Script Distribution

Guided by color code, your start and end topic will be highlighted with your color code.

INTAC – CHAP 1 Introduction to CHAP 3 Indirect Extrusion

JL- CHAP 3 Defects during Extrusion to CHAP 3 Holding Force (under The drawability of a cup
is evaluated based on various criteria)

RAVEN – CHAP 3 Redrawing to CHAP IV Solid Shrinkage

VINCENT – CHAP IV Machining Allowance to CHAP IV Permeability Test

HANZ – CHAP IV Shatter Index Test to CHAP V Conclusion

I. INTRODUCTION [INTAC START]

Imagine a world without the gleam of metals, without the strength of steel, the luster of
copper, or the durability of iron. Metals have been our silent companions for millennia, shaping
not only the products we use but the very course of human history. They are, in many ways, one
of the materials of our civilization.

From the ancient artisans who first discovered their malleability to the trailblazers of the
Industrial Revolution who harnessed their potential on an unprecedented scale, metals have
intrigued, inspired, and transformed our world. Greetings, everyone! I am Carly Jay Intac from
Group 5 of ME - 2104, and our journey begins through delving metals, a resource that has
captivated society for centuries. Now, let us dive into the art and science of shaping these
materials through the process of metal forming, foundry, and metal casting processes!

Metal forming, a centuries-old manufacturing process, is the art of shaping metal into
desired forms and dimensions. This process involves using forces, like pushing, heating, or
squeezing, to change metal into various objects. In the past, blacksmiths used basic tools and fire
to heat and shape metals like bronze and copper. But during the Industrial Revolution, there were
big improvements in metal shaping. Steam engines, machines that hit metal, and rolling
machines made it easier to shape iron and steel, which became popular for building and making
things.

For mechanical engineers, knowing about metal forming is essential because it's the
foundation for designing and making many products. It's not just something you learn from
books; it is hands-on knowledge. Hence, learning about metal forming opens various job
opportunities for mechanical engineering students.

At the same time, metal casting and foundries are also very old practices. They've been
around for thousands of years and have had a big impact on our world. Ancient people in
Mesopotamia, around 3000 BCE, used a method called lost-wax casting to create things from
bronze and copper. During the Industrial Revolution, there were big improvements in casting
techniques, making it possible to create things more efficiently.

Mechanical engineering and the foundry and metal casting industries are closely
connected. Mechanical engineers work with foundries and experts in metals to design, test, and
make mechanical parts and systems. This often involves creating new metal parts that are more
durable, lighter, and perform better. This. Foundry techniques are crucial for making many
mechanical parts, so there is also strong link between foundries, metal casting, and mechanical
engineering as it correlates with the metal forming processes.

II. OBJECTIVES

Before discussing to our first topic, let us first discuss our goals and objectives for this report.
This report aims this written report aims to comprehensively explore the realm of Metal Forming
Processes and Foundry and Metal Casting.

Specifically, the report seeks answers to the following objectives:

1. To Understand the Significance of Metal Forming Processes and Foundry and

Metal Casting.

1.1 What role do metal forming processes and foundry and metal casting play in
engineering, manufacturing, and building currently and historically?

1.2. How do metal forming processes, foundries, and metal casting affect the resilience
and structural integrity of metals in various applications?

2. To define the essential manufacturing techniques and procedures of Metal Forming

Processes.

2.1. What are the fundamental techniques and procedures of metal Forming Processes?

2.2. What are the contributions of metal Forming Processes to various industries?

3. To Provide In-Depth Analysis of Foundry and Metal Casting.

3.1. What are the key principles and processes involved in metal casting?

3.2 What are the environmental and sustainability concerns associated with metal casting,
and how are they being addressed?

3.3 What are the emerging trends and technologies in metal casting that may shape the
industry's future?

4. To Give Relevance to Mechanical Engineering Students.

 4.1. How can a comprehensive understanding of metal forming processes and foundry
and metal casting benefit mechanical engineering students in their academic and
professional pursuits?

4.2. What practical implications do metal forming processes and foundry and metal
casting have in the context of mechanical engineering, and how can students apply this
knowledge effectively?

III. METAL FORMING PROCESSES

The world of manufacturing encompasses a variety of techniques that involve reshaping

materials through compression to match specific molds, such as in metals. The choice of tools,
such as dies or punches, depends on the specific method employed. Metal forming methods are
divided into two main categories: bulk metal forming and sheet metal forming, each having
distinct sub-categories as shown in the figure:

[read/briefly explain the figure]

BULK FORMING

Bulk forming is a process characterized by intense deformation resulting in significant

changes to the material's shape. Typically conducted in high-temperature environments, this
approach is essential for achieving the desired results. The following section outlines the
classifications of bulk processes, providing concise definitions and accompanying figures for
reference.

Forging: Forging involves the compression of materials between two dies with special shapes,
ultimately shaping the final product.
Rolling: In this method, a flat material like a slab or plate is compressed between two rotating
rolls, reducing its thickness, and producing a flat sheet.

Extrusion: This process entails pushing the material into a die's orifice, resulting in the material
taking on the same shape as the die.

Wire Drawing: Like extrusion, wire drawing involves pulling the material through the die to
achieve the desired shape.

FORGING

Forging is a method used to create robust components for various applications, such as
automotive and aerospace. It involves pressing the material between two dies using substantial
force or hydraulic pressure, resulting in the formation of durable components like engine parts,
gears, and aircraft elements. Forging techniques are categorized based on factors such as
temperature (cold, warm, or hot forging), the type of presses utilized (e.g., forging hammers or
gradual pressure presses), and specific methods for shaping the material.

Open Die Forging

In open die forging, the material is compressed between two flat surfaces or dies,
allowing the metal to move freely sideways without constraints related to die surfaces. This
process aims to achieve uniform deformation, but in real-world scenarios, friction at the die-
material interface causes uneven deformation known as 'barreling.' The force calculation in real
forging considers this friction and the D/h ratio (width-to-height) of the material. The
temperature also plays a role in the process.

