that would degrade performance.
Waterproof Excludes leakage except around shaft.
Pipe-ventilated Openings accept inlet ducts or pipe for air cooling.
Water-cooled Cooled by circulating water.
Water to air-cooled Cooled by water-cooled air.
Air-to-air cooled Cooled by air-cooled air.
Guarded TEFC Fan cooled and guarded by limited size openings.
Has resin-filled windings for severe operating
Encapsulated
conditions.
 7 Motor Selection

Mounting and Base Considerations

Motors are generally mounted horizontally with feet attached
to the floor, but other arrangements are common:

•
•
Wall mounted

•
Ceiling mounted

•
Pedestal mounted

•
Face mounted
Flange mounted

The size and length of the shaft can be specified if the

standard shaft types or materials are not suitable for the
required mounting arrangement or machine configuration.

82 Insulation
The type of insulation used in a motor depends on the
operating temperature that the motor will experience. Motors
are specified by ambient temperature and insulation class.

Class A is an older obsolete classification. Class B is the

current standard.

Class F and H are used for higher temperature applications

and are often available as “standard” by many motor
manufacturers.

Average insulation life decreases rapidly with increasing

temperature. A cool running motor will have a much longer
insulation life.
 7 Motor Selection

Table 7-7: Insulation Classes

AC Motor DC. Motor W/1.00 S.F.

Max. Total Temperature Range DC Motor Total
Class
(Including Ambient and Temperature Temperature Range
oC
110 Hot Spot) Range
A 105oC A 110o C
o
B 130 C B 140o C
F 155oC F 170o C
H 180oC H 195o C

Table 7-7 shows the maximum allowable stator winding

temperature for an operating life of 20,000 hr and a maximum
o
ambient temperature of 40 C.

As a general rule of thumb, insulation life doubles for each 83

10°C of unused insulation temperature capability. For example,
if you design a motor to have a total temperature of 110°C
(including ambient, rise, and hot spot allowance), but build it
with a Class B (130°C) system, an unused capacity of 20°C
exists. This extra margin raises the expected motor insulation
life from 20,000 hrs to 80,000 hrs.
 7 Motor Selection

100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000
Average
Insulation Life
INSULATION LIFE (HOURS)

20,000
105° 130° 155° 180°

10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000

5,000

4,000

CLASS A CLASS F
3,000

CLASS B CLASS H
2,000

1,000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

WINDING TEMPERATURE IN °C

Figure 7-6: Insulation Life vs. Temperature

84 Service Factors
Motor service factor is an indication of the ability to exceed the
mechanical power output rating on a sustained basis. A service
factor of greater than 1.0 allows a margin for peak horsepower
demand without selecting the next larger motor size. At an
o
ambient temperature of 40 C, the standard service factor for
integral HP motors up to 200 HP is 1.15.

Motor efficiency is usually reduced during operation at the

service factor rating.

Service factors for higher temperatures or high altitude

(>3300 feet) can often be specified where required.
 7 Motor Selection

Noise
If a motor is applied in an area where noise levels are of
concern, motors equipped with plain bearings and specially
designed ventilation systems are available. Plain bearings are
quieter than roller or ball bearings.

If noise is a real issue, there are many active and passive

technologies available to substantially reduce audible noise.
Motors inherently have repetitive noise emissions and
therefore lend themselves to noise cancelling techniques.
Producing an equal and opposite phase waveform of the noise
effectively cancels or substantially reduces motor noise. Noise
cancelling headphones for air passengers use these techniques
to effectively block out engine noise.

85
i. Efficiency and Economics
When selecting a motor for a particular application, both its
capital cost and the cost of energy for operation should be
considered.

Energy Costs
The cost of electricity to run a motor for one year can easily
exceed the purchase price of the motor.

Figure 7-7 shows the operating cost for a typical standard

efficiency 20 HP motor operating for one year at 88%
efficiency.
 7 Motor Selection

11
8¢/kwh
10
ANNUAL ENERGY COST THOUSANDS $ 7¢/kwh
9

RATE
6¢/kwh
8

7 5¢/kwh
6
4¢/kwh
5
3¢/kwh
4

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
NUMBER OF HOURS OF OPERATION PER YEAR

Figure 7-7: Annual Operating Costs of a 20 HP Motor

Since the operating cost over the life of a motor is often many
86 times its purchase price, small differences in motor efficiency
can yield significant savings.

Motor Efficiency
The efficiency of a motor is the ratio of mechanical power
output to the electrical power input and is usually expressed as
a percentage.

Input − Losses
Efficiency = × 100 × 100
Output
Input Input

Electric motors are generally efficient devices, but with

enhanced materials and improved design they can operate with
fewer losses. These are referred to as energy efficient motors
 7 Motor Selection

because they produce the same mechanical output power using

less electrical input power than a standard motor.

Motors can experience losses, whereby they consume electrical

energy, but do not contribute useful mechanical energy output.

They occur in five areas:

•
•
Core losses

•
Stator losses

•
Rotor losses

•
Friction and windage
Stray load losses

Core Loss (25%)

Stator Loss (35%)
Breakdown of Motor Rotor Loss (25%)
losses at Full load Friction and 87
(% of total losses) Windage (5%)
Stray Loss (10%)

Electrical
Power In

Mechanical
Power Out

Figure 7-8: Motor Losses

 7 Motor Selection

Core losses are comprised of Hysterisis losses (the energy

required to magnetize the core) and eddy current losses in the
stator core (magnetically induced circulating currents). Core
losses make up about 25% of the total losses.
2
Stator losses are due to the I R heating effect of current
flowing through the resistance of the stator windings. They
account of approximately 35% of the total.
2
Rotor losses are caused by the I R heating effect in the rotor.
Rotor losses are responsible for about 25% of the total.

Friction and windage losses include bearing friction, wind

friction on the rotor assembly, and the motor’s cooling fan
load. They make up about 5% of the total.

88 Efficiency and Motor Sizing

The efficiency of induction motors varies with load.

Peak efficiency occurs between about 60% and 100% of full

load depending on design, and drops significantly below about
30% of full load (Figure 7-9).
 7 Motor Selection

100 HP

90
10 HP
80 1 HP
70

60
EFFICIENCY %
50

40

30

20

10

0
0 25 50 75 100 125
% RATED LOAD

Figure 7-9: Typical Motor Efficiency vs. Load

Good engineering practice dictates slightly over-sizing a motor 89

for the following reasons:

•
•
To allow for an increase in production

•
To accommodate load fluctuations and overloads
To accommodate the increase in load as the driven

•
load wears
To increase motor operating life because of lower
winding temperatures.

Sizing a motor for operation at about 75% of full load provides

what is generally considered to be a reasonable margin. A
service factor of 1.15 allows an additional 15% margin over full
load to accommodate short term peak load conditions.
 7 Motor Selection

Induction motors should not be grossly oversized (<50% load)

as the initial cost and energy costs are greater and the power
factor and efficiency are lower.

Life Cycle Cost

An electric motor can consume up to ten times its purchase
cost annually over its lifetime which can range from 15 to 25
years or more. Improvements in efficiency can result in
substantial savings in life cycle cost which includes the capital
and operating costs.

LifeCycleCost = C + ET + M
Where:

C = initial capital cost plus installation

90
ET = total energy cost = Hr/yr x $/kWh x avg. kW x years
M = total maintenance cost = annual $ x years

More complex calculations include discount factors, inflation,

energy price increases etc., all brought back to a present value.
However, since energy is the most significant factor in lifecycle
cost, simple comparisons can be quickly made using this
formula.

For example, a 10 HP motor operates 50% of the time at an

average output of 7.5 HP. Its efficiency is 88%. Purchase price
is $700 and installation is $100. The motor is expected to last
10 years and cost $30/year to maintain. Electricity price is
$0.05/kWh
 7 Motor Selection

Energy consumption would be as follows:

C = 700 + 100
⎛ 7.5 × 0.746 ⎞
ET = 8760 × 0.5 × ⎜ ⎟ × 0.05 ×10
⎝ 0.88 ⎠
M = 30×10

LifeCycleCost = 800 + 13,924 + 300

= $15,024

Performing the same calculation for an energy efficient motor

(93%) that costs $150 more to buy would yield a lifecycle cost
of $14,325, a saving of $699.

91
Motor Loss Reduction
2
Stator and rotor I R heating losses are minimized by reducing
the resistance of their respective windings. This is achieved by
increasing cross sectional area, using higher conductivity
materials or both.

Core losses are reduced by employing a high grade steel in the

core laminations. This is generally achieved by increasing
silicon content of the steel.

Thinner core laminations result in lower eddy core losses.

Increasing the cross sectional area of the stator and rotor lead
to lower magnetic flux levels and thus lower Hysterisis losses.
 7 Motor Selection

Frictional losses are reduced with the use of smaller or better

bearings.

Windage losses are minimized by using smaller fans. Even so,

energy efficient motors usually run cooler than standard
motors.

Energy Efficient vs. Standard Motors

Typical energy efficient motors are generally 1.5% to 8% more
efficient than their standard motor counterparts with efficiency
gains as high as 12% in the 1 HP range (Figure 7-10).

