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 Theoretical Computer Science Importance.
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Module 1 – Basic Concepts And Finite Automata.
Q1 Difference Between NFA And DFA.
Ans.
DFA NFA
1 DFA Stands For Deterministic Finite Automata. 1 NFA Stands For Nondeterministic Finite Automata.
2 DFA Cannot Use Empty String Transition. 2 NFA Can Use Empty String Transition.
3 DFA Can Be Understood As One Machine. 3 NFA Can Be Understood As Multiple Little Machines
Computing At The Same Time.
4 DFA Is More Difficult To Construct. 4 NFA Is Easier To Construct.
5 Time Needed For Executing An Input String Is Less. 5 Time Needed For Executing An Input String Is More.
6 All DFA Are NFA. 6 Not All NFA Are DFA.
7 DFA Requires More Space. 7 NFA Requires Less Spaces Then DFA.
8 Backtracking Is Allowed In DFA. 8 Backtracking Is Not Always Possible In NFA.
9 Epsilon Move Is Not Allowed In DFA. 9 Epsilon Move Is Allowed In NFA.
10 DFA Allows Only One Move For Single Input 10 There Can Be Choice For Single Input Alphabet.
Alphabet.

Q2 Explain Application For FA.

Ans.
1. Lexical Analysis:
• FAs are used in compilers for lexical analysis, where they help recognize and tokenize the input source code into
meaningful symbols or tokens.
2. Regular Expression Matching:
• FAs are employed in software for pattern matching using regular expressions. They help search for specific
patterns within text or manipulate strings based on certain rules.
3. Network Protocol Design:
• FAs are used in the specification and design of network protocols. They can model the behavior of
communication systems with a finite set of states and transitions.
4. Hardware Design:
• FAs play a role in digital circuit design, where they can be used to model sequential circuits and control units in
hardware systems.
5. String Searching Algorithms:
• FAs are applied in algorithms for string searching, aiding in tasks such as finding occurrences of a particular
substring within a larger text.
6. Virus Scanning and Intrusion Detection:
• FAs are utilized in security applications to recognize patterns associated with viruses or unauthorized access
attempts, contributing to the development of intrusion detection systems.
7. Natural Language Processing:
• FAs are used in language processing applications to model and recognize the syntactic structure of sentences,
aiding in tasks such as part-of-speech tagging.
8. Validation of Input:
• FAs are employed in validating input in various applications, such as form validation on websites, ensuring that
user inputs adhere to specified patterns or constraints.
9. Traffic Light Controllers:
 • FAs can be applied to model and control the state transitions in traffic light controllers, ensuring a systematic and
safe regulation of traffic flow.
10. Database Query Optimization:
• FAs are used in optimizing database queries by analyzing and recognizing patterns in query languages, helping to
improve the efficiency of data retrieval.

Q3 Describe Finite State Machine.

Ans.
A Finite State Machine (FSM), also known as a Finite Automaton, is a mathematical model used to describe computation
and control processes. It consists of a set of states, a set of transitions between these states, and an initial state. The
behavior of a Finite State Machine is determined by its current state and the input it receives, which leads to a transition to
a new state.
Key Components Of Finite State Machine:
1. States - A finite set of distinct states represents the different conditions or situations that the system can be in. Each
state typically corresponds to a specific mode or phase of the system.
2. Transitions - Transitions describe the movement from one state to another based on input. Transitions are triggered
by input symbols or events, and each transition is associated with a specific condition or set of conditions.
3. Input Alphabet - The set of input symbols or events that can trigger state transitions. The FSM processes input
symbols one at a time, and the transition from one state to another is determined by the current state and the input
symbol.
4. Output - Optionally, an FSM may produce output based on the current state and input. This output could be used to
control external devices, update internal variables, or provide information about the system's behavior.
5. Initial State - The starting point of the FSM, where the computation or process begins. It represents the state of the
system before any input is processed.
6. Accepting (or Final) States - States that, when reached, indicate the successful completion of a sequence of inputs or
the acceptance of a particular pattern. Not all FSMs have accepting states, but they are common in applications like
recognizing patterns in strings.
Finite State Machine Classified Into Two Types:
1. Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA):
• In a DFA, for each state and input symbol, there is exactly one transition to the next state. The transition is
uniquely determined by the current state and the input symbol.
2. Nondeterministic Finite Automaton (NFA):
• In an NFA, there can be multiple possible transitions for a given input symbol from a given state. The choice of
the transition is not uniquely determined.