Closed Die Forging

Also known as impression die forging, closed die forging employs dies with specific
shapes that are pressed onto the workpiece to achieve the desired form. The same force
calculation formula used in open die forging applies here: F = Kf * σf * A, where F represents
the maximum force required, A is the part's area including excess material, σf is the material's
strength, and Kf accommodates variations in part shapes. Determining the correct strength value
can be challenging, so an average strength is sometimes used. Precision forging is a method that
enhances the efficiency of closed die forging, allowing for the creation of precise parts with
intricate shapes, reducing the need for additional machining.
Flashless Forging

Flashless forging requires close matching between the material's size and the die space.
This process is ideal for producing simple and symmetrical parts and is well-suited for materials
like aluminum, magnesium, and their alloys. It helps avoid damage to the die and machine due to
high pressure. It also consists of three phases.

These forging processes are essential in manufacturing but may require additional
machining for precise measurements or features like holes and threads. For efficient production,
precision forging is used, reducing the need for extensive machining, sometimes achieving 'near-
net shape forging.'

Additional forging methods include forging hammers, presses, and dies, Heading,
Swaging, Roll Forging, Orbital Forging, and Isothermal Forging. Hammering utilizes a single
strong impact to shape the material, while presses apply force gradually. Swaging narrows one
end of a rod or tube. Roll forging reduces the cross-section of a rod. Orbital forging uses a cone-
shaped die that simultaneously rolls and presses, and Isothermal forging is a hot-forging method
where the material remains hot throughout the shaping process.

EXTRUSION

Extrusion is a versatile bulk metal shaping method where metal is forced through a die
hole to achieve a specific cross-sectional shape. This technique encompasses both cold and warm
extrusion processes, each tailored to meet precise tolerances. Notably, hot extrusion is employed
to enhance the grain structure and strength of the material. Different extrusion types, including
Direct, Indirect, Backward, and others, offer varying advantages and trade-offs.

Direct Extrusion

Direct extrusion involves placing a metal piece into a container with holes and applying
substantial force using a ram. The metal flows through the holes, with friction between the billet
and die necessitating additional force. Hot direct extrusion mitigates the challenge of an oxide
layer by using a smaller dummy block between the ram and the work billet.

Indirect Extrusion

In indirect extrusion, the die is attached to the ram, causing the metal to flow through the
die on the ram side in the opposite direction of the ram's motion. This approach reduces friction
between the container and billet, resulting in decreased ram force requirements. However, it
introduces certain drawbacks, including a less robust ram and challenges in supporting the
extruded product at the end.
 Understanding extrusion involves considering the "extrusion ratio," which signifies how
much the metal transforms during the process. The pressure required to push the metal through
the die in ideal conditions is directly linked to this ratio.

For direct extrusion, where friction between the metal and container exists, calculations
account for this friction, helping determine the additional force required to overcome it. These
equations and considerations are essential for understanding and controlling the forces and
changes in metal shaping through extrusion for various applications. For the continuation of our
first topic, let us have Mr. Jon Lloyd Jalapan. [INTAC END]

Thank you, Mr. Intac.

DEFECTS DURING EXTRUSION [JL START]

Several defects can occur during the extrusion process, impacting the quality of the final
product:

1. Centerburst (Chevron Cracking): This defect resembles a crack inside the metal piece,
resulting from excessive movement of the outer metal parts, which exert excessive
tension on the center, leading to cracking. The use of specific die angles, minimal
alteration of the metal shape, and the presence of impurities in the material can
exacerbate this issue.

2. Piping: Piping refers to the formation of a hole at the end of a metal bar during shaping.
This can be prevented by employing a smaller dummy block in the extrusion process.

3. Surface Cracking: Surface cracking occurs when the metal is heated and subjected to
rapid pushing or pulling during shaping. It can also result from high friction or
excessively quick cooling of the hot metal during the process.

WIRE, ROD, BAR DRAWING

Wire, rod, and bar drawing is a metalworking process that involves pulling wire, rods, or
bars through a die to reduce their cross-sectional area. The key distinctions between bar drawing
and wire drawing are as follows:

Initial Stock Size: Bar drawing is utilized for larger diameter bars and rods, whereas
wire drawing is suitable for smaller diameters, often as thin as 0.03 mm.

Operating Stages: Bar drawing typically takes place in a single-stage operation where
stock is pulled through one die opening. The starting bars are typically straight, not coiled, which
limits the length that can be drawn and necessitates batch processing. In contrast, wire drawing
involves drawing wire from coils, each containing several hundred meters of wire. It passes
through a series of dies (usually 4 to 12). This continuous drawing process allows for long
production runs, and segments of wire can be joined together to achieve truly continuous
operation.

Wire Drawing Formula

In wire drawing, the strain under ideal conditions (no friction or redundant work) can be
calculated using the formula:

ε = ln(A0 / Af)

Here, A0 represents the initial cross-sectional area of the wire, and Af is the final cross-
sectional area.

The stress required for wire drawing under ideal conditions is given by:

σd = Yf / [1 - (A0 / Af)]

Yf represents the average flow stress corresponding to ε mentioned in the equation.

To consider the effect of die angle and friction coefficient on the drawing stress, Schey proposed
another equation, which is shown below:

σd = Y [1 + tan(Φ) * μ / (2sin(α))]

Here, Φ represents the die angle, μ is the friction coefficient, and α is the entrance angle.
In the case of inhomogeneous deformation, the drawing force (F) is given by F = Af * σd.