ENERGY
100 EFFICIENT
92
FULL LOAD EFFICIENCY %

90
STANDARD

80

70
1 2 5 10 20 30 50 75 125 200
HORSEPOWER

Figure 7-10: Typical Efficiencies of Standard and Energy

Efficient Motors

There is quite a variation among different manufacturers as to

how the qualitative terms “High Efficiency,” “Premium
 7 Motor Selection

Efficiency,” or “Energy Efficient” 3-phase induction motors

are applied. CSA Standard C390 (1993) states that an energy-
efficient 3-phase induction motor is a motor rated from 1 to
200 HP, for which the nominal efficiency rating, at 75% or
100% of the rated load, is equal to or greater than the
efficiency values shown in Table 7-8. CSA C390 (1993) is the
recognized standard in Canada.

Other efficiency rating standards are described in the following

paragraphs, including NEMA’s voluntary premium efficiency
program.

Table 7-8: CSA Minimum Nominal Efficiencies

for Energy Efficient Motors

Horsepower 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 75 100 125 150 200

93

ODP 1200 RPM 87.5 88.5 90.2 90.2 91.7 92.4 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.6 94.1 94.1 94.5 94.5

TEFC 1800 RPM 87.5 89.5 89.5 91.0 91.0 92.4 92.4 93.0 93.0 94.1 94.5 94.5 95.0 95.0

Efficiency Ratings
Standardized tests are used to establish motor efficiency and
performance.

Manufacturers use a dynamometer which loads the motor and

measures the input and output power to test for efficiency.
 7 Motor Selection

There are three distinct standards commonly used to measure

motor efficiency:

•
•
CSA C390 (IEEE 112 method B)

•
IEC 34-2 (British BS-269)
JEC-37

There are some differences among these three methodologies,

but the main difference is in the determination of stray load
losses (Ref. 19).

IEEE 122 Method B determines the stray load losses through

an indirect process. The IEC standard assumes stray load
losses to be fixed at 0.5% of input while JEC standard assumes
there are no stray load losses. Therefore, motor efficiencies
determined by different standards are not comparable.
94 Differences can be 5 percentage points or more.

Generally, CSA C390 (IEEE 112 Method B) is considered to

be the most accurate method. Future harmonization among
standards is likely, but will take time to implement.

NEMA has implemented a voluntary program which permits

manufacturers to label their motors as “Premium Efficiency” if
they meet or exceed minimum levels set by NEMA (NEMA
Premium™, MG-1 2003 voluntary standard applicable to
motors of 1 to 500 HP). Table 7-9 illustrates the advantage of
premium efficiency over an energy efficient motor in terms of
energy savings for a selection of motors.
 7 Motor Selection

Table 7-9: EE vs. NEMA Premium Efficiency Motor*

Annual Savings from

Full Load Efficiency %
Use of a NEMA
Premium Motor
Annual
Premium Relative
Energy Efficient Energy Dollar Saving
Efficiency Energy
Horsepower Motor Savings $/year
Motor Saving
kWh
10 89.5 91.7 2.2 1200 60
25 92.4 93.6 1.2 1553 78
50 93.0 94.5 1.5 3820 191
100 94.5 95.4 0.9 4470 223
200 95.0 96.2 1.2 11,755 588

* Based on purchase of an 1800 RPM TEFC Motor with 8000 hr/year

operation at 75% load at $0.05/kWh – source Motor Systems Tip Sheet
#1 • September 2005 – US DOE Publication (Ref. 22). 95
In Canada, induction motors between 1 and 200 HP sold after
1998 must meet the minimum efficiency standards set in the
CSA Standard CAN/CSA-C390-98. Such motors are called
EPAct motors.

In recognition that motors are often part of an OEM piece of

equipment, minimum efficiency requirements are being set
(e.g. EER for air conditioners). This assures that the
manufacturer will optimize overall efficiency in their design.

When comparing motor efficiencies, the comparison should be

based on the “Nominal Efficiency” of the motor using one of
the above test methods.
 7 Motor Selection

Free software is available on-line to help in selecting energy

efficient motors.

In Canada, “CanMOST” (Ref. 8) is a good program to use.

CanMost was derived from “IMSSA” (International Motor
Selection and Savings Analysis) software, an international
version of the successful MotorMaster+, developed by the
U.S. motor energy-management software Washington State
University Extension Energy Program (See Recommended
Weblinks). The software is easy to use, comprehensive and up
to date with present motors.

CanMOST's database is comprised of:

•
•
Data on 25,000 North American motors
The European Database of Efficient Electric Motor
96 Systems (EuroDEEM), with 18,000 European

•
motors
Data on some 575 volt motors that are available only
in Canada

Selecting Energy Efficient Motors

Because energy efficient and premium efficiency motors use
more and better materials, they are also more expensive.

Premium efficiency motors should be selected when the cost

premium over an energy efficient motor is recovered through
reduced operating costs over a reasonable period of time.

Applications with high annual running hours and average to

high loading are good candidates for energy efficient motors.
 7 Motor Selection

The operating cost of an electric motor can be calculated by

knowing the horsepower rating of the motor, the motor
loading, annual hours of operation and the blended electricity
rate. The “blended” rate is an average electrical rate which
takes into account both the demand and energy charge. The
simplest method of obtaining a blended rate is to divide the
total electric bill by the kWh consumed during the billing
period. The resultant $/kWh provides a ballpark number for
comparative purposes.

Utility billings can vary significantly and the number of line

items can include kW demand, power factor, time of use, debt
retirement charges, etc. An infrequently used motor operated
coincidentally with the customer’s peak could have a
significant impact on the operating cost in terms of $/hour of
operation due to the resultant peak demand charges which
would overshadow the $/kWh charge. 97

0.746× HP× Loading × Operating Hours× Rate

OperatingCost =
Motor Efficiency

If the actual motor loading is not known, an estimate of 65%

can be used.

The bottom line is that you should contact your local utility to
help you determine the actual cost of operating your motor.

Motors with different efficiencies can be compared on an

economic basis by calculating the annual operating costs and
comparing these savings to the price differential between the
motors.
 7 Motor Selection

The most common economic analysis used for electric motors

is a simple payback analysis.

Simple Payback =
PricePremium
Annual Electrical Savings

For example, if a premium efficiency motor cost $400 more

than a standard motor and is expected to save $300 per year in
electricity, the simple payback would be 400/300 = 1.33 years.

Companies generally accept a payback in the range of 1 to 2

years or less. Longer paybacks may still be acceptable for other
users including homeowners.

⎛1 1⎞
Another way to estimate savings is as follows:
98
$SavingsPerYear= A × 0.746× B × C × ⎜ − ⎟ × F ×100
⎝D E⎠

Where:

•
•
A=Motor Nameplate Horsepower

•
B=Total Dollar Cost Per Kilowatt

•
C=Hours Run Per Year

•
D="Standard" Motor Efficiency-%

•
E="Premium" Motor Efficiency-%
F=Load Factor (avg. load HP/nameplate HP)

Therefore, if a 40 HP, 94.5% premium efficiency motor

operating at 75% of rating, 6000 hours per year, the annual
savings compared to a standard 89% efficient motor will be:
 7 Motor Selection

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
40 × 0.746 × 0.05 × 6000 × ⎜ − ⎟ × 0.75 × 100 = $439 savings / year
⎝ 89 94.5 ⎠

Annual savings will increase in proportion with electricity

price, running hours per year, and load factor.

Assessing Existing Motor Inventory

Taking an inventory of existing motors can form the basis for
an efficiency improvement plan. Sizes, type, duty cycle, and
loading are all important factors to record. The motor’s history
including previous rewinds (if known) should be recorded.
Monitoring motors with high running hours helps establish
optimum sizing.

The largest motors with high duty cycles should be scrutinized

for energy efficient replacements. Substantially oversized 99
motors would also be likely candidates if the run time justifies
the change. Previously repaired motors with high run times
should be tested for efficiency using a dynamometer or
equivalent means. Such testing would be limited to very large
motors for economic reasons. Armed with this information,
sound business cases can be developed to compete for capital
improvement funding.

Having a motor inventory helps in deciding whether to buy

new or to repair a failed motor. Older small motors are
typically not worth repairing given the higher efficiency
products available today.
 7 Motor Selection

Power Factor Issues

Motor power factor also drops significantly below 75% load
(Figure 7-11). A lightly loaded motor will typically have a
poorer power factor, resulting in a higher kVAR input than a
motor more closely matched to the load.

100%

80%
%

60%
POWER
FACTOR 40%

100 20%

0
0 25% 50% 75% 100%
% MOTOR LOAD

Figure 7-11: Typical Power Factor vs. Load 2

Therefore, if you are being billed in kVA, your cost of running

the motor will be more than the work (kW) it is doing at 50%.
See section 6A ii above for a more detailed explanation.

2
Note: Power Factor can vary with motor size and design as well as load.
 8 Motor Controls

8 MOTOR CONTROLS
There are four major motor control topics:

•
•
Protection

•
Starting

•
Stopping
Speed Control

a. Motor Protection
Motor protection safeguards the motor, the supply system and
personnel from various upset conditions of the driven load, the
supply system or the motor itself.
101
Disconnect
A suitable disconnect device of sufficient capacity is required
usually within sight of the motor, in accordance with Canadian
Electric Code requirements. The purpose is to open the supply
conductors to the motor, allowing personnel to work safely on
the installation.

