Introduction

to
Structures Testing
By
Don Lange
May 2010

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

AFFTC-PA-10192

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Biography
Donald S. Lange

Don Lange began his career at the Air Force Flight Test Center in 1987. Mr
Lange has a BS in Mechanical Engineering with an emphasis in Aerospace
from Brigham Young University (BYU) and an MS in Applied Mechanics from
California State University, Northridge (CSUN). Mr Lange has worked on
several flutter and loads programs: AFTI F-111 flutter, B-1B flutter, F-15E
loads, YA-7F flutter & loads, KC-10 Rough Runway (Have Bounce), RU-38
flutter, F-16 dynamic loads, and F-22A flutter & loads. He was involved with
several first flights including YA-7F, C-17, and F-22A. Mr. Lange has also has
been involved with several other programs providing technical assistance
such as B-2, C-5, C-17, C-130, C-135, F-16, F-117, JSF, Airborne Icing
Tanker (AIT), Airborne Laser (ABL), X-37, Global Hawk and Predator. Mr.
Lange developed the Structures data acquisition and analysis system, IADS
that is currently being used by many other test agencies world-wide in the
flight test business.

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Goals of This Training

Training Goals
Enlighten you as to the
critical nature of structures
flight test
Describe how structures fits
with other types of flight
tests
Give you enough
background so that you can
understand what structures
engineers are telling you
Give you enough
background so that you can
ask intelligent questions to
get the right answers
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

W hat St ruct ures Test s Are Done

at t he AFFTC?
Miscellaneous Loads & Dynamics Tests
Taxi Tests
 Shimmy
 Arresting Gear
 Braking
 Rough Runway Repair
Ground Vibration Testing
Loads Testing
Buffet Testing
Flutter Testing
Vibroacoustics Testing
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

W hy do y ou need t o know ?
- - - There is much testing required by specifications
which is not taught at the Test Pilot Schools.
Much of this testing comprises the most
hazardous and exacting type - - -
Includes: First Flights, Envelope Expansion,
Structural Demonstration, Flutter Testing and
Spins.

James L. Pearce
Pilots Handbook for Critical and Exploratory
Flight Testing

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Dy namic Inst abilit ies Can

Dest roy
Tacoma Narrows Bridge

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Dy namic Inst abilit ies Can

Dest roy
Tacoma Narrows Bridge

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

C-17A St ruct ures O bst acles

During EMD
Loads
Half of spoiler panel departed aircraft
Spoiler actuator/hinge fixture failed
Nose gear retract actuator stalled by high door air loads
Under-predicted wing air loads and horizontal stabilizer loads
 Major modifications to wing and replaced horizontal stabilizer
Dynamics
Main gear shimmy with component failures
Component fatigue problems due to high vibrations
Pilot/structural coupling, roll ratcheting, LCO
Materials
Control surface delaminations
Slat thermal damage from thrust reversers
Flap over-temp from external blowing

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Aircraft Design Philosophies

Each design group thinks their

part is the most important

Structures really is.

Nicolai: Fundamentals of Aircraft Design

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St ruct ural Design Process

Mission profile and performance specs
Loads analysis
Aerodynamic loads
Taxi and landing loads Drives the following for
Payload loads structure design:
Maneuvering loads
Static stress/strength analysis - Material selection
Stress levels
Deformations - Size
Buckling
Dynamics analysis - Shape
Vibration & shock
Flutter
Gust response
Guidance and control
Life expectancy
Fatigue
Corrosion
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Design Requirement s
Strength considerations
Gradually applied loads Dilemma:
Dynamic loading (rapid onset)
Maneuvering loads Light weight to
Gust loads meet performance
Landing requirements
Rigidity & stiffness considerations vs.
Deformation response of structure Heavy weight to
Structural damping meet strength and
Vibrations and acoustics rigidity
Coupling between deformation modes requirements
Service life considerations
Fatigue - cyclic loading
Temperature loading
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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Design Considerat ions