Q4 Explain Conversion Of Moore To Mealy Machines.

Ans.
Moore and Mealy machines are two different types of finite state machines, distinguished by the way they handle outputs.
A Moore machine produces outputs based solely on its current state, while a Mealy machine produces outputs based on
both its current state and the input symbol. Converting a Moore machine to a Mealy machine involves adjusting the way
outputs are associated with transitions.
Steps To Convert Moore To Mealy Machine:
1. Identify States:
• List all the states of the original Moore machine.
2. Define Input and Output Alphabet:
• Identify the input alphabet (set of input symbols) and output alphabet (set of output symbols).
3. Define Transition Function:
• Specify the transition function of the original Moore machine, which indicates how the machine moves from one
state to another based on input.
4. Identify Moore Outputs:
• For each state in the Moore machine, note the output associated with that state. In a Moore machine, outputs are
typically associated with states.
5. Remove Outputs from States:
• Remove the outputs from the states in the Moore machine. The goal is to separate the outputs from the states, as
Mealy machines associate outputs directly with transitions.
6. Define Output Function:
• For each transition in the Moore machine, assign the corresponding output based on the original Moore machine's
output for the source state.
7. Create Mealy Outputs:
• The outputs in a Mealy machine are now associated with transitions instead of states. Each transition has an
associated output based on both the current state and the input symbol.
8. Finalize the Mealy Machine:
• The converted Mealy machine should now have the same states, input alphabet, and output alphabet as the
original Moore machine. The transition function and output function, however, will be defined differently to
reflect the Mealy machine's behavior.

Q5 Compare Moore And Mealy Machines.

Ans.

Moore Machine Mealy Machine

1 Output Depends Only Upon The Present State. 1 Output Depends On The Present State As Well As
Present Input.
2 Moore Machine Also Places Its Output On The 2 Mealy Machine Places Its Output On The Transition.
Transition.
3 More States Are Required. 3 Less Number Of States Are Required.
4 They React Slower To Inputs. 4 They React Faster To Inputs.
5 Synchronous Output And State Generation. 5 Asynchronous Output Generation.
6 Output Is Placed On States. 6 Output Is Placed On Transitions.
7 Easy To Design. 7 It Is Difficult To Design.
8 If Input Changes, Output Does Not Change. 8 If Input Changes, Output Also Changes.

Module 2 – Regular Expressions And Language.

Q1 Explain Decision Properties Of Regular Languages.
Ans.
Decision properties are characteristics or properties of languages that can be decided algorithmically. For regular
languages, which can be recognized by finite automata, there are several decision properties that can be determined
efficiently.
Decision Properties Of Regular Languages:
1. Emptiness:
• Description: Is the language empty, i.e., does it contain no strings?
• Decision Algorithm: Construct a finite automaton for the language and check if there is a path from the initial
state to any accepting state.
2. Universality:
• Description: Does the language include all possible strings over the alphabet?
• Decision Algorithm: If the language is represented by a finite automaton, check if every state is an accepting
state.
3. Finiteness:
• Description: Is the language finite, containing a finite number of strings?
• Decision Algorithm: If the language is recognized by a finite automaton, check if there is a loop-free path from
the initial state to an accepting state.
4. Equality:
• Description: Are two regular languages equal?
• Decision Algorithm: Construct finite automata for both languages and check if they are isomorphic (having a
one-to-one correspondence between their states and transitions).
5. Membership:
• Description: Does a given string belong to the language?
• Decision Algorithm: Simulate the string through the finite automaton and check if it ends in an accepting state.
6. Emptiness Intersection:
• Description: Is the intersection of two regular languages empty?
• Decision Algorithm: Construct finite automata for both languages and check if there is no common reachable
state.
7. Subset Relationship:
• Description: Is one regular language a subset of another?
• Decision Algorithm: Construct finite automata for both languages and check if every state of the first automaton
is reachable in the second automaton.