DRAWING DIES

The drawing dies comprise three main zones - the entry zone, approach region, and back
relief area. The entry zone serves to maintain lubrication, prevent wear on the die and work
surfaces, and is bell-shaped. The approach region, having a cone-like shape with a half-angle
typically ranging from 6 to 20 degrees, is where the actual drawing process takes place. The size
of the finished drawing is determined by the bearing surface or land. Finally, the process
concludes in the back relief area, characterized by a rear relief angle ranging from 25 to 30
degrees.

TUBE DRAWING
 Tube drawing is employed to reduce the diameter or thickness of seamless tubes and
pipes. Two methods are used in tube drawing: with or without a mandrel.

In the simpler "tube sinking" method that doesn't use a mandrel, it is challenging to
control the inside diameter or wall thickness effectively, necessitating the use of a mandrel.
When employing a fixed mandrel, it is attached to a long support bar to control the inside
diameter and wall thickness during the process. However, this setup limits the length of the tube
that can be drawn. In contrast, when a floating plug is used, the mandrel moves inside the tube,
adapting to the right spot in the die to make the tube smaller. Unlike the fixed mandrel, this
method has no length restriction, offering greater flexibility in tube drawing.

ROLLING

Rolling is a metal shaping process that involves squishing metal between two rotating
rolls moving in opposite directions. It can be utilized to produce flat sheets and various shapes
like I-beams or L-beams. Cold rolling, a method to make metal stronger and more precise in
terms of thickness, is particularly interesting. Cold-rolled sheets have a smooth surface without
scales and are generally superior to their hot-rolled counterparts. These cold-rolled sheets are
employed in the manufacturing of stamped parts, car panels, components and household
appliances.

Strip Rolling Analysis: In flat rolling, metal sheets or plates with a rectangular cross-
section, where the width is greater than the thickness, are compressed between two rolls to
reduce their thickness. The degree of thinning is referred to as the "draft," which can be
calculated by subtracting the final thickness (tf) from the initial thickness (t0). The draft can also
be expressed as "reduction" (r), simply calculated by dividing the draft by the initial thickness
(t0).

In strip rolling, the width of the metal sheet undergoes minimal change during rolling.
The exit velocity (vf) is typically higher than the entry velocity (vo), and the sheet's velocity
continually increases from the entry to the exit. The rolls contact the rolling sheet along an arc,
defined by an angle θ, with each roll having a radius (R) and a surface velocity (vr) that falls
between the entry and exit velocities.

There exists a specific point along this arc known as the "no-slip point" or "neutral point"
where the sheet's velocity matches the roll's velocity. However, on either side of the neutral
point, some slipping, and friction occur between the rolls and the sheet. The degree of slipping
can be quantified as "forward slip" (S), which is calculated as the difference between the roll
velocity (vr) and the final velocity (vf).

Rolling Mills:
 Two-High Rolling Mill: This mill features two rolls rotating in opposite directions. Their
diameters can range from 0.6 to 1.4 meters and can be either reversing or non-reversing
mills.

Three-High Rolling Mills: Three rolls are stacked on top of each other. During a single
pass, two of the rolls are used, and their direction doesn't change. The top two rolls initially
reduce the sheet, and then the sheet is moved to the bottom two rolls for further reduction.
This process continues until the desired reduction is achieved. An automated mechanism is
needed to shift the sheet between rolls.

Four-High Rolling Mills: In this type of mill, two small rollers thin the metal, and two large
backup rolls support the smaller rolls. The large backing rolls prevent excessive bending of
the smaller rolls when the sheet passes through them.

Cluster Rolling Mill: This mill employs smaller rolls for the rolling process.

Tandem Rolling Mill: In this system, the sheet becomes slightly thinner at each station, with
eight to ten rolling stations in total. The sheet accelerates as it passes through each station,
making it a preferred method in industrial settings, often used with continuous casting. It
shortens the manufacturing process and optimizes factory space.

Thread Rolling: Thread rolling involves rolling cylindrical pieces between two dies to add
threads, making it suitable for producing numerous externally threaded components like bolts
and screws simultaneously.

Ring Rolling: This process transforms a thick-walled, smaller-diameter ring into a thinner-
walled, larger-diameter ring by compressing it. The material expands as the thick ring is
squeezed, serving as a method for creating items such as ball and roller bearing races, steel
tires for train wheels, rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating gear components.

Defects in Strip Rolling: Strip rolling can lead to various defects, including waviness,
cracking, and edge defects, which are visually depicted in the illustrations provided.

SHEET FORMING

Sheet metal forming involves the art of shaping and cutting metal sheets, strips, and coils.
The primary characteristic of the starting metal in this process is its substantial surface area
compared to its volume. Utilizing tools like punches and dies, the shape of metal sheets can be
skillfully transformed. Let's delve into the classifications of sheet metal forming processes:

 Deep or Cup Drawing: This method revolves around converting a flat metal sheet into a
cup shape through strategic stretching in specific areas. It involves the use of a blank
 holder to secure the sheet on the die while a punch is employed to gently press into the
metal sheet.

 Bending: In this approach, a punch is used to apply stress to a sheet of material, causing
it to bend into an angled shape, typically along a straight line.

 Shearing: This process essentially involves cutting sheets through a shearing action.

Deep drawing, a complex process, unfolds in several stages:

1. Bending Stage: As the punch exerts force on the sheet, it starts to bend over the punch
and die corners. The outer part of the blank gently shifts towards the center of the cup.

2. Straightening Stage: In this phase, the bent sheet over the die corner gets straightened in
the clearance area, shaping the cup's wall. To accommodate this transformation, more
metal is drawn from the sheet's edge, moving it into the die opening.

3. Friction and Compression: Friction between the sheet, die, and blank holder surfaces,
along with the blank holding force, significantly influences the sheet's movement.
Lubricants are employed to reduce friction. Additionally, compression takes place at the
sheet's edge, resulting in thickening.