Metals
Vs.
Composites

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Pros & Cons of Met als

Advantages
Relatively inexpensive to produce and form
Isotropic properties
Documented material properties
Known methods to alter material properties
Proven repair and patch methods
Disadvantages
Relatively low strength to weight ratios
Poor “stealth” properties
Must design part to meet material properties
High weight penalty to change stiffness

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Met als v s. Composit es

Metal
Single material
Even alloyed metals don’t have distinct
regions of different alloy materials
Composite
Combination of 2 or more materials
(fiber/matrix)
Materials are distinct and don’t combine
into single structure
Composites examples
Straw & mud bricks
Stone & cement concrete
Glass fiber & epoxy fiberglass
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

W hy Composit es?
Combined materials
Combined material properties
Can design material properties to meet application
Utilize the strengths of each material
Material is not homogenous
Failure mechanisms change
 Fiber failure or matrix failure
 Failure between matrix and fiber
 Failure between layers - Delamination
Material is not isotropic
Analysis is more complicated

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Pros & Cons of Composit es

Advantages
Anisotropic properties
Able to design the material to match the application
High strength to weight ratio
Good “stealth” properties
Disadvantages
Expensive to produce
New material = New standards and procedures for use
Complex damage inspection / repair procedures
High potential for mishandling damage

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flight Loads
Flight Loads Testing
Flutter & Aeroservoelasticity
Flutter Testing
Vibroacoustics Testing
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Design Crit eria Definit ions

Design Limit Load (DLL)
Maximum load expected for normal operations
Example: loads caused by 9 g symmetric maneuver at max
maneuvering weight
Limit Load Factor
Load Factor associated with DLL
Ultimate Load
Maximum load structure must support

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St ruct ural Design Crit eria

Yield Criteria
Structure will not permanently deform at
the design limit load
Failure Criteria
Structure will not catastrophically fail at
the ultimate load

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Fact or of Safet y & Margin of

Safet y
Definition of Factor of Safety (FS)
Load Ultimate = FS x Load DLL
Why a Factor of Safety?
Unpredicted loads
Unexpected usage
Material defects
Analytical assumptions
Typical value for USAF a safety critical structure,
FS = 1.5
Margin of Safety (MOS)
MOS = (Material Strength / Applied Stress) - 1

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Aircraft Loads
External applied loads
Aerodynamic - lift and drag
Weight - aircraft and stores
Influenced by load factor
Live fire loads
Environmental loads
Gusts
Internal applied loads
Pressurization
Fuel

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St ruct ural Loading - W ing

Resolution of lift and drag into body axis system
Needed to perform structural analysis

Normal
Lift Force

Drag
Relative Wind A.C. Centroid

Chordwise
Force
Weight

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

V-n Diagram
Need a convenient way to show critical loading conditions
Dependent on velocity
Dependent on AOA, which is dependent on load factor
Shows aircraft limits on single plot
Stall - positive and negative AOA
Max load factor
Max speed - based on flutter or divergence usually
Doesn’t show
Effects of A/C weight
Altitude or Mach effects
Maneuver symmetry

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

V-n Diagram
14
13
STRUCTURAL FAILURE AREA
12
11 POSITIVE ULTIMATE
10
STRUCTURAL
9 DAMAGE AREA
8
UNAVAILABLE POSITIVE LIMIT
7
LIFT AREA
6
LOAD FACTOR - n

5
MAXIMUM
4 THE AREA OF
POSITIVE LIFT
"ENVELOPE" STRUCTURAL
3 CAPABILITY
DAMAGE
2 OR FAILURE
1
INDICATED AIRSPEED - KNOTS LIMIT AIRSPEED
0
-1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

-2
MAXIMUM
-3 NEGATIVE LIFT NEGATIVE LIMIT
-4 CAPABILITY STRUCTURAL DAMAGE AREA
NEGATIVE ULTIMATE
-5 UNAVAILABLE
STRUCTURAL FAILURE AREA
-6 LIFT AREA
-7