Q2 Explain Closure Properties Of Regular Languages.

Ans.
Closure properties refer to the properties of a class of languages (in this case, regular languages) under certain operations.
The closure properties of regular languages indicate how regular languages behave when subjected to various operations.
Closure Properties For Regular Languages:
1. Kleen Closure:
• RS is a regular expression whose language is L, M.
• R* is a regular expression whose language is L*.
2. Positive closure:
• RS is a regular expression whose language is L, M.
• R+ is a regular expression whose language is L+ .
3. Complement:
• The complement of a language L (with respect to an alphabet E such that E* contains L) is E* –L.
• Since E* is surely regular, the complement of a regular language is always regular.
4. Reverse Operator:
• Given language L,
• LR is the set of strings whose reversal is in L. Example: L = {0, 01, 100};
 • LR ={0, 10, 001}. Proof: Let E be a regular expression for L. We show how to reverse E, to provide a regular
expression ER for LR .
5. Union:
• Let L and M be the languages of regular expressions R and S, respectively.Then R+S is a regular expression
whose language is(L U M).
6. Intersection:
• Let L and M be the languages of regular expressions R and S, respectively then it a regular expression whose
language is L intersection M. proof: Let A and B be DFA’s whose languages are L and M, respectively. Construct
C, the product automaton of A and B make the final states of C be the pairs consisting of final states of both A and
B.
7. Set Difference operator:
• If L and M are regular languages, then so is L – M = strings in L but not M. Proof: Let A and B be DFA’s whose
languages are L and M, respectively. Construct C, the product automaton of A and B make the final states of C be
the pairs, where A-state is final but B-state is not.

Q3 Explain Pumping Lemma Of Regular Language.

Ans.
The Pumping Lemma is a tool used in formal language theory to prove that certain languages are not regular. It is
particularly applied to demonstrate the non-regularity of languages. The Pumping Lemma provides a set of conditions that
any regular language must satisfy, and a violation of these conditions implies that the language is not regular.
Basic Statement Of The Pumping Lemma For Regular Languages:
For every regular language L, there exists a constant p > 0 (called the "pumping length") such that every string s in L with
length at least p can be divided into three parts, s = xyz, satisfying the following conditions:
Length Condition: ∣y∣ > 0 (the "pumping" part y is non-empty).
Pumping Condition: For every I ≥ 0, xyiz ∈ L (if xyiz is pumped or repeated any number of times, the resulting string is
still in L).
The Pumping Lemma doesn't prove that a language is regular; rather, it helps in proving that a language is not regular.
How To Use Pumping Lemma:
1. Assume Regularity:
• Assume, for the sake of contradiction, that the language L is regular.
2. Choose a String:
• Choose a specific string s in L such that ∣s∣ ≥ p (where p is the pumping length).
3. Analyze Decomposition:
• By the Pumping Lemma, decompose s into three parts xyz according to the conditions.
4. Consider All Cases:
• Consider all possible cases of i and show that xyiz cannot belong to L for some value of i, leading to a
contradiction.
5. Conclude:
• Conclude that the assumption of regularity leads to a contradiction, and therefore, L is not regular.