Overcurrent
Overcurrent protection interrupts the electrical supply in the
event that there is excessive current demand on the supply
system. Usually in the form of fuses or circuit breakers, these
devices operate when a short circuit or a very heavy overload
occurs.
 8 Motor Controls

Should the overcurrent protection for a motor trip, there is

usually a good reason. Investigate repeated tripping thoroughly
and avoid increasing the trip setting level until it can be
confirmed the motor can safely tolerate a higher setting.
Operating currents should be measured on all 3 phases to
ensure the phases are balanced and the motor is not running
constantly in an overloaded condition.

Overload
Overload protection safeguards the motor from mechanical
overload conditions.

Four common overload protection devices are:

•
•
Overload relays
102
•
Thermal overloads

•
Electronic overload relays
Fuses

Overload relays operate on the magnetic action of the load

current flowing through a coil. When the load current becomes
too high, a plunger is pulled up into the coil, interrupting the
circuit. The tripping current is adjusted by altering the initial
position of the plunger with respect to the coil.

A thermal overload relay uses a heater connected in series

with the motor supply. The amount of heat produced increases
with supply current. If an overload occurs, the heat produced
causes a set of contacts to open, interrupting the circuit. The
tripping current is changed by installing a different heater for
the required trip point. This type of protection is very effective
 8 Motor Controls

because the heater closely approximates the actual heating

within the windings of the motor, and has a “memory” to
prevent immediate reset and restarting.

With electronic overloads, the load current is sensed and the

heating effect on the motor is computed. If an overload
condition exists, the sensing circuit interrupts the power
circuit. The tripping current can be adjusted to suit the
particular application. Electronic overloads often perform
additional protective functions, such as ground fault and phase
loss protection.

Fuses can also be used to protect a motor, provided some form

of single phasing protection is also used to prevent motor
operation if only one fuse blows.

Other Protection 103

Low voltage protection operates when the supply voltage drops

below a set value. The motor must be restarted upon
resumption of normal supply voltage.

Low voltage release interrupts the circuit when the supply

voltage drops below a set value, and re-establishes the circuit
when the supply voltage returns to normal. Phase failure
protection interrupts the power in all phases of a 3-phase
circuit upon failure of any one phase. Normal fusing and
overload protection may not adequately protect a 3-phase
motor from damaging single phase operation. This is
particularly a critical issue for motors supplied by a delta
configuration voltage. Without this protection, the motor will
continue to operate if one phase is lost. Large negative
 8 Motor Controls

sequence currents are developed in the rotor circuit, causing

excessive current and heating in the stator windings which will
eventually burn out. Phase failure protection is the only
effective way to protect a motor properly from single phasing.

Phase reversal protection operates upon detection of a phase

reversal in a 3-phase circuit. This type of protection is used in
applications such as elevators where it would be damaging or
dangerous to have the motor run in reverse.

Ground fault protection operates when one phase of a motor

shorts to ground, thus preventing high currents from damaging
the stator windings and the iron core.

Other motor protection devices include bearing and winding

temperature monitors, current differential relays, and vibration
104 monitoring.

Generally, the level of protection used will rise in proportion

with the value of the motor. Therefore, motors less than 20
HP will not normally have anything more than overload and
overcurrent protection, unless the motor is driving a critical
process.

b. Motor Starting
Induction motor starters must supply the motor with sufficient
current to provide adequate starting torque under worst case
line voltage and load conditions.
 8 Motor Controls

3-Phase Motor Starters

Across the Line Starting of Induction Motors:

An across the line starter is the least expensive option and is

usually used for induction motors (Figure 8-1). All NEMA
design induction motors up to 200 HP, and many larger ones,
can withstand full induction starts.

Manual starters are often used for smaller motors – up to about

10 HP. They consist of a switch with one set of contacts for
each phase and a thermal overload device. The starter contacts
remain closed if the power is removed from the circuit and the
motor restarts when power is reapplied.

If there is a chance of injury from a motor restarting

unexpectedly, a magnetic starter should be used instead. 105

L1

Three phase
L2 Motor

L3

Manually Operated Overload

Contacts Protection

Figure 8-1: Manual Starter

 8 Motor Controls

Magnetic starters are used with larger motors or where remote

control is desired (Figure 8-2). The main element of the starter
is the contactor, which is a set of contacts operated by an
electromagnetic coil. Energizing the coil causes the contacts A
to close, allowing large currents to be initiated and interrupted
by a control signal. The control voltage doesn’t need to be the
same as the motor supply voltage, and is often low voltage,
allowing the start and stop controls to be located away from
the power circuit.

A fuse protected step-down transformer is often used for

higher voltage motors. In addition to start and stop functions,
the low voltage supply can also power remote status lights, etc.

Protection
106
Three phase
Motor
L1 A

L2 A

L3 "Stop" "Start" A

Contacts Operated
by Contactor Coil
B
Contactor Overload
Coil Contacts

Figure 8-2: Magnetic Starter

 8 Motor Controls

Closing the starter button contacts energizes the contactor coil.

An auxiliary contact B on the contactor is wired to seal in the
coil circuit. The contactor de-energizes if the control circuit is
interrupted by operating the stop button, having the thermal
overload relay operate, or if power is lost.

The overload contacts are arranged so an overload trip on any

phase will cause all phases to open.

Contactors are rated for various operating voltages and are

sized according to motor HP and type of duty expected.

Installing an extra Emergency RED STOP button next to a

motor (or remotely) makes good sense when choosing a
magnetic starter. The normally closed stop buttons are wired
in series in the stop circuit such that depressing any one of
them de-energizes the magnetic contactor. 107

Reduced Voltage Starters:

If the driven load or the power distribution system cannot

accept a full voltage start, some type of reduced voltage or
“soft” starting scheme must be used. Reduced voltage starters
do not save energy. They are simply intended to address
starting issues such as voltage sag and mechanical protection,
and can only be used where low starting torque is acceptable.
(See also Power Factor Controller).

Primary Resistance Starters:

Closing the contacts at A connects the motor to the supply via

resistors which provide a voltage drop, thus reducing the
 8 Motor Controls

starting voltage available to the motor (Figure 8-3). The

resistors’ value is chosen to provide adequate starting torque
while minimizing starting current. Motor inrush current
declines during acceleration, reducing the voltage drop across
the resistors and providing more motor torque. This results in
smooth acceleration.

A Resistor

L1 B

A Resistor
Three phase
L2 B Motor

A Resistor
108
L3 B

Figure 8-3: Primary Resistance Starter

Autotransformer Starters:

An autotransformer is a single winding transformer on a

laminated core, with taps at various points on the winding
(Figure 8-4). The taps are usually expressed as a percentage of
the total number of turns and thus percentage of applied
voltage output.
 8 Motor Controls

Three autotransformers are connected in a wye configuration

or two in an open delta configuration, with taps selected to
provide adequate starting current.

The motor is first energized at a reduced voltage by closing

contacts A.

B Three phase
Motor
A
L1 A
Autotransformer
B

A
L1 A
Autotransformer
B

A
L1 A
Autotransformer 109

Figure 8-4: Autotransformer Starter

After a short time, the autotransformers are switched out of

the circuit by opening contacts A and closing contacts B, thus
applying full voltage to the motor. The autotransformers need
not have high capacity as they are only used for a very short
period of time.

Solid State Starters:

Solid state starters use thyristors or other solid state devices

(e.g. silicon controlled rectifier, triacs, transistors, etc.) to
control the voltage applied to the motor. A thyristor is
essentially an electronic switch that can replace a mechanical
contactor. However, unlike a mechanical contactor, a thyristor
 8 Motor Controls

can be turned on and off at a point on the AC waveform

during each cycle. For a 60-cycle AC, this can be 120 times
per second per phase (i.e. on-off cycle per half cycle). Reducing
the ON time during each cycle has the effect of reducing the
average voltage output to the motor. By gradually increasing
the ON time, the voltage increases gradually to full voltage.
By reducing the voltage on start, current is also reduced. Start-
up time tends to be longer as a result compared to a line
voltage start. The starting function does not save energy, but
rather addresses starting issues including voltage sag and
mechanical protection.

Since the thyristors can be precisely controlled, it is possible

(depending on the features of the individual starter) to limit
starting current and also provide soft stopping (very useful for
loads such as parts conveyors to prevent relative shifting on the
110 belt).

Starting current and torque are easily adjusted and solid state
starters often include other functions such as overload
protection. See also Power Factor Controller.

L1

Three phase
L2 Motor

L3

Figure 8-5: Solid State Starter (Simplified)

 8 Motor Controls

Light dimmers use thyristors to dim lights. Turning the knob

or moving the slider changes the portion of time the thyristor
is turned on during each ½ cycle. Full brightness is achieved
when the thyristor is turned on at the start of each ½ cycle.

Wye-Delta Starting:

Wye-delta starting (Figure 8-6) can be used with motors

where all six leads of the stator windings are available (on some
motors only three leads are accessible).

B
L1

A
B
L2 A
111
A
C

B
L3

Motor windings

Figure 8-6: Wye-Delta Starter

By first closing contacts A and B, the windings are connected

in a wye configuration which presents only 57% of rated
voltage to the motor.
 8 Motor Controls

Full voltage is then applied by reconnecting the motor in a

delta configuration by closing contacts C and opening those at
A.

The starting current and torque are 33% of their full voltage
ratings, limiting applications to loads requiring very low
starting torque.