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flight Loads

In-Flight Loads Testing

Flutter & Aeroservoelasticity
Flutter Testing
Vibroacoustics Testing
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flight Loads Test ing O bject iv es

Describe different parts of A/C
structure
Describe loads instrumentation
Define ground loads testing
requirements
Describe flight loads test techniques
Discuss other loads testing
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Aircraft St ruct ure Definit ions

Wing box components
Spar
 Runs along the length of the wing
 Tends to be the main load bearing part of wing
Stringer
 Provides additional load bearing capability, stiffens skin
Rib
 Runs chordwise on wing, provides torsional rigidity
Skin Stringers
Spar Skin
 Carries shear stress

Fuselage components
Bulkhead
 Fuselage structures, maintains
Fuselage

shape
Longeron
 Runs length of fuselage Ribs
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Measuring St rain
Want to measure stress or
loads
Not practical to measure
either
Easy to measure strain
Strain Gages
Electrical resistance strain
gages relate a change in
resistance due to strain to a
change in voltage
Extremely easy to measure a
change in voltage

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St rain Gage Placement

Locate at areas of maximum stress
Wing root
 Bending moments are maximized
 Shear forces are maximized
Attach points
 Step change in bending moments & shear forces
Where the structure changes shape
Change in Area (A), Moment of Inertia (I), Polar Moment of Inertia (J)
Where loads distribution changes
Control surface edges
Near the skin
Maximum normal stress due to bending
Maximum shear stress due to torsion

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Cargo W ing Inst rument at ion

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Cargo Fuselage Inst rument at ion

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Cargo Empennage Inst rument at ion

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Pre-Flight Ground Test s

Static loads testing to 100% DLL (Loads Calibration)
Flight instrumentation calibrated here
Allows the A/C to fly to 80%
Static loads testing to 150% DLL
Allows the A/C to fly to 100%
Often done after flight testing to 80%
Fatigue life and durability testing
Cyclic loading representing flight loads
Tested to 2x expected life
Pressurization to 133% max pressure (Done after some flight test)
Damage tolerance (Done after some flight test)
Testing with critical failed components

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St at ic Test Art icle

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St at ic Test Art icle

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

St at ic Test Art icle Video

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test ing Buildup

80 % DLL testing – survey or buildup to demonstration point
Build up in load factor
Build up in configuration or loading
Build up in flight conditions
 Airspeed - Increase
 Altitude - Decrease
Compare to analytical predictions
Take 80% DLL data
Compare to analytical predictions
Identify key flight conditions to demonstrate
100% DLL demonstration
Build up in load factor

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test Maneuv ers

Loads Validation Maneuvers
* Very difficult to
Symmetric
Push-overs maintain
Pull-ups appropriate flight
Windup turns
Abrupt Pull-ups
conditions
Speedbrake Transients * Use of Flight Test
Asymmetric
Sideslips, Abrupt Sideslips
Aids: Roll Rate,
Rudder kicks or reversals G -Limiters
Neg./Pos. 360 rolls, loaded rolls
Neg./Pos. Rolling pullouts
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Landing Gear Test s

High Sink Rate Landing Critical Parameters
Little crosswind Vertical Load
Endpoint: 80% Max Sink Side Load
Rate Drag Load
Buildup in: Touchdown &
 Gross Weight
 Sink Rate
Springback Loads
Crosswind Landing
Buildup in:
 Sink Rate
 Crosswind
 Aircraft Weight

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Real-Time Monit oring

Flight conditions
Monitor aircraft state parameters
 Load factor, airspeed, Mach number, altitude, roll rate, yaw rate, pitch rate
 Control surface positions
Loads parameters
The strain gages are combined real-time through loads equations to create
“derived” loads parameters.
Based on calibration equations
 Loads parameters are nulled
These loads parameters are compared with loads predictions.
Control room setup
Must have sufficient sample rate to capture dynamic loads
Have flight limits set and predictions in hand.

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Cargo Aircraft Loads Incident

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Loads Dat a Analy sis

Plot data on crossplots
Usually bending vs. torsion or bending vs. shear
force
Based on failure criteria
Look at several points in maneuver
Initiation, max roll rate, max load factor, max
surface deflection, etc.

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test Monit oring

Pitch Shear
Command

Pitch
Bending
Rate
Moment

AOA Torque
Normal
Accel

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Cross Plot s

Bending vs
Torque at
various wing
stations

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test Monit oring

Symmetric
Maneuver

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test Monit oring

Asymmetric
Maneuver

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ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Loads Test Monit oring Video

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flight Loads
Flight Loads Testing

Flutter & Aeroservoelasticity

Flutter Testing
Vibroacoustics Testing 48
ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flut t er & Aeroserv oelast icit y

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Dy namic Aeroelast icit y Rev iew

Structural dynamics review
Natural frequencies, damping, mode shapes
Forced response
Aircraft structural dynamics
Flexibility of aircraft structures
Unsteady aerodynamics
Vortex shedding has frequency component
Flutter introduction
Interaction between unsteady aerodynamics & structural dynamics
Analysis tools and results

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Mass-Spring-Damper Sy st em

System model
k

F(t)
m

Mathematical equation
ii i
m x + c x + k x = F(t)
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

MDO F Vibrat ions

Multi-Degree of Freedom Systems
Typical of finite element models
ii i
M {x} + C {x} + K {x} = {F(t)}

Need to Solve EigenSystem

Natural frequencies are eigenvalues
Mode shape are eigenvectors
Mode Shapes
Amplitudes of responses at natural frequencies

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Mode Shapes

Eigenvector
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Underdamped Response

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CH-47 Ground Resonance

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Aeroelast icit y
The science that studies the mutual interaction
among aerodynamic, elastic and inertial forces
of a flight vehicle
Aerodynamic forces - externally applied varying airloads
(unsteady pressure gradients) causing varying structural
deflections (stress & strain)
Elastic forces - structural resistance to strain and tendency to
return to undeformed shape (non-rigid airplane)
Inertial forces - mass properties and tendency to resist
displacement
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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Flut t er
Unstable interaction between the unsteady
aerodynamics and the structural dynamics of
aircraft
Structural response
Dependent on damping
Dependent on forcing frequency and phasing
Damping sources
Structural damping
Aerodynamic damping - phasing of vortex shedding
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Flut t er At A Glance

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 ITEA: Introduction to Structures Testing

Ty pes of Flut t er
Buzz
Usually shock wave induced
Movement of shock wave on control surface
Single-degree of freedom response
Buffet
Transient vibrations from flow impinging on another part of
aircraft
Condition sensitive
Panel flutter
External panel oscillation
Caused by unsteady airloads/shocks
Eliminated with stiffening

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Panel Flut t er on an Aircraft

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Ty pes of Flut t er
Binary flutter
Coupling of 2-degrees of freedom (modes)
Usually bending and torsion
Unstable when force is 90 deg out of phase with response
Ternary flutter
Coupling of 3 modes
Usually includes a control surface motion
Limit Cycle Oscillation (LCO)

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Limit Cy cle O scillat ion (LCO )

Type of dynamic aeroelasticity
Structure oscillates without becoming
unstable
Zero stability
LCO characterized by constant amplitude
vibrations
F-16 have extensive historical experimental
data
Limited predictive analyses
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Limit Cy cle O scillat ion (LCO )

GBU LCO AIM-9 LCO

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F-16 Uniform Abort Crit eria

UNIFORM ABORT POLICY FOR F-16 FLUTTER TESTING
F-16 Limit Cycle Oscillation Maximum Allowable Acceleration

6.00 Revised allowable acceleration limits allows for 25% increase

SUSTAINED WINGTIP

Peak Acceleration (g)

5.00
OSCILLATION

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00
OSCILLATON FREQUENCY (Hz)

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Flut t er Analy sis

Utilizes computational fluids and finite elements to analyze
Have to have both operating at same time, but generally greatly reduced
order models
 LOWER MODELING FIDELITY
Aero forces change as structure deflects
Structure deflects as a result of forces
Aerodynamics
Unsteady aerodynamics are difficult to model
Important to know steady-state lift and moment
Validated in wind tunnel
Structural dynamics
Need mass and stiffness properties
Validated in ground vibration test (GVT)
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Flut t er Analy sis Result s

Mode Shapes

Outboard Leading Edge Flap Mode

fn = 72.65 Hz

Undeformed shape
Deformed shape

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Flut t er Analy sis Result s

Frequency vs. speed plot
Showing how natural frequencies vary with airspeed
Effect of additional stiffness due to aerodynamics
Allows you to track modes of vibration
Analytical damping vs. speed plot
Does not account for structural damping
 Allowed 3% per Mil Spec 8870A
Shows how aerodynamics either add or subtract damping/energy
from system
Defines when flutter speed is predicted

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Velocit y – Damping – Frequency

Plot s
Crossing of modes in V-f
V-g Plot
implies coupling (usually).
Damping (G)

Critical Mode
Hump mode Check on V-g plot
0
Critical mode has lowest
airspeed or dynamic pressure
with zero damping
Velocity (V) Steep zero damping crossing
V-f Plot
Coupling
implies explosive flutter (little
warning)
Frequency (f)

Catastrophic mode
Rapid change in damping with
very small change in speed
Difficult to identify in test build-
Velocity (V)
up
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Velocit y – Damping – Frequency

Plot s
V-g Plot Hump mode
Damping (G)

Critical Mode
Hump mode
Goes unstable but stabilizes at
0
higher speeds
Hump mode may exhibit
instability only in a narrow
speed range
Velocity (V) Very dependent on amount of
V-f Plot structural damping
Coupling
Small changes in analysis
changing hump modes or
Frequency (f)

shallow crossing modes can give

great changes in crossing point,
possibly changing predicted
flutter speed
Velocity (V)
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Aeroserv oelast icit y (ASE)

Interaction between structural dynamics and flight control
system
Sensors for flight control system sense both aircraft motion and
aircraft deflection
May cause bad inputs to the controller
Want to locate accelerometers near vibration nodes
Places of minimal linear motion in vibrations
Want to locate gyros at places of least angular motion
Gyro location is not the same as an accelerometer location

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Resonant St ruct ure

Sensor location

Need to account for major modes of

vibration

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ASE Block Diagram

Structural
Control Input Rigid Aircraft Controller Modes

Flexible Aircraft Interaction

Steady &
Control
Actuator Unsteady
Surfaces
Aerodynamics

Aircraft
Filters &
Rigid Body
Conditioning
Motion

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Flight Loads
Flight Loads Testing
Flutter & Aeroservoelasticity

Flutter Testing
Vibroacoustics Testing
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Flut t er Test ing O v erv iew

Ground tests to validate analyses
Wind tunnel tests
Ground vibration tests
Aeroservoelastic interaction ground tests
Flight flutter tests
Requirements
Program management
Test execution
Test techniques

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W ind Tunnel Test s

Requirements
Need a representative structure
Not just aerodynamic shape
Models are very sophisticated
Very expensive
Excellent data about model’s flutter
characteristics
How representative is model of aircraft?

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W ind Tunnel Test ing

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Ground Vibrat ion Test (GVT)

Objective of test
Validate structural dynamics of aircraft
Need the full-up airplane
Usually done close to first flight
Results
Natural frequencies of structure
Associated mode shapes
Measured structural damping
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GVT Conduct
Test schedule
Usually a 24 hour a day test for a week or more
Takes a day or more to set up and another to
tear down
Test set up
Instrument the aircraft
Suspension system
Excitation sources

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Building a Trace Model

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GVT Conduct
Suspension System
Need to isolate structure from ground
Analysis is usually done with free boundary
conditions
Test needs to be the same
Soft support system

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GVT Inst rument at ion

Need to measure inputs/excitation
Load cells
Need to measure structural response
Accelerometers most common
Other sensors are gaining popularity
Sensor locations
Want as many as possible on structure
 More sensors mean better resolution in defining mode shapes
Need to look at all three axis systems
May take advantage of aircraft symmetry
 Less instrumentation on one side

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GVT Excit at ion Met hod

Excitation
Need to get the structure to respond
Shake the structure
Electromagnetic or hydraulic shakers
Instrumented Hammer
Many different input types
Random, Stepped Sine, Sine Sweep, Sine Dwell
Vary excitation magnitudes to investigate
linearity of structure
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NASA W ing GVT

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Analy t ical Validat ion

GVT Results
Compared with analytical structural dynamics
 Mode shapes
 Natural frequencies
Damping used in flight test and flutter analysis
Validation
Do mode shapes match analytical predictions?
How close are natural frequencies?
 Generally, 10% error is a fair to good match
Are there analytical modes not found in the GVT?
Are there experimental modes not in analysis?

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Animat ed Mode Shapes

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St ruct ural Coupling Test

Aeroservoelastic (ASE) Ground Resonance Test

Done in conjunction with GVT
Evaluates interaction between structural vibrations and
flight controller
Need to be able to artificially close control loop
Need to access sensor outputs
Measure structural motion
Excite structure with control surface sweeps

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St ruct ural Coupling Test

Verify no instabilities in controller

Increase the gain of the controller
Monitor feedback from sensors and structural response
Raise the gain to 6 db
If instability exists
Need to either move sensor package or
Put a notch filter in feedback loop
Remove offending structural frequency from feedback

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Flight Flut t er Test ing

Flutter requirements (per Mil-A-008870A)

No flutter of the airplane or its components at all speeds
up to 1.15VL
Both in constant Mach Number and constant altitude
Consider all conditions, (stores, fuel states, cg, etc) with
a minimum damping ratio, g of 3%
Flight flutter tests shall be performed to substantiate
that the airplane is free from aeroelastic instabilities and
has satisfactory damping up to limit airspeeds

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Recent Flut t er Incident s

1995 Lockheed F-117
Maintainer failed to tighten connecting rod - elevon fluttered,
aircraft lost
1991 Taiwan IDF
Stabilizer flutter - aircraft & test pilot lost
1990 Shorts Tucano
Stores clearance - aircraft & test pilot lost
1989 Boeing E-6A
Flutter clearance tests - portions of vertical tail lost, recovered
1986 Fairchild T-46A
After aileron re-balanced - wing/aileron flutter, recovered
1985 Lockheed F-117
Stores clearance test - most of left fin lost, recovered
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F-117A Flut t er Incident

1985 - Stores clearance test, most of left fin lost.

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F-117 Flut t er Incident

1995 air show in Maryland - Maintainer failed to tighten
connecting rod - elevon fluttered, aircraft lost

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Flut t er Test ing Haz ards

Flutter very difficult to analytically predict
Unsteady aerodynamics
Structural dynamics
Structural damping
Need for sensitivity studies
Changes in critical structural parameters
Consequences of encountering flutter
Likely to lose the aircraft depending on type of flutter
Difficult to experimentally predict
Until damping gets low
Damping can change very rapidly

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Flut t er Test Management

Expected occurrence of flutter
How close is predicted flutter to desired envelope?
How catastrophic is flutter?
Ground test data correlation
How close did wind tunnel data match predictions?
How close did GVT data match predictions?
Test capabilities
What instrumentation is on aircraft?
What monitoring capabilities exist?
What excitation methods are available?
Test configurations vs. Cost constraints

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Icing Array Inst abilit y Video