Module 3 – Grammers.
Q1 Explain Chomsky Hierarchy.
Ans.
The Chomsky Hierarchy is a classification of formal languages, proposed by linguist and cognitive scientist Noam
Chomsky in the 1950s. This hierarchy organizes formal languages into four types based on the generative power of the
grammar formalism used to describe them.
Types Of Chomsky Hierarchy:
1. Type 3: Regular Languages:
• Grammar Type: Regular grammar (or regular expressions).
• Automaton: Recognized by finite automata.
• Properties:
o Can be represented by regular expressions.
o Recognizable by deterministic and nondeterministic finite automata.
o Simplest type of language in the hierarchy.
• Example Language: L = {0,01,001,0001,…}

2. Type 2: Context-Free Languages:

• Grammar Type: Context-free grammar.
• Automaton: Recognized by pushdown automata.
• Properties:
o Can be represented by context-free grammars.
o Useful for describing the syntax of programming languages.
• Example: L = {0n1n | n ≥ 0}

3. Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages:

• Grammar Type: Context-sensitive grammar.
• Automaton: Recognized by linear-bounded automata.
• Properties:
o Can be represented by context-sensitive grammars.
o More expressive than context-free languages.
o Used in natural language processing and some advanced compilers.
• Example: L = {0n1n2n | n ≥ 0}

4. Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages:

• Grammar Type: Unrestricted grammar (or recursively enumerable grammar).
• Automaton: Recognized by Turing machines.
• Properties:
o Most general and expressive class of languages.
o Encompasses all other language types in the hierarchy.
o Not all recursively enumerable languages are decidable.
• Example Language: Halting problem (set of all Turing machine input-output pairs).

Q2 Write A Steps For Converting CFG To CNF Form.

Ans.
Converting a Context-Free Grammar (CFG) into Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) involves transforming the grammar rules
to a specific normal form that simplifies the structure and facilitates certain parsing algorithms.
Steps For Converting CFG To CNF:
1. Step 1:
Eliminate start symbol from RHS.
If start symbol S is at the RHS of any production in the grammar, create a new production as:
S0->S
where S0 is the new start symbol.
2. Step 2:
Eliminate null, unit and useless productions.
If CFG contains null, unit or useless production rules, eliminate them. You can refer the this article to eliminate these
types of production rules.
3. Step 3:
Eliminate terminals from RHS if they exist with other terminals or non-terminals. e.g,; production rule X->xY can be
decomposed as:
X->ZY
Z->x
4. Step 4:
Eliminate RHS with more than two non-terminals.
e.g,; production rule X->XYZ can be decomposed as:
X->PZ
P->XY

Module 4 – Pushdown Automata.

Q1 Differentiate Between NPDA And PDA. (IMP)
Ans.
PDA NPDA
1 PDA Stands For Pushdown Automata. 1 NPDA Stands For Non Deterministic Pushdown
Automata.
2 It Is Less Powerful Than NPDA. 2 It Is More Powerful Than PDA.
3 It Is Possible To Convert Every PDA To A 3 It Is Not Possible To Convert Every NPDA To A
Corresponding NPDA. Corresponding PDA.
4 The Language Accepted By PDA Is A Subset Of The 4 The Language Accepted By NPDA Is Not A Subset Of
Language Accepted By NDPA. The Language Accepted By PDA.
5 The Language Accepted By PDA Is Called 5 The Language Accepted By NPDA Is Called
DCFL(Deterministic Context-Free Language) NCFL(Non-Deterministic Context-Free Language).
6 Generally Simpler To Analyze And Implement Due To 6 Can Be More Complex To Analyze And Design Due
Determinism. To The Nondeterministic Choices.

Q2 Explain Application For PDA.