This type of starter is physically large and costly as many

contactors are required to perform this task. Loads such as
large chillers may employ a wye-delta starter. Solid state
starters are becoming less costly and are competing with this
special motor/starter arrangement.

Variable Frequency Drive Starting:

112 Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) are also an effective means

of starting a motor. By accelerating the motor up to speed by
ramping the frequency of the voltage applied to the motor,
inrush current can be minimized while maintaining sufficient
torque to drive the load. This application of VFDs does not
save energy; however variable torque applications do.

Power Factor Controller:

A power factor controller (PFC) is a solid state device which

reduces voltage to the motor when the motor is lightly loaded.
The magnetizing current and resistive losses are reduced in
proportion to this reduction in voltage. When the load
increases, the voltage rises to normal. The reduction in voltage
results in improved power factor during these low load periods.
 8 Motor Controls

PFCs have been produced for single and 3-phase induction

motors. To save energy, the average motor load needs to be
minimal for extended periods of operating time. Constant load
devices such as compressors are not good candidates for PFCs
if the motor has been optimally sized for the load. A table saw
motor would be a potential application if the motor is operated
for extended periods and the material throughput is not
constant. PFCs can also provide soft starting and stopping
functions.

Originally developed by NASA in 1984, variations of PFC’s

have been marketed for several years. Many have been
promoted to the consumer market as energy saving receptacles.
While the basic concept is sound, the plugs will do little to
save energy in modern appliances that have been mandated to
be energy efficient. Older appliances such as refrigerators may
provide modest energy savings using these devices. 113

Part Winding Starters:

Part winding starters are sometimes used on motors wound for

dual voltage operation such as a 230/460 V motor. These
motors have two sets of windings which are connected in
parallel for low voltage, and in series for high voltage
operation.

When used on the lower voltage, the motors can be started by

first energizing only one winding. This limits the starting
current and torque to approximately one half of the full voltage
values. The second winding is then connected normally once
the motor nears operating speed.
 8 Motor Controls

Single Phase Motor Starters

Single phase motors are typically under 10 HP. Starters range
from a simple dry contact switch for small single phase motors
to magnetic contactors for larger sizes.

Solid state starters can be used for soft start motors to limit
inrush current as well as provide variable speed capability.
This type of starter is particularly suited to farm applications as
it permits the use of larger motors on constrained single phase
lines.

As noted previously, magnetic starters are always

recommended if safety is a concern. A simple switch may cost
only a few dollars, whereas a magnetic starter may cost $100 or
more; however, avoiding a serious injury can make the
114 magnetic starter priceless.

DC Motor Starters
Because the DC resistance of most motor armatures is low
(0.05 to 0.5 ohms), and because the counter EMF does not
exist until the armature begins to turn, it is necessary to use an
external starting resistance in series with the armature of a DC
motor to keep the initial armature current to a safe value. As
the armature begins to turn, counter EMF increases. Because
the counter EMF opposes the applied voltage, the armature
current is reduced.

As the motor comes up to normal speed and full voltage is

applied across the armature, the external resistance in series
with the armature is decreased or eliminated. Controlling the
 8 Motor Controls

starting resistance in a DC motor is accomplished either

manually, by an operator, or by any of several automatic
devices. The automatic devices are usually just switches
controlled by motor speed sensors (Figure 8-7).

Another means of starting DC motors is via electronic reduced

voltage starters which reduce inrush currents. This type of
control is especially popular where variable speed control is
required.

The DC motor is reversed by reversing the direction of the

current in the armature. As the armature current is reversed,
the current through the interpole is also reversed. Therefore,
the interpole retains the proper polarity to provide automatic
commutation.

115
 8 Motor Controls

DS
FIELD
RHEOSTAT SHUNT
FIELD

F1 F3
JUMPER JUMPER
F2
SERIES
OL R1 R2 A1 A2 FIELD
A
S1 S2

AC1

AC2
STOP START
M
F1 OL

TR1
JUMPER M1 AC2

LEGEND AC1
- Motor Armature TR1
A
- Line Contactor (T.C.)
M
AC1 - Accelerating Contactor #1 TR2
AC2 - Accelerating Contactor #2 AC1
116 TR1
TR2
- Timing Relay
- Timing Relay
AC2
OL - Overload Relay TR2
FL - Field Loss Relay (T.C.)
DS - Disconnect Switch
AC2

Figure 8-7: Example of a DC Motor Starter

c. Motor Stopping
The most common method of stopping a motor is to remove
the supply voltage and allow the motor and load to come to a
stop. In some applications however, the motor must be
stopped more quickly or held in position by some sort of
braking device.
 8 Motor Controls

Electrical Braking
Electrical braking uses the windings of the motor to produce a
retarding torque. The kinetic energy of the rotor and the load
is dissipated as heat in the rotor bars of the motor. Two means
of electrical braking are plugging and dynamic breaking.

Plugging brings an induction motor to a very quick stop by

connecting the motor for reverse rotation while it is running.
To prevent the motor from reversing after it has come to a
stop, the power is removed by means of a zero speed switch.

Dynamic braking is achieved by removing the AC power

supply from the motor and applying direct current to one of
the stator phases.

Neither plugging nor dynamic braking can hold the motor 117
stationary after it has stopped.

Hand held circular and portable miter saws often employ

electric braking. When the switch is released, the motor stops
the spinning blade faster than if it were allowed to coast. If
this feature stops working on a universal motor, check the
brushes for wear and replace if necessary.

Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking is a means of slowing a motor to a
standstill by temporarily converting it to a generator when a
stop command is issued. The motor (now generator) output is
dissipated through power resistors or applied to charge a
battery.
 8 Motor Controls

Regenerative braking is used in hybrid electric vehicles. Some

of the energy is dissipated by conventional brakes while a
portion is returned to the vehicle battery. For vehicles, this
arrangement is needed to give the driver better control over
braking. Charge acceptance of the battery depends on its state
of charge.

Mechanical Braking
Mechanical braking refers to devices external to the motor
which provide retarding torque.

Most rely on friction in a drum or disc brake arrangement and

are set with a spring and released by a solenoid or motor.

These devices have the ability to hold a motor stationary.

118
An eddy current brake is an electromechanical device that
provides a retarding torque by inducing eddy currents in a
drum via an electromagnetic rotor attached to the motor shaft.
The amount of braking force can be controlled by altering the
rotor current.

Eddy current brakes cannot hold the motor stationary.

 8 Motor Controls

d. Motor Speed Control

The following are examples of typical motor speed controls.
(This topic is more thoroughly covered in the Adjustable
Speed Drive Guidebook).

Speed control can be classified into five general areas:

i. Multi-speed motors.
ii. Wound rotor induction motor control
iii. DC motor controllers
iv. Variable speed drives for induction and synchronous
motors.
v. Mechanical speed control

Multi-speed Motors 119

Induction motors with multiple speed windings are suitable for
applications requiring up to four discrete speeds. Speed is
selected by connecting the windings in different configurations
and is essentially constant at each setting. These motors are
often found in applications such as ventilating fans and pumps.

Typically multi-speed motors are not particularly efficient at

reduced speed. This type of motor is therefore is a poor choice
for driving fans at low speed for constant air flow applications.
An ECM would be a better choice for variable speed fans.
 8 Motor Controls

Wound Rotor Motor Control

The torque-speed characteristics of a wound rotor induction
motor can be altered over a wide range by adding external
resistance to the rotor circuit via the slip rings. Power extracted
from the rotor circuit is either wasted as heat or recovered and
converted into useful electrical or mechanical energy.

Higher maintenance is required for wound rotor motors.

Periodic cleaning and brush replacement is needed.

DC Motor Control
The DC motor is the simplest to control as speed is
proportional to armature voltage. Speed can be varied over a
very wide range.
120
The DC voltage can be converted from AC by phase
controlled rectifiers or generated by a motor-generator set
(Ward Leonard system).

Exercise treadmills typically used 90VDC motors whose speed

is varied by a variable voltage dc controller.

Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) for Induction and

Synchronous Motors
Variable frequency drives (VFDs) are applied when there is a
need to control speed (induction and synchronous) and
eliminate slip (induction). The speed of induction motors can
 8 Motor Controls

be adjusted by electrical and mechanical means. Variable

frequency drives control motor speed electrically.

Using a VFD can improve overall energy efficiency in spite of

the fact that the drive itself consumes energy. Applications
where the load requirement varies over a wide range with
significant part load operation make VFDs an attractive
option. Overall energy savings are realized using VFDs
compared to the alternative methods of varying output (e.g.
fan dampers and pump recirculation).

VFD’s operate by varying the frequency of the AC voltage

supplied to the motor using solid state devices. The voltage is
also controlled to provide a constant voltage to frequency ratio.
These have become the preferred way to achieve variable speed
operation as they are relatively inexpensive and very reliable.
121
The ability of a motor to cool itself effectively is reduced as the
motor is slowed down.

Oversizing the motor or providing integrated forced air

ventilation may be required with extended operation at low
speeds and high loads.

Operation at different speeds can cause mechanical resonances

in driven equipment. These speeds should be identified and
programmed out of the VFDs operating range.

VFDs generate harmonic voltages and currents which can, in

some cases, cause undesirable effects on the electrical
distribution system and affect equipment operation.
Sometimes isolating transformers, line reactors or filtering
 8 Motor Controls

devices will be required to minimize these effects. Some new

generation VFDs eliminate harmonics internally and eliminate
external mitigation requirements.