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Icing Array Inst abilit y Video

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Cargo Aircraft Flut t er

Inst rument at ion

cargo
door
cargo
ramp

c.g.

pilot
seat

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Fight er Aircraft Flut t er

Inst rument at ion

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods

Need to excite structural dynamics at sub-critical speeds
Random air turbulence
Large frequency content
Low energy, need lots of statistical data
Stick raps - hand or wooden mallet
Quick, easy, cheap
Limited excitation of higher frequencies
Ballistic charges on wing tips - “bonkers”
Ideal impulse to wing, large frequency content
Limited excitation capability

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods –

Inert ial Shakers
Inertial shakers
Good control of input, change
frequencies, measure input - bode
plots
Need large mass for low frequency
modes
coil structure

suspension
spring

Permanent
magnets ~ mass (M)

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods –

Inert ial Shakers (W and)

hydraulically actuated movable mass (wand)

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods –

Rot at ing Cy linder

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods –

Aerody namic Vanes
Aerodynamic vanes
Good control of
input, change
frequencies
Oscillating vane in
disturbs normal
airstream
Flight control system
– control surfaces
No additional
excitation hardware
required
Must be put in early

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Flut t er Excit at ion Example Using

Flut t er Vanes

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Flut t er Excit at ion Met hods –

Cont rol Surface

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T-46A Flut t er Incident

Regression test after reduction in aileron mass balance by 25% to cut trim drag. Previously cleared to 280 kts.
Excited previously predicted ‘hump’ mode. Mode: symmetric aileron rotation (reversible control system) and
symmetric bending (8.3 Hz).
+50
Lt. Wing Tip Lt. Aileron Lt. Wing Tip Rt. Aileron Rt. Wing Tip
Accel (Fwd) Position
(g)

-50+25
(deg)

-25+50

manual aileron rap

Accel (Aft) Position Accel (Aft)
(g)

-50+25
(deg)

-25+75

1 sec Trace shifted a bit, should be in phase with other wing responses
50 g
(g)

-75

205 kts. decel. begun 16 seconds to recover! 150 kts. 105

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T-46A Flut t er Incident

Crew1: Breakers on(?)
Crew2: OK, 3, …, 1, Now…
<Flutter starts>
Crew1: Wow…pickle it off…slow down Andy.
Chase2: Terminate!
Chase1: Terminate, Terminate, Terminate!
Crew2: <Undecipherable>
Chase1: Terminate, Terminate, Terminate!
<Flutter stops>
Crew2: Better check us over… better check us over, Jim, see if we’re in one
piece.
Crew1: Pickle…I…I pickled it off when you just uh… I don’t think…
Chase1: O.K., coming over…
Crew1: I don’t think it was the flutter system.
Chase1: Anyway, gang, we’re coming home.
Chase2: Roger.
Chase2: Can you describe what happened?
Crew2: It shook the hell out of us, that’s what happened.
Crew1: Yeah, let’s take a look…let Jim take a look and then we’ll talk to you
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Flut t er Test Mat rix:

Buildup In Mach & Alt it ude

Knots (CAS) 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
60
500
450
50
400
350

40 300
250
200
30
Knots
(CAS)

20

10 flight envelope

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Mach Number

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Flut t er Test Mat rix:

Buildup Along KEAS Lines
60,000
1-g Trim, Sideslip, Maneuver Conditions 404 KEAS
Completed Test Points F2A
Antisym. Wing Bending 10.5 Hz ML
F3A MH
Flutter Sequence Regions
50,000 Operational Limit
Structural Design Limit

40,000
g = 5%
F5A
Altitude (feet)

710 KEAS
30,000

F2
F4
E1
F5
Constant KEAS /
20,000
F3 Dynamic Pressure Lines

F7

10,000

E0 VL

VH
0
F6
0.0 1.0 2.0
Mach Number
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Flut t er Test Briefing