Ans.
1. Compiler Design - PDAs are used in compiler design to implement the syntactic analysis phase. They help in parsing
and recognizing the structure of programming language constructs.
2. Syntax Checking - PDAs are employed for syntax checking in the processing of programming languages. They help
ensure that the source code follows the correct syntactic rules.
3. HTML and XML Parsing - PDAs are utilized in parsing and validating HTML and XML documents. They help in
checking the correctness of the document structure and identifying well-formed expressions.
4. Natural Language Processing - PDAs play a role in natural language processing tasks, such as syntactic analysis of
sentences. They can be used to model and recognize certain aspects of language structure.
5. Database Query Processing - PDAs are applied in the validation and processing of database queries. They help
ensure that queries adhere to a specified syntax and grammatical structure.
6. Protocol Specification and Verification - PDAs are used in modeling and verifying communication protocols. They
help ensure that messages sent and received conform to the specified protocol grammar.
7. Expression Evaluation - PDAs can be employed to evaluate arithmetic expressions. They assist in recognizing and
computing the result of expressions while considering operator precedence and associativity.
8. XML Schema Validation - PDAs are used in XML schema validation to check whether an XML document conforms
to a specified schema. They help verify the hierarchical structure and data types in XML files.
9. Pattern Matching in DNA Sequences - PDAs can be applied in bioinformatics for pattern matching in DNA
sequences. They assist in identifying specific sequences or structures within biological data.
10. Formal Language Theory - PDAs are a fundamental concept in formal language theory. They are used to define and
study context-free languages and grammars.

Q3 Explain Acceptance By A PDA.

Ans.
Acceptance by a Pushdown Automaton (PDA) involves the machine processing an input string and determining whether
the string should be accepted or rejected based on the PDA's defined rules. The PDA uses a combination of states, input
symbols, and a stack to recognize languages, particularly context-free languages.
Overview Of How Acceptance By A PDA Works:
1. Initial Configuration - The PDA starts in an initial state with an empty stack. The initial state is specified by the
PDA's design.
2. Reading Input Symbols - As the PDA reads input symbols one by one from the input string, it transitions between
states according to the transition rules. The transition is determined by the current state, the input symbol, and the
symbol at the top of the stack.
3. Stack Operations - During transitions, the PDA can perform stack operations, which include pushing symbols onto
the stack, popping symbols from the stack, or replacing the symbol at the top of the stack with another symbol. These
operations are defined by the transition rules.
4. Acceptance Criteria - The PDA accepts the input string if, after processing the entire string, it reaches an accepting
state (a designated state indicating successful recognition) and the stack is empty. The acceptance is based on the
PDA's definition of when a computation is considered successful.
5. Rejection Criteria - The PDA rejects the input string if, at any point during the computation, there is no valid
transition based on the current state, input symbol, and stack content, or if the PDA reaches a rejecting state (a
designated state indicating unsuccessful recognition).
6. Language Recognition - A PDA is designed to recognize a specific language or set of languages. The set of strings
accepted by the PDA constitutes the language recognized by that PDA.
Q4 Explain PDA And Its Working.
Ans.
A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a type of automaton used in computer science to recognize context-free languages. It
extends the capabilities of a finite automaton by incorporating a stack, allowing it to process languages with nested
structures.
Working Of PDA:
1. Initialization - The PDA starts in the initial state q0 with the input head at the leftmost symbol of the input string and
the stack containing only the stack bottom symbol Z0.
2. Transition Rules - The PDA reads the current input symbol and the symbol at the top of the stack. Based on these
symbols and the current state, the PDA uses the transition rules to determine the next state and the stack operation
(push or pop).
3. Stack Operations - The PDA performs the specified stack operation, which may involve pushing a symbol onto the
stack or popping a symbol from the stack.
4. State Transition - The PDA transitions to the next state based on the transition rules. This process continues until the
entire input string is processed.
5. Acceptance/Rejection - If, after processing the entire input string, the PDA is in an accepting state and the stack is
empty, the input string is accepted. Otherwise, it is rejected.

Q5 Explain Non-Deterministic PDA.