The following graph of the allowable torque of NEMA design

A&B motors due to reduced cooling by operation at reduced
speeds can be used as a guide for derating motors or selecting
an appropriately oversized motor (Figure 8-8).

VFDs have become cheaper and more reliable in recent years.

That said, one should first assess if a VFD is needed or if a
simpler solution is available. One should assess how much of
the time the motor will be partly loaded to determine if
significant savings are achievable or not. Unless the VFD is
bypassed when the motor is operated at or near full load, the
VFD will consume 2% to 5% of the total load rating and could
122 cost more to operate than a fixed speed motor.

100

80
% Torque

60

40
TEFC

20
ODP

0
0 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency - Hertz

Figure 8-8: The Effect of Reduced Cooling

on Torque Capability
 8 Motor Controls

Application of a VFD can cause voltage transients well above

the rated voltage of the motor and can lead to failure of the
3
insulation system. This is due to interactions of the PWM
switching frequency and wave shape, the cable length
supplying the motor, and the inductance of the motor.

Increased stress on motor insulation can occur because of

voltage spikes. The high-frequency interruption from a VFD
can produce very high voltage spikes which can rapidly break
down conventional motor insulation.

This problem can be minimized by using appropriate filtering

(line reactors), keeping cable runs short (<100 feet), using
inverter duty motors with improved insulating systems, and
ensuring that repaired motors have upgraded insulation
systems.
123
Mechanical Speed Control
The speed at which the load is driven can also be adjusted by
using devices external to the motor. Examples include
continuously variable transmission, fluid coupling, eddy
current clutches and the magnetic coupling drive. These
devices convert the rated speed of the motor to the required
load speed.

The magnetic coupling drive can use electromagnets or more

recent developments employing rare earth magnets [e.g.
neodymium/iron/boron (Ne/Fe/B)] to transmit torque

3
PWM – Pulse Width Modulation – in a variable frequency drive, the inverter
adjusts both the width of the output voltage pulses as well as the frequency to
improve the sinusoidal shape of the output voltage waveform.
 8 Motor Controls

between motor and load. A magnetic coupling can allow a

motor to start up unloaded and gradually apply torque.
Mechanical speed control devices have internal losses, but
these losses are usually fewer than when other means of control
such as pump throttling or fan baffling are used. Energy
savings for part load centrifugal loads can be 30% or more
compared with mechanical throttling methods (Ref. 15). The
latter statement also applies to VFDs.

124
 9 Maintenance

9 MAINTENANCE
In general, motors are very reliable machines that require little
maintenance. However, it is important that preventive
maintenance is performed to extend motor life and reduce the
possibility of unplanned outages and lost production.

a. Common Failure Modes

Insulating failure and bearing failure are the two most
common types of motor failures and are often preventable with
simple maintenance.

b. Maintenance Frequency
125
The frequency or time interval between maintenance overhauls
depends on a number of factors including:

•
•
Running hours

•
Frequency of starts, plugging, or reversals

•
Load

•
Operating environment, temperature, or dirt
Importance to production

Motors operating continuously under normal service

conditions should, on average, be overhauled every five or six
years. Motors operating under more severe conditions should
be overhauled more frequently. For motors operating fewer
hours, the time interval can be extended accordingly.
 9 Maintenance

Routine maintenance inspection and lubrication should be

performed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Where no recommendations exist, Table 9-1 could be used as

a suggested guide for lubrication and inspection intervals.

Table 9-1: Frequency of Maintenance 4, 5

Speed HP Size 8 Hours/Day 24

Operation Hours/Day
Operation
3600 RPM 1 - 25 5 Years 2 Years
30 – 40 6 Months 2 Months
>40 4 Months 2 Months
1800 RPM 1 – 20 5 Years 2 Years
25 – 50 4 Years 1 ½ Years
60 – 70 1 Year 4 Months
126 >75 9 Months 3 Months
1200 RPM and 1 – 10 5 Years 2 Years
Below 15 -30 4 Years 1 ½ Years
>40 1 Year 4 Months

c. Bearings
Two types of bearings are commonly used in motors:
Antifriction and Plain.

4
Source: Electrical Apparatus Service Association.
5
Smaller motors in the table are usually fitted with sealed bearings. These bearings
should be replaced at the indicated intervals.
 9 Maintenance

Antifriction Bearings
Antifriction bearings use rolling elements between the bearing
and the rotating shaft (Figure 9-1). Ball bearings and roller
bearings are examples of this type.

These bearings generally use grease as a lubricant. Some ball

and roller bearings used in motors are sealed and need no
maintenance, but many are unsealed and require periodic
repacking with grease.

The manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed as to

the frequency and grade of grease with which bearings should
be packed.

Bearings should be only about 1/3 full to avoid over greasing.

To ensure that a bearing is not over greased, excess grease 127
should be allowed to run out of the drain plug for about 10
minutes after starting, and before replacing the grease plug.

Avoid mixing different types of grease as some types are

incompatible with others.

Greasing bearings is often regarded in many industries as a low

skill job to be relegated to the plant “handy person.” Without
proper training, the wrong grease can end up being used; the
bearings can get under (but mostly over) greased which leads
to higher failure rates. Many motor manufacturers have
resorted to sealed bearings and permanently lubricated sintered
bearings on smaller motors to avoid mistreatment.
 9 Maintenance

Outer race
Ball
Separator
Inner race

Figure 9-1: Antifriction Bearing

Plain Bearings
128 Plain bearings are made of a soft material such as bronze or
Babbitt (Figure 9-2).

Dowel
Dowel
Oil Ring
Hole
Guide
Dowel Dowel
Hole

Figure 9-2: Plain Bearing

 9 Maintenance

They cannot support thrust loads, as some antifriction bearings

can, and are designed to operate only with horizontal shafts.

Plain bearings are quieter than antifriction bearing types.

Oil is used to lubricate this type of bearing, and supports the

moving surfaces with a thin film while they are turning.
Operation without sufficient lubrication will cause immediate
damage.

An oil ring is often used to transport oil from a reservoir to the

top of the shaft. It is a large loose fitting ring with its top half
resting on the shaft and its bottom half in the oil reservoir.
The action of the oil ring can sometimes be confirmed via a
sight plug in the top of the bearing.

The reservoir should be kept filled to the proper level with the 129
correct grade and type of oil. As with grease avoid mixing
different types of oil as some are incompatible with others.

d. Vibration
Excessive vibration can shorten bearing life and reduce motor
efficiency.

The driven load should be well balanced and aligned with the
motor to minimize vibration.

Vibration can also be a result of worn bearings. Clearance and

end play of the bearings and shaft should be measured to
determine if bearing replacement is required.
 9 Maintenance

A portable accelerometer can be used to measure vibration of a

motor to determine if the balance is acceptable.

NEMA limits on total amplitude of vibration are as follows:

Table 9-2: Bearing Vibration Limits

Motor Synchronous Speed Total Amplitude of Vibration

(rpm) (in)

3000 and above 0.0010

1500 – 2999 0.0015
1000 – 1599 0.0020
999 and below 0.0025

Trending of vibration measurements over time is useful for

130 identifying bearing degradation and the need for replacement.

Couplings are available to provide better isolation between the

motor and load shafts and are more tolerant of slight
misalignment.

e. Insulation
Motor winding insulation provides electrical separation of both
the conductors and mechanical components, and the
conductors themselves (Figure 3-1). Insulation is subject to
mechanical and electrical stresses, which over time reduce its
ability to provide this separation.

High operating temperatures severely affect insulation life.

 9 Maintenance

To maximize insulation life:

• Ventilation screens and shrouds should be kept clean

•
and unobstructed.
Dirt and grease should be kept off the motor to

•
prevent restriction of heat dissipation.
Dust and dirt should be vacuumed (preferred) or

•
blown out of open motors.
Only low pressure (<5 psi), dry, oil-free air should be
used to blow out dirt.

Contamination of the windings with oil, grease or chemicals

can adversely affect insulation. Totally enclosed motors should
be used in areas where contamination can occur.

Moisture can cause insulation systems to fail. If the windings

are suspected of being wet or are in areas of high humidity, the 131
insulation resistance should be measured before the motor is
energized. Readings less than 1 megohm per kV rating plus
1 megohm indicate the windings should be dried or that the
insulation has failed (Table 9-3).

Table 9-3: Minimum Motor Insulation Resistance

Rated Voltage Insulation Resistance

600 Volts and Below 1.5 Megohm

2300 Volts 3.5 Megohm
4000 Volts 5.0 Megohm

Space heaters can be installed in some motors to prevent

moisture buildup when the motor is not operating. The same
 9 Maintenance

heating effect can be achieved by applying an AC or DC

voltage to one phase of the motor while it is not operating.
The voltage level must be determined so that stator
temperature is maintained above the dew point of the air.

Polarization index testing is used to determine the condition of

the insulation of large (>500 HP) motors.

The polarization index, or P.I., is the ratio of the insulation

resistance values taken at two time intervals. The typical P.I.
test uses the insulation resistance value at ten minutes
compared with the value obtained at one minute.

P.I . =
R10
R1
Where R10 = 10 minute resistance value
132 R1 = 1 minute resistance value

A polarization index of 2 or more indicates the windings are in

acceptable condition.

The Hi-potential or Hipot test is an overvoltage test which

determines if a winding has a certain level of insulation
strength. Good insulation can withstand voltage levels much
higher than the voltages used in Hipot testing.
 9 Maintenance

DC Hipot testing is a good non-destructive, routine test to

ensure insulation strength. The voltage level applied for one
minute of DC Hipot testing of motors operating at 600 volts
or less can be determined as follows:

Vtest = 1.7 × (2 E + 1000) for new motors

Vtest = 2 E + 1000 for motors which have been in service

Where Vtest = DC Hipot test voltage

E = Rated voltage of the motor

AC Hipot testing is used by motor manufacturers and motor

repair centres as a pass/fail type of test to determine if there is
any weakness in the insulation system. Due to the currents
involved in AC Hipot testing, a breakdown of insulation
causes permanent damage, so it is considered a destructive test
133
and should not be used as part of a maintenance program.

Periodic maintenance of larger motors includes disassembly,

cleaning, hipotting and bearing replacement to ensure longer
reliable life. Motors with slip rings or commutators are
inspected to ensure wear is not excessive. Additional cleaning
and dressing of the commutator or rings may be needed
particularly if excessive sparking or discoloration is observed.

f. VFD Bearing Failure

Occasionally, bearings fail in VFD driven motors due to
common mode currents flowing through the motor shaft.
This can lead to pitting and eventual failure of the motor
bearings. Solutions to the problem include insulating the
 9 Maintenance

bearings with ceramic or other non conductive materials to

stop the current from traversing the bearing and installation of
shaft grounding brushes (Table 9-4) (Ref. 8).

Installing the insulated bearings on the non driven end may be

helpful.

Not all motors exhibit this elusive problem. Just knowing that
the problem can exist is helpful, should this relatively rare
condition occur.

g. Grounding
One of the largest potential causes of motor bearing damage
due to bearing currents is inadequate grounding, especially at
high operating frequencies (Ref. 9).
134
Audible bearing noise is a symptom, but the damage has been
done by the time it is noticeable.
 9 Maintenance

Table 9-4: Recommended Steps to Prevent VFD Bearing

Problems

Set carrier frequency <6kHz

Specify VFD model with carrier

frequency adjustability increments

Every VFD no larger than 1kHz
Application
Shortest possible conductor lengths
Shielded cable with continuous
low-impedance ground path from
the VFD to the motor
< 25 HP motor Shaft grounding device
25 HP & larger motor Insulated motor bearings or ESIM
Long lead conductor Inductive or RCL filter 135

Difficult access to
Insulated motor bearings or ESIM
motor
Motor bearing failure Voltage analysis to locate damaging
despite protection current loops
Noisy motor bearing Vibration analysis to look for signs
operation of EDM in motor bearings
Failed motor bearing Inspect motor bearing races for
removed from motor signs of pitting or “fluting"
 9 Maintenance

136
 10 Repair or Replace?

10 REPAIR OR REPLACE?
The cost of repairing an existing motor is often much less than
replacing. However, the number of running hours the motor
sees per year will play heavily in the decision to repair or
replace. The following example (Table 10-1) illustrates a
simple example of an economic analysis.

Table 10-1: Economics of Repair or Replacing a Motor

Motor Size HP 40
Existing Motor Efficiency 87%
Premium Motor Efficiency 94.5%
Annual Energy Cost Savings ($0.05/kWh) $1073
Repair Price – Rewind Only $1000
New Premium Eff. Motor $1700
137
Price Differential $700
Load Factor 0.75
Hours/Year 8000
Simple Payback Months on Differential ~8.3
Simple Payback Months on Replacement Cost ~25

The motor in this example has a both a high load factor and
annual running hours which contribute significantly to the case
for replacement with an energy efficient motor. Even
replacement of a healthy standard efficiency motor is
somewhat attractive; however, the decision to repair is less
clear for motors that have few running hours per year. If the
motor is a critical piece of equipment, replacement may be a
good option in terms of reliability.
 10 Repair or Replace?

If the decision is to repair, exercise caution in selecting a repair

facility. For larger motors, it is prudent to request core loss
testing of the motor before and after the rewind is performed
to ensure that the core has not been damaged. A damaged core
will not only have higher losses, but if the damage is localized
it may lead to hot spots in the stator core, resulting in a
potentially shortened life expectancy. Disassembly and repair
of the core would be needed to correct the problem (Ref. 14)

Quality motor repair requires care to be taken at each step.

Since modern insulation systems may include epoxies,
stripping insulation from the stator core is often a difficult task
to perform. Many repair shops bake the core to effectively burn
out the old winding so it can be stripped. If the oven
temperature is too high, the varnishes used to insulate the
laminations could break down. Laminations accidentally
138 peened over could short together resulting in hot spots and
increased losses. Using either the wrong gauge of wire or not
enough wire, will turns in the slots. For these reasons, it is
important to get to know your repair facility and to insist on
loss tests being performed. A low cost poor quality rewind may
cost more in the long run due to higher run losses and a
possible shorter life; however, done properly, even a high
efficiency motor can be rewound without incurring any loss in
efficiency.
 11 High Efficiency Retrofit

11 HIGH EFFICIENCY RETROFIT

If the decision has been made to replace an existing standard
efficiency motor with a high efficiency version, care must be
taken to ensure that the result will in fact yield actual savings.
Done incorrectly, the new motor could, in some instances,
consume more energy than the old motor. That is not to say
the new motor is less efficient, but rather the new motor load
combination performs differently than the old combination.
This can result in more work being done when the increase is
not needed. Therefore when changing a motor, ensure the load
is adjusted to match the new motor.

a. Motor Resizing
A common practice was (and still is) to oversize a motor to be 139
sure it is capable of driving the load. An oversized motor is less
efficient and contributes to a lower power factor. For variable
loads, ensure the motor never exceeds its full load or service
factor rating.

b. Speed Adjustments
Energy efficient motors typically operate at lower slip than
standard efficiency motors. This means for a variable torque
load, an energy efficient motor will operate at a higher RPM at
the balance point and will consume more energy. To correct
this problem, the pulley ratio between the motor and load need
to be adjusted for belt drives.
 11 High Efficiency Retrofit

c. Load Adjustments
For direct coupled variable torque loads, an energy efficient
motor will tend to run faster as noted in the previous
subsection. For these situations the load will need to be
adjusted. Examples include changing fan pitch or trimming
pump impellers. This requires special skills to accomplish.

d. Power Factor
Energy efficient motors typically have higher power factors
than standard efficiency motors. Existing power factor
correction capacitors will need to be re-evaluated to ensure
overcorrection is not occurring.

140
 12 Recommended Web Links

12 RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS

Tools and resources listing organizations & programs, software
and literature:

1. Natural Resources Canada - Introduction page for

“CanMOST” The Canadian Motor Selection Tool
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/industrial/equipment/software/intro
.cfm?attr=24

2. NEMA Premium Motors

http://www.nema.org/gov/energy/efficiency/premium/

3. US Department of Energy – Appliance &

Equipment Standards
http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards
/notices_rules.html 141

4. Copper Motor Rotor Project -Using copper as a

rotor material to improve efficiency
http://www.copper-motor-rotor.org/

5. US Department of Energy - Best Practices on

Motors, Pumps and Fans
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/motor
s.html
 12 Recommended Web Links

6. Motor Decisions Matter - A national campaign

encouraging the use of sound motor management and
planning as a tool to cut motor energy costs and increase
productivity
http://www.motorsmatter.org/

7. BC Hydro Power Smart - Electric Motors

http://www.bchydro.com/business/investigate/investigate7
84.html

8. Hydro Quebec Virtual Library – Site has several

downloadable Acrobat files on motors and efficiency
http://www.hydroquebec.com/majorcustomers/ee/biblioth
eque.html#anch07

9. US Department of Energy - Software Downloads,

including Motor Master
142
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/softwa
re.html#mm

10. Electrical Apparatus Service Association, Inc. -

The Effect of Repair / Rewinding on Motor Efficiency
EASA/AEMT Rewind Study and Good Practice Guide
to Maintain Motor Efficiency - EASA 2003
www.easa.com
 13 Glossary

13 GLOSSARY
Air Gap The space between the rotating (rotor) and
stationary (stator) member in an electric
motor.
Altitude The atmospheric altitude (height above sea
level) at which the motor will be operating;
NEMA standards call for an altitude not
exceeding 3,300 ft. (1,000 meters). As the
altitude increases above 3,300 ft. and the air
density decreases, the air’s ability to cool the
motor decreases - for higher altitudes higher
grades of insulation or a motor derating are
required. DC motors require special brushes
for high altitudes (Ref. 18).
Ambient The temperature of the surrounding cooling
143
Temperature medium, such as gas or liquid, which comes
into contact with the heated parts of the
motor. The cooling medium is usually the
air surrounding the motor. The standard
NEMA rating for ambient temperature is
o
not to exceed 40 C.
Anti-Friction An anti-friction bearing is a bearing
Bearing utilizing rolling elements between the
stationary and rotating assemblies
Armature The portion of the magnetic structure of a
DC or universal motor which rotates.
Breakdown The maximum torque a motor will develop
Torque at rated voltage without a relatively abrupt
drop or loss in speed.
 13 Glossary