4. Wrinkling: In thinner sheets, this thickening can induce wrinkling, especially when the
blank holding force is insufficient. Too little force results in wrinkling, while excessive
force can hinder the sheet from flowing correctly, leading to stretching and tearing.

5. Final Thinning: The completed cup part may exhibit some thinning in the side wall.

The drawability of a cup is evaluated based on various criteria:

 Drawing Ratio (DR): This metric compares the size of the blank's diameter to that of the
punch. A higher DR indicates a more challenging drawing process. The DR limit hinges
on factors such as punch and die shapes, friction, draw depth, and the sheet metal's
quality.

 Reduction (R): Reduction quantifies the change in diameters between the punch and the
die. In general, DR ≤ 2 and R ≤ 0.5 are considered acceptable limits for a successful
drawing.

 Thickness to Diameter Ratio (t/Db): The relationship between the sheet's thickness and
its diameter should be greater than 1%. If it's lower, there's a heightened risk of wrinkling
in the drawn cup.
  Maximum Drawing Force (F): An approximate calculation for the maximum force
required for drawing can be determined using an equation, considering factors such as the
punch's size, sheet thickness, and the material's strength.

 Holding Force (Fh): The force needed to keep the sheet securely in place is
approximately one-third of the drawing force. For the last part of our first topic, Ms.
Raven Harvie Gomez will take the spotlight. [JL END]

Thank you, Mr. Jalapan.

REDRAWING [RAVEN START]

When the aim is to significantly alter the shape of a part, requiring extensive material
stretching, a series of drawing steps becomes necessary, a process aptly named "redrawing." To
ensure the success of the redrawing process, several guidelines are indispensable:

 First Draw: Initiating the process involves reducing the initial blank size by
approximately 40% to 45%.

 Second Draw: In the subsequent step, the target is to achieve a reduction of

approximately 30%.

 Third Draw: If the need arises, the third draw should further reduce the size by around
16%.

Reverse Drawing: Reverse redrawing introduces the novel approach of turning the sheet
part upside down, and the drawing process is executed in the opposite direction of the initial
bend.

Drawing without Blank Holder: The primary role of the blank holder (BH) is to
mitigate wrinkling in the drawn part. Wrinkling is less likely to occur when the sheet thickness
exceeds its diameter (indicated by a high t/Db ratio). In such cases, drawing can be performed
without a blank holder. The die must exhibit a funnel or cone shape to facilitate the proper
drawing of the material into the die. The upper limit for drawing without a blank holder is
attained when the punch diameter (Dp) is five times greater than the sheet thickness (5t).

Issues encountered in deep drawing encompass various challenges, including:

 Wrinkling: Characterized by wavy patterns on the flange or the outer edge of the drawn
part. In certain instances, if the flange is drawn into the die hole, these patterns may also
manifest on the cup's wall.
  Tearing: Tearing arises when a crack forms in the cup, often near the base. It results
from high tensile stresses that thin and weaken the metal. Sharp die corners can
exacerbate tearing.

 Earing: When examining the walls of drawn cups, one may observe peaks and valleys,
known as ears. These are sometimes more numerous than four. Earing is attributable to
the material's intrinsic behavior (planar anisotropy), and the height and position of these
ears correspond to variations in the material's properties.

 Surface Scratches: The presence of scratches on the surface of the drawn cup is often
linked to the condition of the tools used, such as the punch and dies. Insufficient
lubrication can also contribute to these surface imperfections.

SHEET BENDING

Sheet bending is akin to folding a piece of paper, but on a larger scale involving metal sheets.
When you bend a metal sheet, the inner portion experiences compression, while the outer part
undergoes stretching. Importantly, the sheet's thickness remains unaltered.

 V-Bending: This technique employs a V-shaped tool to bend the sheet metal. The angle
of the V can vary from very wide to extremely sharp. In edge bending, a sheet protruding
like a diving board is guided against an edge by a pad while another tool bends it over
that edge.

Understanding the Bending Process: An essential aspect of analyzing sheet bending

involves the assumption that a cross-section of the sheet remains flat and converges at the center
of curvature during bending. Consider it analogous to drawing lines on a piece of paper. The line
A0B0, situated in the middle of the sheet, changes its length to AB when the sheet stretches
during bending. The original length, lo, becomes ls = ρθ, with ρ representing the radius of
curvature.

The strain, reflecting how much the material stretches, at a point like C0D0, situated a
certain distance from the middle of the sheet, can be determined using specific equations. In
essence, these equations offer valuable insights into the behavior of a bent sheet of metal,
particularly when the radius of the bend significantly exceeds the sheet's thickness. This
understanding is instrumental for comprehending how materials deform during bending
processes.

In sheet bending, several models are employed to grasp material behavior during
bending, with a common observation being strain hardening. These models include:
  Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Model: Applicable when the bend isn't too tight (a bend ratio
of approximately 50), this model assumes minimal strain hardening, akin to the behavior
of a rubber band – easily stretchable without substantial resistance.

 Rigid-Perfectly Plastic Model: Reserved for very tight bends, this model disregards any
elasticity or strain hardening, treating the material as rigid and unyielding.

 Strain Hardening Model: When bends are more pronounced, this model employs a
power hardening law, signifying that the material toughens as it stretches.

Spring Back and Its Mitigation: Spring back is the tendency of metal to revert to its
original shape after bending. This happens due to a redistribution of stresses within the metal.
The inner portion gets stretched, but this tension should remain below the metal's ultimate
strength to prevent cracking on the outer side.

Close to the middle of the bend, there's a slender elastic zone where the metal can spring
back. However, further from the center, the metal surpasses its elastic limit and enters the plastic
zone, where it cannot fully return to its original shape. Mitigating spring back can be achieved
through techniques like overbending, bottoming, and stretch forming.

 Overbending: Involves adjusting the punch's angle and radius to induce spring back to
the desired shape.

 Bottoming: Entails compressing the metal at the end of the bending stroke, creating
plastic deformation in the bend region.

STRETCH FORMING

Stretch forming is a process that intentionally stretches and bends a metal sheet to impart
a new shape. This is achieved by gripping the sheet at both ends and applying tension with a
punch, causing the metal to undergo permanent deformation as it is stretched beyond its normal
limits. Upon releasing the tension, the metal retains its new shape. Notably, the combination of
stretching and bending reduces the likelihood of the metal springing back to its original form.

In engineering, while tensile tests can provide insights into material properties like
ductility and work hardening, they don't precisely replicate the complexities of real-world sheet
forming processes, characterized by friction and intricate forces.

The Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) plays a pivotal role in sheet forming, particularly in
operations like stretching. This diagram serves as a quality indicator for sheet materials,
depicting the correlation between major strain (Y-axis) and minor strain (X-axis). The FLD
delineates the safe limits for stretching and molding a metal sheet, offering critical reference
points for these processes.
 The Forming Limit Curve (FLC) represents a set of limit strains for various strain
trajectories, encompassing deep drawing, biaxial stretching, and plane strain. Notably, the plane-
strain condition has the most stringent forming limits compared to other strain routes like deep
drawing and stretching. These diagrams and data empower engineers to gain a better
understanding of material behavior and constraints during sheet forming.

IV. FOUNDRY AND METAL CASTING

Foundry and metal casting are vital processes in the manufacturing industry, involving
the pouring of molten metal into molds to achieve a wide range of products, from small medical
components to large aerospace parts.

ADVANTAGES

Foundry and metal casting offer numerous advantages that make them indispensable in
manufacturing:

1. Complex Shapes: Metal casting allows the creation of intricate and complex shapes by
enabling the flow of molten material into small sections. This capability minimizes the
need for additional processes like machining, forging, or welding, streamlining
production.

2. Material Versatility: Foundry and metal casting accommodate a wide spectrum of

materials, including ferrous and non-ferrous metals. This versatility extends the method's
applicability across various industries and material types.

3. Cost-Effective: The tools and equipment used in casting molds are straightforward and
cost-effective. This affordability makes metal casting an excellent choice for small-scale
production runs, where cost reduction is a priority.

4. Specialized Applications: Certain components, such as turbine blades, rely on the metal
casting process for their production. The process is often followed by final machining,
making it indispensable for these specialized applications.

5. Size and Weight Flexibility: Metal casting imposes no limitations on the size or weight of
the products being manufactured. This flexibility ensures that even large and heavy items
can be effectively produced using the casting method.

LIMITATIONS

Despite its advantages, foundry and metal casting also have limitations:
 1. Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Finish: Castings produced via traditional sand-
casting techniques may suffer from limited dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

2. Advanced Processes: To address these limitations, advanced casting processes have been
developed. These methods, including die casting, investment casting, vacuum-sealed
molding, and shell molding, offer enhanced control over dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.

3. Labor-Intensive: Metal casting, in general, remains a labor-intensive procedure, requiring

skilled craftsmanship and meticulous attention to detail.

4. Automation: Automation in the casting industry is an ongoing topic, with discussions on

how to introduce more automated processes.

STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTING

The sand-casting process involves five fundamental steps:

1. Pattern Making: Creating a pattern, which is a replica of the final product, to form the
mold cavity.

2. Core Making: Constructing cores, which are inserts placed within the mold to shape
internal cavities.

3. Molding: Combining the pattern, cores, and sand to form the complete mold for casting.

4. Melting and Pouring: Heating the metal until it becomes molten and then pouring it into
the prepared mold.

5. Cleaning: Removing the casting from the mold, trimming excess material, and cleaning
the final product to meet specifications.

PATTERN MAKING

Pattern making plays a pivotal role in the casting process. It involves creating a physical
representation of the casting, commonly using an aggregate material such as molding sand. The
pattern serves as a mold precursor, where molding sand is compacted around it to form the mold
cavity. Subsequently, molten metal is poured into this cavity to produce the final casting. In
instances where the casting needs to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are utilized to
shape internal cavities, as seen in applications like pipe fittings.
 Patterns and the final parts they generate are distinct entities, characterized by the
following differences:

 Pattern Enlargement: Patterns are invariably crafted larger than the intended final part,
introducing what is referred to as pattern allowance. Pattern allowance encompasses
shrinkage allowance and machining allowance.

 Shrinkage Allowance: This aspect addresses the contraction experienced by the casting
as the metal cools from its molten state to room temperature. It accounts for two types of
shrinkage:

 Liquid Shrinkage: As metal transitions from a liquid to a solid state, it undergoes

a reduction in volume. To counteract this phenomenon, a riser is incorporated into
the mold to supply molten metal to the casting during cooling.

 Solid Shrinkage: Occurs as the solid metal loses heat and contracts. Patterns are
tailored to include a shrinkage allowance, utilizing the shrink rule to
accommodate solid shrinkage based on the material's contraction rate.

That is all for the first topic. Now, let us have Mr. Vincent Luis Hernandez to start the
discussion of the next topic, “Foundry and Metal Casting.” [RAVEN END]

Thank you, Ms. Gomez.

MACHINING ALLOWANCE [VINCENT START]

Due to the typical limitations in surface finish and dimensional accuracy in sand casting,
achieving the required quality often necessitates post-casting machining. Thus, machining or
finish allowances are integrated into the pattern dimensions. The extent of machining allowance
is contingent upon several factors, including the molding and casting methods employed, the size
and configuration of the casting, its orientation, the type of metal, and the precision and finish
specifications.

DRAFT ALLOWANCE

For safe and efficient pattern removal, all surfaces aligned with the pattern's extraction
direction are subtly tapered inward. This tapering is known as "draft allowance." It is crucial for
facilitating the release of patterns from molds and ensuring a smooth casting process.