Ans.
A Non-Deterministic Pushdown Automaton (NPDA) is an extension of the Pushdown Automaton (PDA) model that
allows for multiple possible transitions from a given state based on the current input symbol and the symbol at the top of
the stack. In contrast to a Deterministic Pushdown Automaton (DPDA), which has at most one valid transition for each
combination of state and input symbol, an NPDA can have multiple choices at each step. This non-deterministic behavior
gives NPDA increased expressive power, allowing it to recognize a broader class of languages.
Components Of An NPDA:
1. States (Q):
• A finite set of states that the NPDA can be in. The behavior of the NPDA is determined by its current state.
2. Input Alphabet (Σ):
• A finite set of input symbols that the NPDA can read from the input string.
3. Stack Alphabet (Γ):
• A finite set of symbols that can be pushed onto and popped from the stack. The stack serves as temporary memory
for the NPDA.
4. Transition Relation (δ):
• Instead of a deterministic transition function, an NPDA has a transition relation that defines sets of possible
transitions for each combination of current state, input symbol, and stack symbol.
5. Start State (q₀):
• The initial state where the NPDA begins processing the input.
6. Stack Bottom Symbol (Z₀):
• A special symbol that represents the bottom of the stack. It is initially placed on the stack and helps in stack
operations.
7. Accepting States (F):
• A set of states that, if reached, indicate successful recognition of the input string.
Module 5 – Turing Machine (TM).
Q1 Explain Variants Of Turing Machine.
Ans.
1. Multiple track Turing Machine:
• A k-track Turing machine(for some k>0) has k-tracks and one R/W head that reads and writes all of them one by
one.
• A k-track Turing Machine can be simulated by a single track Turing machine
2. Two-way infinite Tape Turing Machine:
• Infinite tape of two-way infinite tape Turing machine is unbounded in both directions left and right.
• Two-way infinite tape Turing machine can be simulated by one-way infinite Turing machine(standard Turing
machine).
3. Multi-tape Turing Machine:
• It has multiple tapes and is controlled by a single head.
• The Multi-tape Turing machine is different from k-track Turing machine but expressive power is the same.
• Multi-tape Turing machine can be simulated by single-tape Turing machine.
4. Multi-tape Multi-head Turing Machine:
• The multi-tape Turing machine has multiple tapes and multiple heads
• Each tape is controlled by a separate head
• Multi-Tape Multi-head Turing machine can be simulated by a standard Turing machine.
5. Multi-dimensional Tape Turing Machine:
• It has multi-dimensional tape where the head can move in any direction that is left, right, up or down.
• Multi dimensional tape Turing machine can be simulated by one-dimensional Turing machine
6. Multi-head Turing Machine:
• A multi-head Turing machine contains two or more heads to read the symbols on the same tape.
• In one step all the heads sense the scanned symbols and move or write independently.
• Multi-head Turing machine can be simulated by a single head Turing machine.
7. Non-deterministic Turing Machine:
• A non-deterministic Turing machine has a single, one-way infinite tape.
• For a given state and input symbol has at least one choice to move (finite number of choices for the next move),
each choice has several choices of the path that it might follow for a given input string.
• A non-deterministic Turing machine is equivalent to the deterministic Turing machine.

Q2 Explain Application For TM.

Ans.
1. Computational Complexity Theory - Turing Machines are central to the study of computational complexity, which
classifies problems based on their inherent difficulty. Concepts like P (polynomial time), NP (nondeterministic
polynomial time), and NP-completeness are defined using Turing Machines.
2. Algorithm Analysis and Design - The theoretical framework of Turing Machines helps analyze and compare the
efficiency of algorithms. It provides a basis for understanding time and space complexity, aiding in the design of
efficient algorithms.
3. Automata Theory - Turing Machines are a key concept in automata theory, serving as a reference model for other
automata, such as finite automata, pushdown automata, and nondeterministic finite automata. This theory is
foundational for understanding formal languages and their properties.
4. Compiler Design - The theoretical basis provided by Turing Machines is used in compiler design to analyze the
structure of programming languages. Concepts such as parsing and syntax analysis are influenced by automata theory
and Turing Machines.
5. Formal Language Theory - Turing Machines are instrumental in the study of formal languages and grammars. They
help define and analyze language classes, including regular languages, context-free languages, and recursively
enumerable languages.
6. Undecidability and Incompleteness - Turing Machines are crucial in proving results related to undecidability and
incompleteness, as demonstrated by Gödel and Turing. These results have profound implications for the limits of what
algorithms can achieve.
7. Cryptography - The theoretical aspects of computation and complexity, influenced by Turing Machines, have
implications in cryptography. Concepts like computational hardness and security proofs are rooted in computational
complexity theory.
8. Artificial Intelligence - While not directly implementing Turing Machines, the concept of computability and
algorithms laid the groundwork for artificial intelligence. Theoretical ideas from Turing Machines contribute to
understanding the limits of what is computationally feasible.
9. Theory of Computation - Turing Machines form the basis for the theory of computation, a field that studies the
nature and possibilities of computation. This theory is essential for understanding what can and cannot be computed
algorithmically.
10. Programming Language Semantics - The study of semantics in programming languages, which deals with the
meaning of programs, draws upon theoretical concepts from Turing Machines. Understanding the computational
power of different programming constructs is influenced by the theory of computation.