Brush A piece of current conducting material

(usually carbon or graphite) which rides
directly on the commutator of a
commutated motor and conducts current
from the power supply to the armature
windings.
Capacitance Capacitance is that property of a system of
dielectrics and conductors that allows for the
storage of electrically separated charges
when a potential difference exists between
the conductors. A capacitor does not
dissipate real energy (watts).
Commutator A cylindrical device mounted on the
armature shaft and consisting of a number of
wedge-shaped copper segments arranged
around the shaft (insulated from it and each
144 other. The motor brushes ride on the
periphery of the commutator and electrically
connect and switch the armature coils to the
power source.
Constant Describes a load which decreases with
Horsepower increasing speed. Common applications are
variable speed processes that are changing
diameters such as lathes, winders,
unwinders, and metal-cutting tools. With an
initial large diameter work piece, maximum
torque and slow speeds are required.
 13 Glossary

Constant Describes a load where the torque required

Torque is constant throughout the speed range e.g. a
friction load. Friction loads require the same
amount of torque at low speeds as at high
speeds. The horsepower requirement,
however, increases with speed. Common
applications include general machinery,
hoists, conveyors, etc.
CSA Canadian Standards Association
Drip-Proof An open motor in which the ventilating
Motor openings are so constructed that drops of
liquid or solid particles falling on it, at any
angle not greater than 15 degrees from the
vertical, cannot enter either directly or by
striking and running along a horizontal or
inwardly inclined surface.
Duty Cycle The relationship between the operating and 145
rest times or repeatable operation at
different loads. A motor which can continue
to operate within the temperature limits of
its insulation system, after it has reached
normal operating (equilibrium) temperature
is considered to have a continuous duty
(CONT.) rating. One which never reaches
equilibrium temperature, but is permitted to
cool down between operations is operating
under intermittent duty (INT.) conditions
such as a crane and hoist motor which are
often rated 15 or 30 min. duty.
 13 Glossary

Eddy Currents Localized currents induced in an iron core

by alternating magnetic flux. These currents
translate into losses (heat) and their
minimization is an important factor in
lamination design.
Efficiency The efficiency of a motor is the ratio of
mechanical output to electrical input. It
represents the effectiveness with which the
motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Fractional- A motor usually built in a frame smaller
Horsepower than that having a continuous rating of one
Motor horsepower, open construction, at 1700 -
1800 rpm.
Full-Load The current flowing through the line when
Current the motor is operating at full-load torque
146 and full-load speed with rated frequency and
voltage applied to the motor terminals.
Full-Load That torque of a motor necessary to produce
Torque its rated horsepower at full-load speed,
sometimes referred to as running torque.
Hertz (Hz) One cycle per second (as in 60 Hz. which is
60 cycles per second).
 13 Glossary

Horsepower The measure of rate of work. One

horsepower is equivalent to lifting 33,000
pounds to a height of one foot in one
minute. The horsepower of a motor is
expressed as a function of torque and rpm.

T × RPM
HP =
5250
where:
HP = horsepower,
T = torque (in. lb.ft.), and
RPM = revolutions per minute.
Hysterisis A lagging of the resulting magnetization in
a ferromagnetic material caused by a
changing magnetic field.
Hysterisis Loss The resistance to becoming magnetized
(magnetic orientation of molecular 147
structure) offered by materials results in
energy being expended and corresponding
loss. Hysterisis loss in a magnetic circuit is
the energy expended to magnetize and
demagnetize the core.
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers
Impedance Propensity of a circuit or device to impede
the flow of current.
The real part of impedance is the resistance,
and the imaginary part is the reactance.
 13 Glossary

Inductance Represents the propensity of a conductor to

store energy in an associated magnetic field.
Opposes the change of alternating current,
but does not oppose the flow of steady
current, such as direct current.
Can be thought of as electrical inertia.
Induction An induction motor is an alternating current
Motor motor in which the primary winding on one
member (usually the stator) is connected to
the power source and a secondary winding
or a squirrel-cage secondary winding on the
other member (usually the rotor) carries the
induced current. There is no physical
electrical connection to the secondary
winding, its current is induced.
Inertial Load A load (flywheel, fan, etc.) which tends to
148 cause the motor shaft to continue to rotate
after the power has been removed (stored
kinetic energy). If this continued rotation
cannot be tolerated, some mechanical or
electrical braking is needed. This
application may require a special motor due
to the energy required to accelerate the
inertia.
Insulation Since there are various ambient temperature
Class conditions a motor might see and different
temperature ranges within which motors run
and insulation is sensitive to temperature;
motor insulation is classified by the
temperature ranges at which it can operate
for a sustained period of time.
 13 Glossary

Inverter An electronic device that converts fixed

frequency and voltage to variable frequency
and voltage.
JEC Japanese Electrotechnical Committee
Laminations The steel portion of the rotor and stator
cores made up of a series of thin laminations
(sheets) which are stacked and fastened
together by cleats, rivets or welds.
Laminations are used instead of a solid piece
in order to reduce eddy-current losses.
Magnetic Field The portion of space near a current-carrying
body or a magnetic body in which a voltage
can be induced in a second current carrying
body when the state of changes or when the
second current-carrying body moves in
prescribed ways relative to the medium.
Magnetic Flux The integral over a specified surface of the 149
component of magnetic induction
perpendicular to the surface.
Magnetic Pole The portions of a magnet which appear to
generate or absorb the flow of the external
magnetic induction.
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers
Association is a non-profit organization
organized and supported by manufacturers
of electric equipment and supplies. NEMA
has set standards on: HP ratings, Speeds,
frame sizes and dimensions, standard
voltages and frequencies with allowable
variations, service factors, torques, starting
current & kVA, enclosures
 13 Glossary

Power Factor The ration of total watts to the total root

∑ watts per phase

mean square (RMS) volt-Amperes

∑ RMS volt − amperes per phase

P.F . =

=
Re al Power
Apparent power
PWM Pulse Width Modulation – when applied to
a variable speed drive, the inverter adjusts
both the width of the output voltage pulses
as well as the frequency to improve the
sinusoidal shape of the output voltage
waveform.
Reactance The opposition to the flow of alternating
current by the inductance or capacitance of a
component or circuit.
150 Reactance is inductive if the imaginary part
of the impedance is positive.
Reactance is capacitive if the imaginary part
of impedance is negative.
Rectifier A rectifier is a device which may be used to
convert alternating current to direct current
(by conducting current easily in one
direction and negligibly in the opposite
direction).
 13 Glossary

Resistance A physical property of a circuit that impedes

the flow of current. For AC circuits,
resistance limits the current which is in
phase with the voltage. When current flows
through a resistance, a voltage drop develops
across the resistance (Ohm’s Law).
It is the real part of impedance and usually
represents the conversion of electrical energy
into heat.
Retentivity The capacity to retain magnetism after the
magnetizing action has ceased.
Service Factor When used on a motor nameplate, a number
which indicates how much above the
nameplate rating a motor can be loaded
without causing serious degradation, (i.e., a
1.15 S-F can produce 15% greater torque
than the 1.0 S-F rating of the same motor). 151
Slip The ration of the difference between the
synchronous speed and the actual speed of
the rotor to the synchronous speed of the
rotor.
Synchronous Speed − Running Speed
Slip = ×100
Synchronous Speed
Slip Ring Continuous conducting rings on the rotor
from which brushes conduct current into or
out of the motor.
 13 Glossary

Standards ANSI - American National Standards

Organizations Institute
BASEEFA - British Approval Service for
Electrical Equipment in Flammable
Atmospheres
CE - Compliance to European Standards
CSA - Canadian Standards Association
EPACT - 1997 U.S. Energy Policy Act
IEC - International Electrotechnical
Commission
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers
ISO - International Standards organization
MIL - Military Specifications
MSHA - U.S. Mining, Safety, Health
Administration
NAFTA - North American Free Trade
152
Agreement
NEC - National Electric Code
NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers
Association
UL - Underwriter's Laboratories
Synchronous The speed of the rotation of the magnetic
Speed flux produced by the stator windings.
The lines of force which represent magnetic
induction.
Temperature Each NEMA temperature code has an
Rise associated temperature rise which when
added to the ambient and hot spot should
not exceed the temperature handing of the
insulation system
 13 Glossary

UL Underwriter’s Laboratories (the UL

approval mark with a subscripted letter “C”
indicates the device has been tested by UL
to Canadian Standards).
Variable Variable torque loads increase torque with
Torque speed and are usually associated with
centrifugal fan and pump loads, where, in
theory, the horsepower requirement varies
as the cube of the speed change. Variable
torque loads provide the greatest savings
potential for VFD’s.

153
 13 Glossary

154
 14 Bibliography

14 BIBLIOGRAPHY
rd
1. “Motors Reference Guide,” 3 Edition, Ontario
Hydro, August 1997. (Basic motor theory and other
currently relevant information were derived from this
guide with the permission of the present copyright
holder, Ontario Power Generation).

2. Lawrie, Robert J., “Electric Motor Manual”, McGraw

Hill, 1987.

3. “Electronically Commutated Motor,” GE Consumer

& Industrial.
http://www.geindustrial.com/products/static/motors/e
cm/descrip.htm
155
4. “Written Pole Single Phase Motors,” Precise Power.
http://www.precisepwr.com/single_phase_motors.asp?
bhcp=1

5. “Linear DC Motors,” Electric Motors Reference

Center.
http://www.electricmotors.machinedesign.com/guiEdi
ts/Content/bdeee3/bdeee3_7.aspx

6. “Hybrid Step Motor,” National Instruments.

http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/ph/p/id/287#toc3

7. Smeaton, Robert W. “Motor Application &

nd
Maintenance Handbook,” 2 Edition, 1987.
 14 Bibliography

8. “CanMOST - The Canadian Motor Selection Tool,”

Natural Resources Canada.
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/industrial/equipment/software/i
ntro.cfm?attr=24

9. “Are Bearing Currents Causing Your Motor

Failures?” Engineering Update, Greenheck Fan
Corporation, Volume 6, Issue 1, Spring 2004.

10. Spear, Mike, “Get A Fix on ASD Problems, -

Adjustable Speed Drives Sometimes May Harm
Bearings and Lubricants,” Chemical Processing,
December, 2005.

11. “Motor Decisions Matter,” Consortium for Energy

Efficiency. http://www.motorsmatter.org/
156
12. “NEMA Premium Motors,” National Electrical
Manufacturers Association.
http://www.nema.org/gov/energy/efficiency/premiu/

13. “Best Practices on Motors , Pumps and Fans” U.S.

Department of Energy.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/m
otors.html

14. “The Effect of Repair / Rewinding on Motor

Efficiency EASA/AEMT Rewind Study and Good
Practice Guide to Maintain Motor Efficiency,”
EASA 2003. www.easa.com
 14 Bibliography

15. “Laboratory Testing Of The Magnadrive Adjustable-

Speed Coupling Systems (ASCS),” Motor Systems
Resource Facility (MSRF), Oregon State University,
January, 2000.

16. “Appliance & Equipment Standards,” U.S.

Department of Energy.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_stan
dards/notices_rules.html

17. “Energy-Efficient Motor Systems Assessment Guide,”

Natural Resources Canada, 2004.

18. “Motor Terms,” Rockwell Automation, 2005.

http://www.rockwellautomation.com/index.html

19. Brunner, Conrad U, “Motor Efficiency Standards 157

SEEEM Harmonization Initiative”, IEA Electric
Motor Systems Workshop, Paris, 15-16 May 2006

20. Little, Arthur, “Opportunities for Energy Savings in

the Residential and Commercial Sectors with High-
Efficiency Electric Motors,” U.S. Department of
Energy, December, 1999.

21. “Analysis of Energy Conservation Standards for Small

Electric Motors,” Building Technologies Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S.
Department of Energy, June 2003.
 14 Bibliography

22. “When to Purchase NEMA Premium™ Efficiency

Motors - Motor Systems Tip Sheet #1,” U.S.
Department Of Energy Publication, September 2005.

23. ”Energy Management Guide for Selection and Use of

Single-Phase Motors,” National Electrical
Manufacturers Association Standards Publication
MG11-2001.

158
 15 Index

15 INDEX

3-Phase AC Induction Breakdown Torque, 147

Motors, 12 Brush, 147
AC Motors, 21 Brushes, 45
Across the Line Starting, CanMOST, 99, 145, 158
109 Capacitance, 148
Adjustable Speed Drives Capacitor, Starting, 36
(ASDs), 124 Common Failure Modes,
Advanced Motors, 53, 56 129
AFD Bearing Problem Commutator, 148
Prevention, 139 Considerations, Mounting
Air Gap, 147 and Base, 85
Altitude, 147 Controller, Power Factor,
Ambient Temperature, 117
147 Cost, Life Cycle, 93 159
ASD Bearing Failure, 137 Cost, Operating, 100
Assessing Existing Motor CSA, 149
Inventory, 102 CSA C390, 97
BC Hydro Power Smart on CSA Minimum Nominal
Electric Motors, 146 Efficiencies, 96
Bearing, 147 Custom, 80
Bearings, 130 DC Motor, 47
Bearings, Antifriction, DC Motor Control, 124
131 DC, Compound, 51
Bearings, Ball, 131 DC, Electronically
Bearings, Greasing, 131 Commutated (ECM), 53
Bearings, Plain, 132 DC, Linear, 57
Bearings, Roller, 131 DC, Permanent Magnet,
Bearings, Vibration, 134 52, 56
Braking, Electrical, 121 DC, Separately Excited, 48
Braking, Mechanical, 122 DC, Series Field, 50
 15 Index

Drip-Proof Motor, 149 Grounding, 138

Duty Cycle, 149 Hertz (Hz), 150
Duty Cycle, Continuous, High Efficiency Retrofit,
76 143
Duty Cycle, Intermittent, 79 Horsepower, 17, 150
Duty Cycle, Repetitive, 77 Hybrid, 58
Economics, 141 Hydro Quebec Virtual
Eddy Currents, 149 Library, 146
Efficiency, 96, 149 Hysterisis, 43, 150
Efficiency and Economics, Hysterisis Loss, 150
88 IEC, 151
Efficiency and Motor IEEE, 151
Sizing, 91 IEEE 122 Method B, 97
Efficiency, EE vs. Impedance, 151
Standard Motors, 95 Inductance, 151
Efficiency, NEMA Induction Motor, 151
Premium, 97 Induction Motor Selection,
160
Efficiency, Selecting 72
Energy Efficient Induction, 3-Phase AC,
Motors, 99 70
Electrical Supply Induction, 3-Phase AC, 23
Distribution System, 61 Induction, Capacitor, 33
Enclosure, 83 Induction, Capacitor Run,
Energy Costs, 88 33
Environmental Factors, 80 Induction, Capacitor
EPAct, 98 Start, 34
Factors, Physical, 83 Induction, Capacitor Start
Fractional-Horsepower – Capacitor Run, 36
Motor, 150 Induction, Shaded Pole, 37
Friction and windage Induction, Split Phase, 32
losses, 91 Induction, Squirrel Cage,
Full-Load Current, 150 24
Glossary, 147
 15 Index

Induction, Squirrel Cage Motor, DC, 13

NEMA Design Motor, Direct Current,
Characteristics, 25 Selection, 74
Inertial Load, 151 Motor, Induction, Single
Insulation, 85, 134 Phase, Selection, 75
Inverter, 152 Motor, Induction,
JEC, 97, 152 Selection, 70
Laminations, 152 Motor, Induction, Single
Load Adjustments, 144 Phase, 74
Load, Driven, 75 Motor, Induction, Wound
Loss Reduction, 94 Rotor, 27
Losses, Core, 91 Motor, Starter, 3-Phase,
Magnetic Field, 152 109
Magnetic Field, Rotating, Motor, Universal, 12
21 MotorMaster+, 99
Magnetic Flux, 16, 152 Multi-speed, 123
Magnetic Starter, 110 Natural Resources
161
Maintenance, 129 Canada, 145, 158
Maintenance Frequency, NEMA, 81, 83, 145, 153
129 Noise, 88
Manual Starter, 109 Operation, 15
Minimum Motor Part Winding Starters, 118
Insulation Resistance, Parts, Major, 15
135 Payback, Simple, 101
Motor Classifications, 70 Phase Unbalance, 63
Motor Controls, 105 Pole, 152
Motor Losses, 90 Power and Torque, 17
Motor Protection, 105 Power Factor, 65, 103,
Motor Resizing, 143 144, 153
Motor Selection, 61 Power Factor Correction,
Motor Starting, 108 73
Motor Stopping, 121 Power, Apparent, 65
Motor, Advanced, 13
 15 Index

Primary Resistance Starter, Starter Autotransformer,

112 112
Protection, Disconnect, 105 Starter, DC, 119
Protection, Other, 107 Starter, Primary Resistance,
Protection, Overload, 111
106 Starter, Reduced Voltage,
Protection,Overcurrent, 111
105 Starter, Single Phase, 118
Reactance, 153 Starting and Stopping, 80
Recommended Web Links, Switched Reluctance
145 (SRM), 55
Rectifier, 153 Synchronous, 39
Repair or Replace, 141 Synchronous, 12
Reversing, 3-Phase Motor, Synchronous Motor
23 Selection, 73
RMS Horsepower, 77 Synchronous Speed, 23
Service Conditions, Synchronous, Excited
162
Usual, 80 Rotor, 40
Service Factor, 87, 154 Synchronous, Non
Service Factors, 87 Excited or Reluctance
Single Phase, 61 Rotor, 41
Single Phase AC Induction Synchronous, Single
Motors, 12 Phase, 42
Slip, 23, 154 Temperature Rise, 155
Slip Ring, 154 Torque, 17
Solid State Starters, 113 Torque Variable, Repetitive
Speed, 73, 79 Duty Cycle –, 77
Speed Adjust, 143 Torque, Breakdown, 20
Standard Motor Torque, Constant,
Enclosures, 84 Continuous Duty, 76
Standards Organizations, Torque, Full load, 20
154 Torque, Pull-up, 20
Torque, Starting, 20
 15 Index

Torque-Speed, 19
Torque-Speed Graphs, 26
Universal, 45
Unusual Service
Conditions, 81
US DOE, 145
US DOE Best Practices on
Motors , Pumps and
Fans, 145, 158
US DOE Software
Downloads, 146
Variable Torque, 155
Vibration, 133
Voltage and Frequency, 62
Voltage Flicker, 67
Voltage Unbalance, 64
Wound Rotor Motor
163
Control, 124
Written Pole, 56
Wye-Delta Starter, 116
Wye-Delta Starting, 115
 15 Index

164
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