CORE AND CORE PRINTING

 Cores are instrumental in creating holes, recesses, and other internal features within
castings. Consequently, when a core is essential, a support system within the mold cavity must
be established. Core prints are employed for this purpose. These are extensions on the pattern
integrated during the mold preparation process. The sand core rests on the mold's seat, formed by
the core print. The core print's size and shape must be adequately designed to support the core's
weight during the process. This ensures the precise formation of internal features within casting.

DISTORTION ALLOWANCE (CUMBER)

Castings can be prone to distortion during the solidification process, primarily due to their
typical shapes. For instance, castings shaped like the letters U, V, T, or L tend to contract at the
closed end, resulting in a slight inclination of their vertical legs. This distortion can be mitigated
by designing U, V, T, or L-shaped patterns with slightly converging (inward) legs. This
adjustment ensures that the casting exhibits vertical sides even after distortion.

Distortion in castings can also be induced by internal stresses. These stresses arise from unequal
cooling rates in different sections of the casting, leading to restricted contraction. The figure
presented shows the distortion in casting.

[read/explain the figure]

PATTERN DESIGN AND MATERIALS

 Certain features such as tapped holes and slots are typically not included in sand castings;
they are added through machining operations.

 Patterns are often fabricated in two halves, secured by dowel pins, known as a 'split
pattern.' The choice of pattern material is important, with wood being a common option
due to its lightweight nature, ease of workability, and minimal propensity for checking
and warping.
PATTERN MATERIALS

Patterns used for sand castings are subjected to significant wear and tear, given the need for
ramming actions and the abrasive nature of sand. They should also be resistant to moisture due to
changing environmental conditions. Pattern materials can include wood, metal, plastics, plaster,
and synthetic materials.

 Wood: Materials such as white pine, sugar pine, and mahogany are often employed. The
wood should feature a straight grain, be lightweight, easy to work with, and exhibit
minimal tendencies for cracking and warping.

 Metal: For large castings, materials like cast iron or aluminum are used. When metal
patterns are cast from wooden master patterns, double shrinkage allowances must be
considered for the wooden master pattern. For example, if the metal pattern is made of
aluminum, and the castings are made of cast iron, the shrinkage allowance for the
wooden master pattern should account for both materials.

CORE MAKING

Cores, typically composed of sand, are used to create the internal surfaces of castings.
They are inserted into the mold chamber, forming the empty space between the core and the
mold cavity surface where the casting takes shape.

MOLDING

The molding process encompasses all the steps required to prepare the mold to receive
molten metal. It typically involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern, which is
supported by a frame. The pattern is then removed from the mold cavity, cores are positioned
within the mold cavity, and the mold is finalized and closed. This process prepares the mold for
the casting of metal.

[read/explain briefly the three figures below]

Flowchart on the process of molding:

Important casting terms [read all terms]:
 Generally, the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting
characteristics of foundry sands:

1. Moisture content Test

2. Clay content Test
3. Chemical composition of sand
4. Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
5. Grain size distribution of sand
6. Refractoriness of sand
7. Strength Test
8. Permeability Test
9. Flowability Test
10. Shatter index Test
11. Mold hardness Test

1. MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

The moisture content test entails the determination of moisture in a mixture of molding
sand through a well-defined procedure. A weighed portion of molding sand, typically ranging
from 20 to 50 grams, is placed within an oven and subjected to a consistent temperature, usually
around 100°C, for approximately one hour. Following this, the sand is allowed to cool to room
temperature, and its weight is measured once more. This process effectively evaporates the
moisture present in the molding sand.

The reduction in weight, resulting from the loss of moisture, quantifies the moisture
content, often expressed as a percentage of the initial sand sample's weight. Alternatively, the
percentage of moisture content can be promptly determined using a device known as a speedy
moisture teller.

2. CLAY CONTENT TEST

The clay content test involves the meticulous assessment of clay particles within a 50-
gram molding sand sample. Clay is characterized by particles that exhibit a settling rate slower
than one inch per minute when suspended in water. These particles are notably small, typically
measuring less than 20 microns in diameter, approximately equivalent to 0.0008 inches.

This test encompasses the thorough examination of fine particles in molding sand, with a
specific focus on determining the clay content. This parameter holds great significance in
evaluating the composition and quality of sand mixtures, especially for various industrial
applications.
3. GRAIN FINENESS TEST

The Grain Fineness Test, or AFS Grain Fineness Number (AFS-GFN), serves as a vital
method for assessing the fineness of grains in a sand system. This numerical representation of
average particle size within a sand sample is pivotal in determining the suitability of molding
sand for diverse industrial applications. The grain fineness measurement is conducted through a
process called sieve analysis.

The test employs a power-driven shaker, housing a series of stacked sieves. A

representative sand sample is meticulously dried and weighed before undergoing sieve analysis.
During this analysis, the sand is passed through a sequence of sieves of progressively finer sizes.
These sieves are agitated and tapped for a standardized 15-minute testing cycle, each arranged in
order of fineness from the top sieve to the bottom.

Sand particles that are too large to pass through a given sieve, remaining on them, are
individually weighed, and meticulously recorded. A series of calculations, based on the
cumulative weight retained on each sieve, allows for the determination of the AFS-GFN. This
number offers a precise gauge of the sand's grain fineness, playing a critical role in assessing its
suitability for specific industrial applications.

4. REFRACTORINESS TEST

The refractoriness of a sand specimen is evaluated by exposing the A.F.S standard sand
specimen to elevated temperatures, with the specific range tailored to the sand type under
examination.

In this experimental procedure, the sand specimen is carefully placed within a porcelain
boat and positioned in an electric furnace. Typically, the test begins at 1000°C, with the
temperature incrementally increased in 100°C increments up to 1300°C. Beyond 1300°C, the
temperature is raised in 50°C steps until sintering of the silica sand grains is observed.

After each heating cycle, the sand is allowed to cool to room temperature. It is then
closely examined under a microscope for surface characteristics or subjected to scratching with a
steel needle. The primary observation focuses on whether the distinct shape of the silica sand
grains is retained and if they can be easily displaced by the needle, indicating the absence of
sintering. This evaluation is crucial for determining the refractoriness of the molding sand.
5. STRENGTH TEST

Strength tests play a vital role in assessing the ability of tempered sand to maintain the
shape of a mold under various stress factors, including compressive, tensile, shearing, and
transverse stresses. The foundry industry commonly employs two essential tests to evaluate
strength: the green compressive strength test and the dry compressive strength test.

In the compression test, a compacted specimen of tempered molding sand, measuring two
inches in diameter and height, is meticulously prepared. This specimen is then subjected to
gradually increasing loads until it fractures, serving as a measure of its compression strength.

For shear tests, the standard compressive loading system is modified to apply offset
loading to the specimen. Typically, shear test results closely correlate with those from
compression tests, though the former shows a more pronounced increase in property at higher
ramming densities.

The tensile test involves loading a specially designed waisted specimen in tension
through a pair of grips, allowing for the determination of the sand's tensile strength. In addition,
the transverse test employs a plain rectangular specimen supported on knife edges at both ends,
and it is centrally loaded until it fractures, providing valuable insights into the sand's transverse
strength. These comprehensive strength tests yield essential data to ensure the structural integrity
of sand molds in various industrial applications.

6. PERMEABILITY TEST

The Permeability Test evaluates a compacted sand sample's ability to permit the flow of
air under defined conditions. The procedure involves the meticulous preparation of a cylindrical
sand specimen, typically measuring 2 inches in diameter and 2 inches in height, using a rammer
and die. This prepared specimen serves as the basis for assessing the permeability or porosity of
molding and core sand.

The actual test is conducted within a specialized permeability meter, consisting of various
components, such as a balanced tank, water tank, nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for securing
the sand specimen, and a manometer for precise measurements. This apparatus directly measures
the rate of air flow, yielding a numerical value referred to as the permeability number (P).

The permeability number (P) is derived from the volume of air, measured in cubic
centimeters, that passes through a sand specimen with a cross-sectional area of 1 square
centimeter and a height of 1 centimeter. This occurs under a pressure difference of 1 gram per
square centimeter within a one-minute timeframe. The formula for calculating the permeability
number is as follows:

P = (Vh) / (atp)
Where: P = Permeability V = Volume of air passing through the specimen in cubic centimeters h
= Height of the specimen in centimeters p = Pressure of air in grams per square centimeter a =
Cross-sectional area of the specimen in square centimeters t = Time in minutes.

And that is all for my part, the following will be discussed by Mr. Hanz Hernandez.
[VINCENT END]

Thank you, Mr. Hernandez

7. SHATTER INDEX TEST [HANZ START]

The Shatter Index Test entails the use of a standard A.F.S. sand specimen. Typically, this
specimen is subjected to 10 blows to compact it and then allowed to fall from a height of 6 feet
onto a sieve with a half-inch mesh.

Afterward, the sand retained on the sieve is meticulously weighed, and this weight is
expressed as a percentage of the total specimen weight. This percentage furnishes a valuable
metric known as the shatter index, which plays a crucial role in evaluating the durability and
resistance to fragmentation of the sand specimen.

8. MOLD HARDNESS TEST

The Mold Hardness Test is executed with a specialized mold hardness tester, drawing
inspiration from the principles of a Brinell hardness testing machine. In this standard A.F.S.
hardness tester, a semi-spherical steel ball with a half-inch diameter experiences a spring load of
980 grams. This steel ball is then pressed into the surface of the mold sand or core sand.

The extent of penetration of the ball point into the mold surface is displayed on a dial,
expressed in thousandths of an inch. This dial is accurately calibrated to offer a direct reading of
the hardness. For instance, a mold surface that presents no resistance to the steel ball would
register a hardness value of zero, while a more rigid mold entirely preventing penetration would
yield a hardness value of 100.

In many instances, the dial gauge of the hardness tester directly provides these readings,
offering a straightforward measure of the mold or core sand's hardness.

9. COMPACTABILITY AND FLOWABILITY

 Understanding how sand behaves during molding, particularly in scenarios involving
squeeze compaction, hinges on assessing compactability and flowability. This widely recognized
test is not only easy to perform but also provides valuable insights into sand behavior during the
molding process.

During the test, a specific volume of loose sand undergoes controlled compaction under
standardized conditions. The resulting percentage reduction in volume serves as a practical
indicator of the sand's compactability, offering insights into its performance in real-world
molding applications.

FURAN RESIN SAND CASTING

Furan resin sand casting, a no-bake sand mold technique, relies on furan resin as its
primary binding agent. This approach consistently yields high-quality castings with a smooth and
refined surface finish. In this method, furan resin serves as the bonding agent, meticulously
combined with a catalyst in precise proportions to form the sand mold.

MELTING AND POURING

The stages of melting and pouring play pivotal roles in the metal casting process. Melting
involves heating the chosen metal to its liquid state, while pouring involves the careful transfer
of molten metal into prepared molds for casting creation. Maintaining precise temperature
control, alloying, and employing meticulous pouring techniques are vital to produce top-quality
castings.

INDUCTION FURNACE

An induction furnace is a specific type of electric furnace that generates heat through
electromagnetic induction by passing an electric current through the charge. This method finds
wide application in melting various materials, including metals and alloys.

The furnace refractory, a ceramic component within the furnace that directly contacts the
molten metal, is often referred to as the working liner. The term "furnace refractory"
encompasses both the working liner of a holding furnace and that of a melting furnace. This
refractory lining plays a critical role in insulating the furnace, ensuring efficient heat retention,
and maintaining the structural integrity of the furnace during high-temperature processes.

STRESS RELIEVING (ANNEALING)

[read/explain briefly the picture below]

FETTLING

Fettling stands as a vital post-casting operation devoted to the removal of risers and any
excess material from the casting. This meticulous process plays a pivotal role in ensuring the
final casting attains the desired shape, dimensions, and surface finish.

CASTING SHAKEOUT

Casting shakeout is a fundamental procedure aimed at effectively separating residual

sand from the casting mold by vigorously shaking the casting. This essential step primes the
casting for subsequent finishing and inspection.

EQUIPMENT FOR FETTLING

A range of specialized tools and equipment is employed for fettling, encompassing the
following:

1. Snagging Grinders
2. Swing Frame Grinders
3. Tumbling Barrels
4. Sand Blasting
5. Shot Blasting
6. Vibrating Knockout
7. Vibrating Feeders
8. Casting Coolers
INSPECTION

The inspection process comprises the following key components:

1. VISUAL INSPECTION

Visual inspection is a meticulous examination involving the human eye to identify

surface flaws, tears, misruns, cracks, cold shuts, gas evolution, molding faults, metal penetration,
slag adhesions, and sand inclusions. Castings must successfully pass this inspection to ensure
they meet the criteria for visual acceptance. Inspection findings are recorded, and each surface
imperfection receives a classification. Any castings displaying evident flaws are segregated.

2. DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION

Dimensional inspection serves to verify that a casting component adheres to specific

dimensions, specifications, or tolerances. This inspection can be performed manually or with the
assistance of a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), which employs probes to take precise
measurements.

3. X-RAY INSPECTION

X-ray inspection is deployed to scrutinize castings for compliance with established

quality standards. X-rays have the capability to reveal shrinkage-induced cavities, minute cracks,
and heat-induced fissures. As X-ray radiation penetrates the casting, cracks, inclusions, and voids
appear as dark areas.

4. LIQUID DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION (LPI)

Liquid dye penetrant inspection (LPI) is utilized to detect small surface flaws such as
holes or cracks that may be challenging to discern in metal castings. Prior to performing the
examination, the casting is meticulously cleaned to ensure the liquid dye can access the metal's
imperfections.

The cleaning process is followed by drying, and the casting is subsequently immersed in
a penetrant liquid. Various solutions may be employed, with the most common being an oil with
low viscosity and high capillary action, allowing it to seep into the casting's fissures. Adequate
dwell time is allowed for the dye to work its way into tiny crevices, and excess dye is then wiped
away using a damp cloth.

CASTING INSPECTION STANDARDS

The final stage of the metal casting process culminates in inspection, an essential step
aimed at ensuring compliance with industry standards. This rigorous examination guarantees the
structural integrity of the part and its ability to perform its intended function. The methods
employed for testing can be categorized as either destructive or non-destructive, depending on
the specific requirements of the casting.

SHORE SCLEROSCOPE TESTING

The Shore Scleroscope is a specialized instrument designed to assess the hardness of

materials based on their elasticity. It operates by utilizing a diamond-tipped hammer enclosed
within a graduated glass tube. The testing process involves releasing the hammer from a
predetermined height onto the material under examination. The resulting hardness value is
determined by measuring the height to which the hammer rebounds. In this context, higher
rebound heights are indicative of greater material hardness. This method proves valuable for
characterizing the mechanical properties of a wide array of materials.

CASTING DEFECTS

Casting defects encompass imperfections or flaws that may manifest in a metal casting
during the manufacturing process. One prevalent casting defect is a "cold shut," which occurs
when two streams of molten metal fail to properly fuse, resulting in a visible line or seam within
the casting. Inadequate gating or pouring systems, improper mold design, and issues related to
the flow of molten metal can contribute to this defect.

Cold shuts pose significant challenges as they compromise the structural integrity of the
casting, potentially leading to failures in load-bearing components. Mitigating such defects
necessitates the implementation of sound casting techniques, meticulous mold design, and well-
structured gating systems to ensure the uniform and smooth flow of molten metal throughout the
mold, thereby preventing the formation of cold shuts and other defects. The implementation of
quality control and inspection processes is crucial in identifying and rectifying defects before
castings are employed in their intended applications.

FINISHING

The finishing phase in metal casting represents the conclusive step where castings
undergo essential operations to enhance their form and function. This comprehensive process
encompasses the removal of excess material, surface refinement, heat treatment, machining,
surface coating, quality control, and assembly when required. It plays a pivotal role in ensuring
that castings conform to specifications and quality standards, rendering them ready for
application across various industries.

V. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the enduring legacy of metal casting and metal forming processes, dating
back to ancient civilizations, underscores their undiminished importance in modern engineering
and industry. These techniques remain the bedrock of manufacturing, serving diverse needs
ranging from aerospace precision to the robustness of automotive engines.

While metal forming methods enhance material integrity, they also introduce potential
defects, which require rigorous quality control measures. Foundries, heat treatments, and non-
destructive testing play crucial roles in addressing these challenges.

The impact of metal forming operations extends across industries, driving technological
progress and ensuring the reliability of vital components. However, environmental concerns are
intertwined with these processes, highlighting the need for energy efficiency, waste reduction,
emission control, responsible sourcing, and environmental compliance.

For mechanical engineering students, a deep understanding of metal forming, foundries,

and metal casting is an asset. It equips them with practical skills and enhances their
employability in manufacturing-driven industries.

This comprehensive discussion serves as a stepping stone for students, encouraging

students to explore advanced aspects of metal casting. To end, our group aims to promote a
culture of continuous learning that empowers us to shape the future of engineering with our
expertise and innovation. That is all for our presentation. Thank you very much for listening!
[HANZ END]