Q3 Write A Short Note On Universal TM.

Ans.
A Universal Turing Machine is a Turing Machine that is capable of simulating the behavior of any other Turing Machine,
given an appropriate description of that machine's transition rules and initial state. In essence, a UTM can read the
description of another Turing Machine and replicate its computation, making it "universal" in its ability to simulate any
Turing Machine.
Components Of Universal Turing Machine:
1. Control Unit - The control unit of a UTM is responsible for interpreting the description of the simulated Turing
Machine, determining the current state, reading the input symbols, and controlling the execution of the simulation.
2. Tape - The tape of the UTM contains both the input to be processed and the description of the Turing Machine to be
simulated. The UTM's tape is divided into sections, with one section dedicated to the input and another to the
description of the simulated machine.
3. Head - The head of the UTM moves along the tape, reading symbols and updating them based on the transition rules
specified in the description of the simulated machine.
Operations:
1. Input Description - The input to the UTM consists of two parts: the input for the simulated machine and a
description of the simulated machine itself. The description typically includes information about the states, alphabet,
and transition rules of the simulated machine.
2. Simulation - The UTM reads the input symbols and uses the provided description to simulate the behavior of the
specified Turing Machine. It replicates the computation of the simulated machine on the input provided.
3. Universal Capabilities - Because the UTM can simulate any Turing Machine, it has the ability to compute any
algorithmic function that can be described algorithmically.
Limitations:
1. The Halting Problem - The UTM, like any Turing Machine, cannot solve the halting problem for other Turing
Machines. It cannot determine, in general, whether an arbitrary Turing Machine will halt on a given input.
2. Resource Constraints - While theoretically universal, the practical use of a UTM is limited by resource constraints,
such as time and memory. Some computations may be feasible in theory but impractical in practice.

Q4 Construct TM To Check Well Formedness Of Parentheses.

Ans.
To construct a Turing Machine (TM) that checks the well-formedness of parentheses.
Steps For Design A TM:
1. Read the input string from left to right.
2. Maintain a stack on the tape to keep track of the opening parenthesis encountered.
3. For each symbol read from the input:
• If it is an opening parenthesis push it into the stack.
• If it is a closing parenthesis check the top of the stack.
Stack:
o If the stack is empty, or the top of the stack does not correspond to an opening parentheses, reject the
input string.
o If the top of the stack corresponds to an opening parenthesis, pop it from the stack.
4. After reading the entire input:
• If the stack is empty, accept the input string as the parentheses are well-formed.
• If the stack is not empty, reject the input string as there are unmatched opening parentheses.
Notes:
1. The TM ensures that every ')' encountered has a corresponding '(' before it, and there are no extra '(' without a
matching ')'.
2. If the stack is empty when a ')' is encountered, the input is rejected.
3. The TM moves left to check for the corresponding '(' for each ')', effectively simulating a stack operation.
This TM effectively verifies the well-formedness of parentheses in the input string. If the parentheses are balanced and
properly nested, the input is accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.