Instrumentation
Cockpit
Control switches for excitation
Pilot communication with lead flutter engineer
Analytical predictions vs. Test results
How to get out of flutter – reduce speed
Reduce throttle and/or pull g’s
Egress methods

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Flut t er Test Execut ion

Near perfect weather conditions
Need for precision flying - don’t over-speed
Chase aircraft required
At the beginning, may be a pace aircraft also.
Real-time monitoring
Computer data analysis
Monitor damping greater than 3%
Start tests at safe altitude
Build up in Mach Number or dynamic pressure

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Flut t er Sw eep Response

Excitation

Response

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Time Domain Damping

Ext ract ion
Time Domain (SDOF) e- t

T
Damping using Log

Response
Decrement (log dec)
method
d

G = ln(A0/AN))/( N), Freq. = 1/T

Time

Where G = 2 , G-structural
damping) Best to use most cycles
A0 = amplitude of first peak
possible
used
AN = amplitude of Nth peak G = 0.22/NHALF AMPLITUDE
used
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Frequency Domain Analy sis –

Half Pow er Damping

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Frequency Domain Analy sis –

Half Pow er Damping

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Frequency Domain Analy sis –

Half Pow er Damping

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Frequency Domain Analy sis –

Time Hist ory Curv efit

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Frequency Domain Analy sis –

Time Hist ory Curv efit

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NASA Flut t er Test W ing

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ASE Test ing

Usually done in conjunction with flutter testing
Use the same type of build-up
Add build up in flight control system gain
Data monitoring
Monitor structural response
Control system feedback and response
Track gain and phase margins
Look for PIO or Undamped surface rotations

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Flight Loads
Flight Loads Testing
Flutter & Aeroservoelasticity
Flutter Testing

Vibroacoustics Testing
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Vibroacoust ics

Internal or external sources

Can degrade system operation and
longevity
Can promote structural fatigue (cracks)
Mission parameters and Mil Specs will
dictate limits (amplitude, bandwidth,
duration)
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Vibroacoust ics Test s

Ground component tests

Shaker table tests
Acoustic chamber tests
Flight tests to critical flight conditions
Vibration as g, compare with specs
Acoustics sound pressure level (SPL)
SPL = 20 Log (p/p0) p – RMS sound pressure
(Pa)
p0 – Reference, 20 Pa
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Vibroacoust ics Test Maneuv ers

Requires several seconds of * Usually done

data on condition concurrent with other
Test Maneuvers flight discipline testing
Trim Condition
with a limited set of
Sideslip
Windup Turns
dedicated test points.
Loaded Rolls
Level Accel/Decel
* Lags flutter, FQ, loads,
Throttle Chop
Wind-down Turns
Propulsion.

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Vibroacoust ics Inst rument at ion

High Sample Rates

Usually 5 Altitudes, All Machs
Frequency Range from 5 – 2000 Hz
Accelerometers
Strain gages
Microphones
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Vibroacoust ics Analy sis

Third Octave
Sixth Octave
Power Spectral
Density (PSD) plots
Waterfall

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Serv ice Life Considerat ions

The structure must withstand the cumulative

effects of all loads environments that occur
during normal service life
Creep – Increasing strain at constant stress due
to elevated temperature
Fatigue – Failure at low stress levels due to
cyclic loading
Structural failure prevention – Periodic inspection
and maintenance

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St ruct ures Env elope Expansion

Flutter leads FQ, Loads, and Propulsion by 1 or 2

test points in clearing envelope
Voice communication with pilot
Flutter and loads testing are hazardous and require
sufficient planning and consideration
Point-to-point analysis and clearance must be
accomplished
Post flight flutter and loads analysis must be
completed before continuing to the next flight
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Int egrat ion W it h O t her

Disciplines
Structures (usually vibroacoustics) testing
precedes avionics testing
Small changes to test article may cause big
structural problems
New stores, pods, configurations,
components, or modifications, etc. may
require structures testing

128