Module 6 – Undecidability.
Q1 Explain Rice’s Theorem.
Ans.
Statement of Rice's Theorem:
Rice's Theorem states that for any non-trivial property of partial functions, i.e., any non-trivial property about the set of
functions computed by algorithms (Turing machines), it is undecidable to determine whether an algorithm's description
belongs to the set of algorithms possessing that property.
Key Terms:
1. Non-trivial Property - A property is considered non-trivial if there exist two algorithmic descriptions, one with the
property and one without.
2. Partial Functions - The theorem deals with partial functions, which are functions that may not be defined for all
possible inputs. It includes functions that may not halt (i.e., the halting problem) or those that may diverge on certain
inputs.
Implications and Interpretation:
Undecidability - Rice's Theorem implies that there is no general algorithm that can decide, for any given algorithm,
whether it possesses a non-trivial property. The undecidability stems from the fact that determining such properties
involves analyzing the behavior of an algorithm on all possible inputs, which is not generally computable.
Limitations on Algorithmic Analysis - The theorem highlights the limitations in analyzing algorithmic properties. It
shows that there is no uniform decision procedure that can determine non-trivial properties for all possible algorithms.
Scope of Undecidability - The undecidability result applies to a broad class of properties, including properties related to
specific inputs, outputs, runtime behavior, or any other aspect of a program's computation.
Examples - Properties such as "halts on a particular input," "computes a total function," or "prints 'Hello World' on input
0" are considered non-trivial properties, and Rice's Theorem asserts that determining these properties for any arbitrary
algorithm is undecidable.

Q2 Explain Halting Problem Of Turing Machine.

Ans.
The Halting Problem can be stated as follows: Given the description of an arbitrary Turing Machine M and an input w, is
there an algorithm that can determine whether M halts (stops its computation) on input w or continues running
indefinitely.
Formal Statement:
Formally, the Halting Problem is undecidable, meaning that there is no general algorithm that can decide for every Turing
Machine M and input w whether M halts on w. In other words, there is no algorithmic procedure that can determine, for
arbitrary programs, whether they eventually halt or run forever.
Proof by Contradiction:
The proof of the undecidability of the Halting Problem is often done by assuming the existence of a "halting oracle" (a
hypothetical algorithm that can solve the Halting Problem) and then demonstrating a contradiction.
1. Assume a Halting Oracle Exists:
• Suppose there is an algorithm H (the halting oracle) that, given the description of a Turing Machine M and an
input w, can determine whether M halts on w.
2. Construct a Contradiction:
• Now, construct a new Turing Machine D (the diagonalization machine) that takes its own description as input and
does the opposite of what the halting oracle H predicts. Specifically, D runs forever if H predicts that D halts, and
D halts if H predicts that D runs forever.
3. Create a Paradox:
• Consider running D on its own description. If D halts, then H should predict that D halts, leading to a
contradiction. If D runs forever, then H should predict that D runs forever, again leading to a contradiction.
4. Conclusion:
• Since the existence of a halting oracle leads to a logical contradiction, the assumption that such an oracle exists
must be false. Therefore, the Halting Problem is undecidable.
The Halting Problem serves as a key example in understanding the inherent limitations of algorithmic computation and
plays a central role in discussions about the Church-Turing Thesis and the nature of computation.

Q3 Explain Post Correspondence Problem.

Ans.
Post Correspondence Problem is a popular undecidable problem that was introduced by Emil Leon Post in 1946. It is
simpler than Halting Problem. In this problem we have N number of Dominos (tiles). The aim is to arrange tiles in such
order that string made by Numerators is same as string made by Denominators. In simple words, lets assume we have two
lists both containing N words, aim is to find out concatenation of these words in some sequence such that both lists yield
same result. Let’s try understanding this by taking two lists A and B
A=[aa, bb, abb] and B=[aab, ba, b]
Now for sequence 1, 2, 1, 3 first list will yield aabbaaabb and second list will yield same string aabbaaabb. So the solution
to this PCP becomes 1, 2, 1, 3.
Post Correspondence Problems Can Be Represented In Two Ways:
1. Domino’s Form:

2. Table Form: