Contents: 23.

Independence with Partition

24. Survey of British Policies in India
1. Advent of the Europeans in India 25. Constitutional, Administrative and
2. India on the Eve of British Judicial Developments
Conquest 26. The Economic Impact of British
3. Expansion & Consolidation of Rule in India
British Power in India- 1 27. Development of Indian Press
4. Expansion & Consolidation of 28. Development of Education
British Power in India- 2 29. Peasant Movements 1857-1947
5. The Revolt of 1857 30. The movement of the working class
6. General Features of Socio- 31. Challenges before The New-Born
Religious Reform Movements Nation
7. General Survey of Socio-Cultural 32. First General Election
Reform Movements 33. The Indian States
8. Beginning of Modern Nationalism 34. Making of the Constitution for India
in India 35. Evolution of Nationalist Foreign
9. The Foundation & the Moderate Policy
Phase of the INC
10. Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-
1909)
11. First Phase of Revolutionary
Activities (1907-1917)
12. First World War & Nationalist
Response
13. Emergence of Gandhi
14. Non-Cooperation Movement &
Khilafat Aandolan
15. Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist
Ideas,Revolutionary Activities &
New Forces
16. Simon Commission & the Nehru
Report
17. Civil Disobedience Movement &
Round Table Conferences
18. Spectrum Summary: Debates
Movement on the Future Strategy
after Civil Disobedience
19. Congress Rules in Provinces
20. Nationalist Response in the wake of
World War II
21. Quit India movement, Demand for
Pakistan and the INA
22. Post-War National Scenario
  Arabs also controlled the land
routes to India.
 The fifteenth-century spirit of the
Renaissance in Europe led to
increased prosperity and demand for
oriental luxury goods.
1.Advent of the Europeans in India –  Prince Henry of Portugal, nicknamed
the 'Navigator,' significantly
Table of contents promoted exploration.
 The Treaty of Tordesillas in
The Portuguese In India
1494 divided the non-Christian world
Blue Water Policy between Portugal and Spain along an
imaginary line in the Atlantic.
Policy of Blue Water – Implications in India
 Portugal could claim and occupy
From Trading to Ruling everything east of the line, while
Spain could claim everything west of
The Dutch-1596
it.
The English-1599
Blue Water Policy- Francisco de
The French-1667
Almeida
 The Viceroy of Portuguese possessions
The Portuguese In India in India, Francisco de Almeida,
opposed establishing a territorial empire
The Quest for and Discovery of a Sea in India, preferring that the Portuguese
Route to India maintain supremacy at sea and limit
 After the decline of the Roman
their activities to purely commercial
Empire in the 17th century, the Arabs transactions. This is known as the Blue
established dominance in Egypt and Water Policy.
Persia, leading to a decline in direct  In order to protect Portuguese interests,
contact between Europe and India. King Ferdinand I of Portugal appointed a
 Easy accessibility to Indian three-year governor in India and
commodities like spices, calicoes, provided him with sufficient troops in
silk, and precious stones was greatly 1505.
affected.  By conquering Aden, Ormuz, and
 In 1453, Constantinople fell to the
Malacca, the newly appointed governor,
Ottoman Turks, making the Red Sea Francisco De Almeida, was tasked with
trade route a lucrative state monopoly strengthening the Portuguese position in
for Islamic rulers.
 India and obliterating (to destroy or wipe Arabs, Africans from the east coast,
out) the Muslim trade. Chinese, and Javanese. They dealt
 Only 8 ships left when Francisco de with Pedro Alvarez Cabral for the
Almeida arrived at Cochin on October spice trade.
31, 1505.  After negotiations, the Portuguese
 While he was there, he discovered that established a factory at Calicut in
the Portuguese traders at Quilon had September 1500.
been massacred. He sent his son  Vasco da Gama also set up trading
Lourenço with six ships to attack factories at Cannanore and
Quilon’s harbor, where they Cochin, which became important
indiscriminately sank Calicut boats. trade centers for the Portuguese.
Policy of Blue Water – Implications in
India Francisco De Almeida
 In 1505, the King of
 Francisco De Almeida wanted to create
Portugal as a powerful nation in the Portugal appointed a governor in
maritime region under this strategy. India for a three-year term and
 Almeida took control of Goa from the equipped the incumbent with
Sultan of Bijapur. sufficient force to protect the
 In 1510 AD, Albuquerque was Portuguese interests.
 Francisco De Almeida, the newly
succeeded by Francisco De Almeida.
 Later, Goa became the headquarters of appointed governor, was asked to
Portuguese settlements in India. consolidate the Portuguese position
 The Navy’s dominance and control over in India and destroy Muslim trade by
the coastal regions helped to build the seizing Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca.
Portuguese in India. He was also advised to build
fortresses at Anjadiva, Cochin,
From Trading to Ruling Cannanore, and Kilwa.

Vasco Da Gama Alfonso de Albuquerque

 The real founder of the Portuguese
 Vasco Da Gama, led by a Gujarati
pilot named Abdul Majid, arrived power in the East.
 In East Africa, Portuguese
at Calicut in May 1498. The ruler of
Calicut was Zamorin (Samuthiri) in strongholds off the Red Sea, at
1498. Ormuz, in Malabar, and at Malacca.
 The principal port of the sultan of
 Arab traders had a profitable
business on the Malabar Coast, Bijapur became the first bit of
along with participants from India, Portuguese territory in India.
 Nuno da Cunha balance of power between
 Nino da Cunha assumed the Vijayanagara and the Deccan sultans,
governor of Portuguese interests in between the Deccan and the Mughals,
India in November 1529 and almost and between the Mughals and the
one year later shifted the Marathas.
headquarters of the Portuguese
government in India from Cochin to Portuguese Administration in India
Goa.  The Vedor da Fazenda is responsible
 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, during for revenues and the cargos and
his conflict with the Mughal dispatch of fleets.
emperor Humayun, secured help Religious
from the Portuguese by ceding to  Intolerant toward the Muslims
them in 1534 the island of Bassein  Zeal to promote Christianity
with its dependencies and revenues.
He also promised them a base in Diu. Portuguese Lose Favor with the
 However, Bahadur Shah’s relations Mughals:
with the Portuguese  In 1608, Captain William Hawkins
became sour when Humayun with his ship Hector reached Surat.
withdrew from Gujarat in 1536. Jahangir appointed him as a
Favorable Conditions for Portuguese. mansabdar of 400 at a salary of Rs
 Favorable Conditions for 30,000.
Portuguese  In November 1612, the English ship
(i) Gujarat, ruled by the powerful Dragon under Captain Best and a
Mahmud Begarha (1458-1511). little ship, the Osiander
(ii) The Portuguese had cannons successfully fought a Portuguese
placed on their ships. fleet.
Capture of Hooghly
Portuguese State  Based on an imperial Farman circa
 Sixty miles of coast around Goa, The 1579, the Portuguese had settled
Portuguese established military posts down on a riverbank which was a
and settlements on the east coast at short distance from Satgaon in
San Thome (in Chennai) and Bengal and later migrated to
Nagapattinam (in Tamil Nadu) Hooghly.
 Treaties were signed between Goa and  On June 24, 1632 - Hooghly was
the Deccan Sultans in 1570. seized. Bengal governor becomes
 The Portuguese always had a role to Qasim Khan.
play in successive battles for the
 The decline of the Portuguese The United East India Company was a
 The emergence of powerful chartered company established on 20
dynasties in Egypt, Persia, and North March 1602 by the States General of the
India and the rise of the turbulent Netherlands amalgamating existing
Marathas as their immediate companies into the first joint-stock
neighbors. company in the world, granting it a 21-
 The union of the two kingdoms of year monopoly to carry out trade
Spain and Portugal in 1580-81, activities in Asia.
dragging the smaller kingdom into
Founded: 20 March 1602
Spain's wars with England and
Holland, badly affected India's Cornelis de Houtman was the first
Portuguese monopoly of trade. Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam
 The religious policies of the in 1596.
Portuguese gave rise to political
fears and, dishonest trade practices. Dutch Settlements
 They earned notoriety as sea pirates.  The Dutch founded their first
 Goa which remained with the factory in Masulipatnam (in
Portuguese had lost its importance as Andhra) in 1605.
a port after the Vijayanagara  Captured Nagapatam near Madras
empire's fall. (Chennai) from the Portuguese and
 Marathas invaded Goa-1683. made it their main stronghold in
 Rise of Dutch and English South India.
commercial ambitions.  The Dutch established factories on
 Diversion to the west due to the the Coromandel coast, in Gujarat,
discovery of Brazil. Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and Bihar.
 In 1609, they opened a factory in
Significance of the Portuguese Pulicat, north of Madras. Their other
 Marked the emergence of naval principal factories in India were at
power. Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641),
 Portuguese ships carried cannons. Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653),
 The Portuguese onshore's significant Baranagar, Kasimbazar (near
military contribution was the system Murshidabad), Balasore, Patna,
of drilling groups of infantry, on the Nagapatami 1658), and Cochin
Spanish model, introduced in 1630. (1663).
 Masters of improved techniques at  They carried indigo manufactured in
sea. the Yamuna Valley and Central
The Dutch-1596 India, textiles and silk from Bengal,
 Gujarat, and the Coromandel,  Battle of bara-1759 the English
saltpeter from Bihar, and opium and defeated Dutch.
rice from the Ganga Valley.
ENGLISH
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry.
 The climax of the enmity between Charter of Queen Elizabeth I
the Dutch and the English in the East  Francis Drake's voyage around the
was reached at Amboyna (a place in world in 1580 and the English
present-day Indonesia, which the victory over the Spanish Armada in
Dutch had captured from the 1588. In 1599 'Merchant
Portuguese in 1605) where they Adventurers' formed a company.
massacred ten Englishmen and nine  On December 31, 1600, Queen
Japanese in 1623. Elizabeth I issued a charter with
 1667- Dutch retired from India and exclusive trading rights to the
moved to Indonesia. company named the 'Governor and
 They monopolized the trade in black Company of Merchants of London
pepper and spices. The most trading into the East Indies'.
important Indian commodities the
Dutch traded were silk, cotton, Foothold in West and South
indigo, rice, and opium.  In 1611, the English started trading
 In 1667 AD, all parties reached an at Masulipatnam on the
agreement in which the British southeastern coast of India and later
withdraw from Indonesia in established a factory in 1616.
exchange for the Dutch withdraw  Establish a factory at Surat under
from India to trade in Indonesia, Thomas Aldworth-1613.
based on a give-and-take formula.  In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came as
an accredited ambassador of James I
The decline of the Dutch in India to Jahangir's court.
 The Dutch got drawn into the trade  Secure permission to set up Agra,
of the Malay Archipelago. Ahmedabad, and Broach factories.
 Anglo-Dutch Wars, in the battle of  Bombay had been gifted to King
Hooghly (November 1759), thereby Charles II by the King of Portugal
ending Dutch ambitions in India. as a dowry 1662. Bombay was given
 Their concerns were trade only. over to the East India Company on
 Commercial interest lay in the Spice an annual payment of ten pounds
Islands of Indonesia. only in 1668.
 Bombay was made the Garden Reach), raiding Hijli in east
headquarters shifted seat from Midnapur, and storming the Mughal
Surat to Bombay in 1687. fortifications at Balasore.
 'Golden Farman' was issued by the  On February 10, 1691, the English
Sultan of Golconda in 1632. On factory was established the day an
payment of 500 pagodas a year, they imperial Farman was issued
earned the privilege of trading freely permitting the English to "continue
in the ports of Golconda. contentedly their trade-in Bengal" on
 The British merchant Francis Day, in payment of Rs 3000 a year instead of
1639 received from the ruler of all dues.
Chandragiri permission to build a  In 1698, the English succeeded in
fortified factory at Madras which getting permission to buy the
later became Fort St. George and zamindari of the three villages of
replaced Masulipatnam as the Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and
headquarters of the English Kalikata (Kalighat) on payment of
settlements in south India. Rs 1,200.
 English extended their trading  The fortified settlement was named
activities to the east and started Fort William in the year 1700
factories at Hariharpur in the when it also became the seat of the
Mahanadi delta and Balasore (in eastern presidency (Calcutta) with
Odisha) in 1633. Sir Charles Eyre as its first president.
Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans
Foothold in Bengal  In 1715, an English mission led by
 Shah Shuja, the subahdar of Bengal John Surman to the Mughal emperor
in 1651, allowed the English to trade Farrukhsiyar secured three famous
in Bengal in return for an annual farms, giving the Company many
payment of Rs 3,000. valuable privileges in Bengal,
 Factories in Bengal were started at Gujarat, and Hyderabad. The
Hooghly (1651) and other places farmans thus obtained were regarded
like Kasimbazar, Patna, and as the Magna Carta of the Company.
Rajmahal. Their important terms were:
 William Hedges, the first agent and (i) Company’s Exports and imports
governor of the Company in Bengal, are exempted from customs duties
and Shaista Khan, the Mughal except for the annual payment of
governor of Bengal in August 1682. 3000 rupees in Bengal.
 The English retaliated by capturing (ii) Issues of data (passes) for
the imperial forts at Thana (modern transportation.
 (iii) East India Company was
exempted from the levy of all duties Pondicherry Nerve Centre of French
in surat on an annual payment of Power in India
10000.  In 1673, Sher Khan Lodi, the
(iv) The coins of the Company governor of Valikondapuram
minted at Bombay were to have (under the Bijapur Sultan) granted
currency throughout the Mughal Francois Martin, the Masulipatnam
empire. factory director.
 Sir William Norris was its  Pondicherry was founded in 1674.
ambassador to the court of And Caron became the French
Aurangzeb (January 1701-April governor.
1702).  Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and
 Under pressure from the Crown and Qasim Bazar were a few important
the Parliament, the two companies trading centers of the French East
were amalgamated in 1708 under the India Company.
title of 'United Company of
Merchants of England Trading to the Early Setbacks to the French East
East Indies. India Company

The French-1667  The Dutch captured Pondicherry

in 1693.
Foundation of French Centres in  The Treaty of Ryswick concluded in
India September 1697 and restored
 Louis XIV, the king’s famous Pondicherry to the French, the Dutch
minister Colbert, laid the Compagnie garrison held on to it for two more
des Indes Orientals (French East years.
India Company) in 1664 the  Francois Martin died on December
Compagnie des Indes Orientals was 31, 1706.
granted a 50-year monopoly.  In 1720, the French company was
 In 1667, Francois Caron headed an reorganized as the 'Perpetual
expedition to India, setting up a Company of the Indies’.
factory in Surat. Mercara, a Persian The Anglo-French Struggle for
who accompanied Caron. Supremacy: the Carnatic Wars First
 Founded another French factory in
Masulipatnam in 1669, In 1673 Carnatic War (1740-48) First
established a township at Carnatic War
 Background - Carnatic-Coromandel
Chandernagore near Calcutta.
coast and its hinterland, Extension of
 the Anglo-French War caused by the  During the war
Austrian War of Succession. (i) The combined armies of Muzaffar
 Immediate cause - France retaliated Jang, Chanda Sahib, and the French
by seizing Madras in 1746, Thus defeated and killed Anwarud- din at
beginning the First Carnatic War. the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in
 The result - The treaty of Aix-La 1749.
Chapelle was signed bringing the (ii) Muzaffar Jang became the
Austrian War of Succession to a subahdar of Deccan, and Dupleix
conclusion.- Madras was handed was appointed governor of all the
back to the English. The French got Mughal territories to the south of the
their territories in North America. River Krishna.
 Significance - The First Carnatic (iii) In August 1751, with only a
War is remembered for the Battle of force of 210 men, Robert Clive
St. Thome (in Madras) on the banks attacked and captured Arcot.
of the River Adyar fought between Third Carnatic War (1758-63)
the French forces and the forces of  Background - In 1758, the French
Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of army under Count de Lally captured
Carnatic, to whom the English the English forts of St. David and
appealed for help. Vizianagaram in 1758.
Second Carnatic War (1749-54)  The course of the war in India -
 The background for the Second 'Battle of Wandiwash', The decisive
Carnatic War was provided by battle of the Third Carnatic War was
rivalry in India. won by the English on January 22,
 Cause - 1760, at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in
(i) The opportunity was provided by Tamil Nadu.
the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the  The result - The Treaty of Peace of
founder of the independent kingdom Paris (1763) restored India's French
of Hyderabad, in 1748, and the factories.
release of Chanda Sahib, the son-in- (I). Dutch had already been defeated in
law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of the Battle of Bidara in 1759.
Carnatic, by the Marathas. (ii) The victory at Wandiwash left the
(ii) The French supported Muzaffar English East India Company with no
Jang and Chanda Sahib's claims in European rival in India.
the Deccan and Carnatic,
respectively, while the English sided
Causes of the English Success and
with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
the French Failure
 The English company was a private Spanish Armada and the French at
enterprise - With less governmental Trafalgar had put the Royal Navy at
control over it, The French company, the European naval forces' peak.
on the other hand, was a State  Industrial Revolution - The
concern. It was controlled and industrial revolution reached other
regulated by the French government. European nations late, which helped
 The English navy was superior to the England maintain its hegemony.
French navy.  Military Skill and Discipline -
 The English held three important British soldiers were disciplined a
places: Calcutta, Bombay, and lot and well-trained.
Madras, whereas the French had only  Stable Government
Pondicherry.  Lesser Zeal for Religion
 The French subordinated their  Use of Debt Market - The world’s
commercial interest to territorial first central bank (the Bank of
ambition, which made the French England) was established to sell
company short of funds. government debt to the money
 The superiority of the commanders markets to promise a decent return
in the British camp. on Britain’s defeating rival
countries.
The Danes-1620 2. India on the Eve of British
Conquest:
 They founded a factory at
Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the  The reign of Aurangzeb (1658-
eastern coast of India. Their 1707) proved to signify the
principal settlement was at beginning of the end of Mughal rule
Serampore near Calcutta. in India. It is argued that
Why did the English succeed against Aurangzeb's misguided policies
Other European Powers? weakened the stability of the state
 Structure and Nature of the and the decline gained momentum
Trading Companies - English East after his death due to wars of
India Company, was controlled by a succession and weak rulers.
board of directors whose members  Though Muhammad Shah ruled for
were elected annually. a long spell of 29 years (1719-48), a
 Naval Superiority - The Royal revival of the imperial fortunes did
Navy of Britain was not only the not take place as he was an
largest; it was the most advanced of incompetent ruler.
its times. The victory against the
 Challenges before the Mughals  In 1761, Abdali defeated the
➢ External Challenges Marathas in the Third Battle of
The northwestern borders had been Panipat. The last of Abdali's
neglected by the later Mughals and not invasions came in 1767.
much effort was expended in protecting Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An
the border. Internal Challenge
 Nader Shah - Nadir Shah, the ➢ Bahadur Shah I (1709-March
Persian emperor, attacked India in 1712)
1738-39, conquered Lahore and  After a nearly two-year-long war of
defeated the Mughal army at Karnal succession, the 63-year-old Prince
on February 13, 1739. Later, Muazzam, the eldest son of
Muhammad Shah was captured, and Aurangzeb, became the emperor,
Delhi was looted and devastated. taking the title Bahadur Shah. He
According to an estimate, apart from was later called Bahadur Shah I). He
the Peacock Throne and the had killed his brothers Muhammad
Kohinoor diamond, seventy crore Azam and Kam Bakhsh in the war of
rupees were collected from the succession. Khafi Khan gave the
official treasury and the safes of the title of Shah-i-Bekhabar to Bahadur
rich nobles Shah.
 Ahmad Shah Abdali (or Ahmad  He adopted a pacific policy with the
Shah Durrani) - who was elected Marathas, the Rajputs and the Jats.
the successor of Nadir Shah after the Shahu, the Maratha prince, was
latter died in 1747, invaded India released from Mughal captivity, and
several times between 1748 and Rajput chiefs were confirmed in their
1767. He continuously harassed the respective states. However, the Sikh
Mughals who tried to buy peace in leader Banda Bahadur attacked the
1751-52 by ceding Punjab to him. Muslims in Punjab and hence the
In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi and emperor took action against him.
left behind an Afghan caretaker to Bahadur Shah I died in February
watch over the Mughal emperor. 1712.
Before his return, Abdali had ➢ Jahandar Shah (March 1712-
recognised Alamgir II as the February 1713)
Mughal emperor and the Rohilla  With the help of Zulfikar Khan,
chief, Najib-ud-Daula, as Mir Jahandar Shah became the emperor.
Bakhshi of the empire, who was to Zulfikar Khan was appointed prime
act as the personal 'supreme agent’ minister; he introduced the bizarre
of Abdali. system to improve the financial
 condition of the empire. Jahandar ➢ Alamgir II (1754-1758)
Shah abolished Jaziya.  Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Iranian
 Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719): After invader, reached Delhi in January
killing Jahandar Shah with the help 1757. During his reign, the Battle of
of Sayyid brothers— Abdulla Plassey was fought in June 1757.
Khan and Hussain Ali (known as ➢ Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
King Makers ). Farrukhsiyar became  His reign saw two decisive battles—
the new emperor. He followed a the Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
policy of religious tolerance by and the Battle of Buxar (1764).
abolishing Jaziya and the pilgrimage  Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765),
tax. In 1717 AD, Farrukhsiyar he was taken under the East India
issued farman to the British which Company’s protection and resided at
gave them the right to reside and Allahabad. He also issued a farman
trade in the Bengal. They were granting to the Company in
allowed to trade freely, except for a perpetuity the Diwani (the right to
yearly payment of 3,000 rupees. collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar
 Rafi-ud-Darajat (February 28 to and Orissa.
June 4, 1719) - He ruled for the ➢ Akbar II (1806-37)
shortest period among the Mughals.
 He gave the title of Raja to Ram
 Rafi-ud-Daula (June 6 to Mohan Rai.
September 17, 1719) - The Sayyid
 In 1835, the coins bearing the names
brothers placed Rafi-ud-Daula with
of Mughal emperors were stopped.
the title Shah Jahan II on the throne.
➢ Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857)
The new emperor was an opium
 Bahadur Shah Zafar-the last
addict.
Mughal emperor.
➢ Muhammad Shah (1719-48):
 Captured by the English and sent to
 Raushan Akhtar - given title Rangoon where he died in 1862.
Muhammad shah and Rangeela
 Mughal Empire came to an end on
 In 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk became the
November 1, 1858, with the
wazir and founded the independent
declaration of Queen Victoria
state of Hyderabad.
➢ Causes of Decline of the Mughal
 In 1739, Nadir Shah defeated the
Empire
Mughals in the Battle of Karnal
 Empire-related or Mughal-centric
➢ Ahmad Shah (1748-1754):
view sees the causes of the decline
 Udham Bai, the ‘Queen Mother’.
within the structure and functioning
Udham Bai, given the title of Qibla-
of the empire itself.
i-Alam,
 Region related view finds the causes and power of the Marathas, thus,
of the Mughal decline in the turmoil adversely affected the Mughals.
and instability in the different parts ➢ Economic and Administrative
of the empire. Problems
 Emperors who came after Aurangzeb  The expenditure of the state much
proved to be incapable, weak and exceeded its income.
licentious monarchs who hastened ➢ Rise of Regional States
the process of disintegration of the  Successor States- The Mughal
empire and, finally, its collapse. provinces that turned into states after
Major Factors Which Contributed to breaking away from the empire.
Downfall Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
➢ Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
 The zamindars were hereditary
 Independent Kingdoms- These
owners of their lands who enjoyed
certain privileges on a hereditary states came into existence primarily
basis, and were variously known as due to the destabilisation of the
rais, rajas, Thakur, khuts or Mughal control over the provinces,
Deshmukh. Mysore, Kerala and the Rajput
 They helped in the collection of
states.
 The New States - These were the
revenue and local administration and
increased during Aurangzeb's reign. states set up by the rebels against the
Mughal empire, Maratha, the Sikh
➢ Jagirdari Crisis
and the Jat states.
 Mughal rule has often been defined
➢ Hyderabad
as “the rule of the nobility”
 The founder of the Asaf-Jah house of
 Divisiveness among the nobility
based on religion, homeland and Hyderabad was Kilich Khan,
tribe. popularly known as Nizam-ul- Mulk.
 The idea of an independent state in
 Mutual rivalry, jealousy and contest
for power among the various groups the Deccan-Zulfikar Khan.
 He killed Mubariz Khan in the Battle
during the rule of the later Mughals
and the absence of strong central of Shakr-Kheda (1724). full-fledged
leadership) contributed to the decline viceroy of the Deccan.
 In 1725, he became the viceroy and
of the empire.
conferred on himself the title of
➢ Rise of Regional Aspirations
Asaf-Jah.
 The Rajput struggle against the
➢ Awadh
empire and the growing ambition
 The founder of the independent extended the boundaries of his state
principality of Awadh was Saadat from Kanyakumari to Cochin.
Khan, popularly known as Burhan- ➢ The Jats
ul-Mulk.  Churaman and Badan Singh
 He was succeeded by Safdar Jang as succeeded in setting up the Jat state
the Nawab of Awadh of Bharatpur. But it was under Suraj
➢ Bengal Mai that Jat power reached its
 Murshid Kuli Khan was the founder zenith.
of the independent state of Bengal.  State included territories from Ganga
 Succeeded in 1727 by his son in the east to Chambal in the south
Shujaud- din. His successor, Sarfaraz and included the Subahs of Agra,
Khan, was killed in 1740 by Alivardi Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh.
Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar  The Jat state suffered a decline after
at Gheria. the death of Suraj Mai in 1763.
➢ The Rajputs ➢ The Sikhs
 The Rajputs tried to re-establish their  Guru Gobind Singh transformed the
independence in the 18th century. Sikhs into a militant sect in defence
This forced the Mughal ruler of their religion and liberties.
Bahadur Shah I to march against Ajit  Banda Bahadur, later assumed the
Singh (1708), who had allied with leadership of the Sikhs in 1708.
Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathor.  12 misls or confederacies which
But the alliance was broken and the exercised control over different parts
situation was saved for the Mughals. of the kingdom.
At one time the Rajputs controlled  The credit for establishing a strong
the entire territory extending from kingdom of Punjab goes to Ranjit
the south of Delhi up to the western Singh. He was the son of Mahan
coast. Singh, the leader of the
➢ Mysore Sukarchakiya misl. Ranjit Singh
 This territory located at the junction brought under control the area
of the Eastern and Western Ghats extending from the Sutlej to the
was ruled by the Wodeyars. Jhelum. He conquered Lahore in
 Mysore state was brought under the 1799 and Amritsar in 1802.
rule of Haider Ali.  The Treaty of Amritsar with the

➢ Kerala British, Ranjit Singh acknowledged

 Martanda Varma established an the British right over the cis- Sutlej
independent state of Kerala with territories.
Travancore as his capital. He
 The Tripartite Treaty in 1838 with  The provincial rulers failed to
Shah Shuja and the English develop a system based on sound
Company whereby he agreed to financial, administrative and military
provide passage to the British troops organisation.
through Punjab with a view to  The jagirdari crisis intensified as
placing Shah Shuja on the throne of income from agriculture declined,
Kabul. Ranjit Singh died in 1839. and the number of contenders for a
➢ The Marathas share of the surplus multiplied.
 Under the capable leadership of the
Peshwas, the Marathas uprooted the ➢ Socio Economic Conditions
Mughal authority from Malwa and
 Agriculture- Though agriculture
Gujarat and established their rule.
was technically backward, it was
 Their authority was challenged by
Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third worked by the hard labour of
peasants.
Battle of Panipat (1761).
 Trade and Industry- India was
➢ Rohilakhand and Farukhabad
known as a sink of precious metals.
 The states of Rohilakhand and the
(i) Items of Import From the Persian
kingdom of the Bangash Pathans
Gulf Region— pearls, raw silk,
were a fall out of the Afghan
wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose
migration into India.
water; from Arabia—coffee, gold,
 Ali Muhammad Khan set the petty
drugs, and honey; from China— tea,
kingdom, Rohilakhand.
sugar, porcelain, and silk; from
 This was the area of the Himalayan
Tibet—gold, musk, and woollen
foothills between Kumaon in the
cloth; from Africa— ivory and
north and the Ganga in the south.
drugs; from Europe— woolen cloth,
 Mohammad Khan Bangash, an
copper, iron, lead and paper. Items
Afghan, set up an independent
of Export Cotton textiles, raw silk
kingdom to the east of Delhi in the
and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo,
area around Farrukhabad.
saltpetre opium, rice, wheat, sugar
➢ Nature and Limitations of
pepper and other spices, precious
Regional States stones, and drugs.
 The polity that emerged in these
 Important Centres of Textile
states was regional in character, and
Industry
functional with the collaborative
(i) Dacca, Murshidabad, Patna,
support of the different local groups
Surat, Ahmedabad, Broach,
like the zamindars, merchants, local Chanderi, Burhanpur, Jaunpur,
nobles and chieftains.
Varanasi, Lucknow, Agra, Multan,
 Lahore, Masulipatnam, Aurangabad, (ii) The sharif Muslims consisting of
Chicacole, Vishakhapatnam, nobles, scholars, priests and army
Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai, affairs often looked down upon the
etc.; Kashmir was a centre of ajlaf Muslims or the lower class
woollen manufactures. Muslims.
 Ship-building  Position of Women in Society
Industry Maharashtra, the Andhra (i) Upper class women remained at
region and Bengal were the leaders home, lower class women worked in
in shipbuilding. Indian shipping also fields and outside their homes
flourished on the Kerala coast at supplementing the family income.
Calicut and Quilon. The Zamorin of (ii) purdah, sati, child marriage,
Calicut used the Muslim Kunjali polygamy did exist which hindered
Marakkars. the progress of women.
 Status of Education  Menace of slavery
(i) The Hindu and Muslim (i) Higher classes of Rajputs, Khatris
elementary schools were called and Kayastha kept women slaves for
pathshalas and maktabs respectively. domestic work.
The education was confined to ➢ Development in Art, Architecture
reading, writing, and arithmetic. and Culture
(ii) Chatuspathis or Tools, as they  At Lucknow, Asaf-ud-Daula built
were called in Bihar and Bengal, the bara Imambara in 1784.
were the centres of higher education.  Sawai Jai Singh built the pink city of
Some of the famous centres for Jaipur and five astronomical
Sanskrit education were Kasi observatories at Delhi, Jaipur,
(Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila), Nadia Benares, Mathura and Ujjain. He
and Utkala. Madrasas were the also prepared a set of time-tables
institutions of higher learning for called Jij Muhammad-shahi, to help
Persian and Arabic. Azimabad the people in the study of astronomy.
(Patna) was a famous centre for  In the south, in Kerala, the
Persian education. Padmanabhapuram Palace, famous
for its architecture and mural
➢ Societal Set up paintings.
 Many Castes, Many Sects  Kanchan Nambiar was a noted
(i) The family system was primarily Malayalam poet.
patriarchal and caste was the central  The Tamil language was enriched by
feature of the social life of the sittar poetry. Thayumanavar (1706-
Hindus. 44), one of the best exponents of
 sittar poetry, protested against the The imperial history of Britain started
abuses of temple-rule and the caste with the conquest of Ireland in the
system. sixteenth century. The English then
 Heer Ranjha, the romantic epic in sprang up as the new Romans, charged
Punjabi literature, was composed by with civilising so-called backward races
Warris Shah. In Sindhi literature, throughout the world.
Shah Abdul Latif composed Risalo, a 2. Was the British Conquest
collection of poems. Accidental or Intentional?
 Our acquisition of India was made
3.Expansion & Consolidation blindly. Nothing great that has ever
of British Power in India- 1 been done by Englishman was done
so unintentionally and so
Table of contents accidentally, as the conquest of
India. — John Seeley
Introduction
 School of opinion argues that the
Causes of British Success in India: British came to trade in India and
had no desire to acquire territories or
British Conquest of Bengal:
to squander their profits on war
Mysore’s Resistance to the Company waged for territorial expansion.
Introduction  The English, it is argued, was
How did they succeed in getting unwillingly drawn into the political
control over more regions and turmoil created by the Indians
weaknesses of those kingdoms? How themselves, and were almost forced
other kingdoms reacted to the to acquire territories.
supremacy of the company and how  The other group says that the British
did they respond to it? came to India with the clear intention
1. The British Imperial History of establishing
a large and powerful empire.
The entire imperial history of Britain can  A desire for quick profits, personal
be divided into two phases, the ambitions of individuals, plain
'first empire' stretching across the avarice and effects of political
Atlantic towards America and the West developments in Europe were some
Indies, and the 'second empire' of the factors.
beginning around 1783 (Peace of Paris)  B. L. Grover writes: "Lord
and swinging towards East Asia and Wellesley resorted to aggressive
application of the subsidiary alliance
Africa. Flag of the British Empire system to extend British dominion in
 India as a defensive countermeasure  Better Military Discipline and
against the imperialistic designs of Regular Salary
France and Russia". A regular system of payment of
3. When did the British Period Begin salaries and a strict regime of
in India? discipline were how the English
 Some historians regard the year Company ensured that the officers
1740, when the Anglo-French and the troops were loyal.
struggle for supremacy in India  Civil Discipline and Fair Selection
began in the wake of the War of System
Austrian Succession in Europe, as The Company officers and troops
the beginning of the British period. were given charge based on their
 Some see the year 1757, when the reliability and skill and not on
British defeated the Nawab of hereditary or caste and clan ties.
Bengal at Plassey, as the designated  Brilliant Leadership and Support
date. of Second Line Leaders
 Others regard 1761, the year of Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone,
the third Battle of Panipat when Munro, Marquess of Dalhousie, etc.,
the Marathas were defeated by displayed rare qualities of
Ahmad Shah Abdali, as the leadership. The English also had the
beginning of this phase of Indian advantage of a long list of secondary
leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord
history. Lake and Arthur Wellesley who
 Causes of British Success in India: fought not for the leader but the
cause and the glory of their country.
The British were not averse to using
 Strong Financial Backup
unscrupulous tactics to exploit a situation
The income of the Company was
or a regional ruler to get their way.
adequate to pay its shareholders
The causational forces and factors for the
handsome dividends as also to
success of the British are as follows:
finance the English wars in India.
 Nationalist Pride
 Superior Arms, Military and
Strategy The lack of materialistic vision
The firearms used by the English, among Indians was also a reason for
which included muskets and the success of the English Company.
cannons, were better than the Indian British Conquest of Bengal:
arms both in the speed of firing and ➢ Bengal on the Eve of British
in range. Conquest
 Bengal, the richest province of the  There was a dominant group in his
Mughal Empire included present-day court comprising Jagat Seth,
Bangladesh, and its Nawab had Omichand, Rai Ballabh, Rai Durlabh
authority over the region constituting and others who were opposed to him.
present-day states of Bihar and To these internal rivals were added the
Odisha. threat to Siraj's position from the ever-
 Exports from Bengal to Europe growing commercial activity of the
consisted of raw products such as English company.
saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar,  Impulsive by nature and lacking
silk, cotton textiles, handicrafts, etc. experience, Siraj felt insecure, and this
 The Company paid a sum of Rs 3,000 prompted him to act in ways which
(£ 350) per annum to the Mughal proved counterproductive.
emperor who allowed them to trade 1. The Battle of Plassey
freely in Bengal. In contrast, the  Black Hole Tragedy Siraj-ud-daulah
Company's exports from Bengal were is believed to have imprisoned 146
worth more than £ 50,000 per annum. English persons who were lodged in
The region of Bengal was fortunate a very tiny room due to which 123 of
enough to escape these challenges. them died of suffocation.
 The population of Calcutta rose from  The Battle, the arrival of a strong
15,000 (in 1706) to 1,00,000 (in 1750) force under the command of Robert
and other cities Clive forged a secret alliance with
like Dacca and Murshidabad becam the traitors of the nawab—
e highly populous. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth
 Between 1757 and 1765, the power (an influential banker of Bengal)
gradually got transferred from the and Omichand.
Nawabs of Bengal to the British.  Under the deal, Mir Jafar was to be
➢ Alivardi Khan and the English made the nawab who in turn would
 In 1741, Alivardi Khan, the Deputy reward the Company for its services.
Governor of Bihar, killed the Nawab So the English victory in the Battle
of Bengal Sarfaraz Khan in a battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) was
and certified his position as the new decided before the battle was even
Subahdar of Bengal. fought.
 He died in April 1756 and was  Siraj-ud-daula was captured and
succeeded by his grandson, Siraj-ud- murdered by the order of Mir Jafar’s
daula. son, Miran. Mir Jafar became the
➢ Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula Nawab of Bengal. He gave large
 sums of money plus the zamindari of 3. The Battle of Buxar
24 Parganas to the English.  By an imperial Farman, the English
 The Battle of Plassey had political company had obtained the right to
significance for it laid the foundation trade in Bengal without paying
of the British empire in India, it has transit dues or tolls.
been rightly regarded as the starting  The combined armies of Mir Kasim,
point of British rule in India. the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah
 The battle established the military Alam II were defeated by the English
supremacy of the English in Bengal. forces under Major Hector Munro at
2. Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 Buxar on October 22, 1764, in a
 Mir Kasim, the son-in-law of Mir closely contested battle.
Jafar, and the Company was signed  The victory made the English a great
in 1760. power in northern India and
 Important features of the treaty were contenders for supremacy over the
as follows: whole country.
(i) Mir Kasim agreed to pay off the  After the battle, Mir Jafar, who was
outstanding dues to the Company. made Nawab in 1763 agreed to hand
(ii) Mir Kasim promised to pay a over the districts of Midnapore,
sum of rupees five lakh towards Burdwan, and Chittagong to the
financing the Company's war efforts English for the maintenance of their
in southern India. army.
(iii) It was agreed that Mir Kasim's 4. The Treaty of Allahabad
enemies were the company's
enemies, and his friends, the  Robert Clive concluded two
company’s friends. important treaties at Allahabad in
(iv) It was agreed that tenants of the August 1765—one with the Nawab
nawab’s territory would not be of Awadh and the other with
allowed to settle in the lands of the the Mughal
Company, and vice-versa. Emperor, Shah Alam II.
 A pension of Rs 1,500 per annum  Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula agreed to:
was fixed for Mir Jafar. Mir Kasim (i) Surrender Allahabad and Kara to
shifted the capital from Murshidabad Emperor Shah Alam II.
to Munger in Bihar. The move was (ii) Pay Rs. 50 lakh to the Company
taken to allow a safe distance from as war indemnity and
the Company at Calcutta. (iii) Give Balwant Singh, Zamindar
 His other important steps were of Banaras, full possession of his
reorganising the bureaucracy. estate.
 Shah Alam II agreed to:  The battle of Talikota (1565) gave a
(i) Reside at Allahabad, to be ceded deadly blow to the great kingdom of
to him by the Nawab of Awadh, Vijayanagara.
under the Company’s protection.  In 1612 a Hindu kingdom under the
(ii) Issue a Farman granting the Wodeyars emerged in the region of
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa Mysore.
to the East India Company instead of  Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled
an annual payment of Rs. 26 lakh from 1734 to 1766. Mysore emerged
and as a formidable power under the
(iii) A provision of Rs. 53 lakh to the leadership of Haidar Ali and Tipu
Company in return for nizamat Sultan.
functions (military defence, police, ➢ Rise of Haidar Ali
and administration of justice) of the  Haidar Ali became the de facto ruler
said provinces. of Mysore in 1761. He realized that
5. Dual Government in Bengal (1765- the French-trained Nizami army
72) could be silenced only by effective
 Robert Clive introduced the dual artillery.
system of government, i.e., the rule of  Haidar Ali took the help of the
the two—the Company and the French to set up an arms factory at
Nawab—in Bengal in which both the Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu), and
Diwani, i.e., collecting revenues, and also introduced Western methods of
Nizamat, i.e., police and judicial training for his army.
functions, came under the control of  With his superior military skill he
the company. captured Dod Ballapur, Sera, Bidnur
 The Company exercised Diwani rights and Hoskote in 1761- 63, and
as the diwan and the Nizamat rights brought to submission the
through its right to nominate the troublesome Poligars of South India
deputy subahdar. The Company (in what is now Tamil Nadu).
acquired the Diwani functions from  Recovering from their defeat at
the emperor and Nizamat functions Panipat, the Marathas under
from the subahdar of Bengal. Madhavrao attacked Mysore and
 The dual system led to an defeated Haidar Ali in 1764, 1766,
administrative breakdown and proved and 1771. And recovered all the
disastrous for the people of Bengal. territories during 1774-76.
The Dual Government in Bengal
Mysore’s Resistance to the Company ➢ First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-
➢ The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 69)
 The Nizam, the Marathas, and the  In April 1790, Tipu declared war
English allied together against Haidar against Travancore for the restoration
Ali. of his rights. In 1790, Tipu defeated
 English conclude a treaty with Haidar the English under General Meadows.
on April 4, 1769— Treaty of Madras.  In 1791, Cornwallis took the
 The treaty provided for the exchange leadership and at the head of a large
of prisoners and mutual restitution of army marched through Ambur and
conquests. Vellore to Bangalore (captured in
 Haidar Ali was promised the help of March 1791) and from there
the English in case he was attacked by to Seringapatam.
any other power.  Treaty of Seringapatam- Under this
treaty of 1792, nearly half of the
➢ Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780- Mysorean territory was taken over by
84) the victors, Baramahal, Dindigul and
Malabar went to the English.
 Haidar considered the English attempt  While the Marathas got the regions
to capture Mahe a direct challenge to surrounding the Tungabhadra and its
his authority. tributaries and the Nizam acquired the
 Haidar forged an anti-English alliance areas from the Krishna to beyond the
with the Marathas and the Nizam. Pennar. Besides, war damage of three
He followed it up by an attack in the crore rupees was also taken from Tipu.
Carnatic, capturing Arcot, and
defeating the English army under ➢ Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Colonel Baillie in 1781.  In 1798, Lord Wellesley succeeded
 Haidar faced the English boldly only Sir John Shore as the new Governor-
to suffer a defeat at Porto Novo in General.
November 1781.  The war began on April 17, 1799, and
 Fed up with an inconclusive war, both ended on May 4, 1799, with the fall of
sides opted for peace, negotiating the Seringapatam.
Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784)  Tipu was defeated first by English
under which each party gave back the General Stuart and then by General
territories it had taken from the other. Harris.
 Haidar Ali died of cancer on  The English were again helped by the
December 7, 1782. Marathas and the Nizam. The
Marathas had been promised half of
the territory of Tipu and the Nizam
➢ Third Anglo-Mysore War
had already signed the Subsidiary
Alliance.
 ➢ Mysore After Tipu expanding Maratha power, and
to some extent appease
 Wellesley offered Soonda and the Kshatriya section of the
Harponelly districts of Mysore Marathas (Peshwas were
Kingdom to the Marathas, which the brahmins) led by the Senapati
latter refused. Dabodi.
 The Nizam was given the districts  The Maratha families which
of Gooty and Gurramkonda. emerged prominently were—
 The English took possession of (a) The Gaekwad of Baroda
Kanara, Wynad, Coimbatore, (b) The Bhonsle of Nagpur
(c) The Holkars of Indore
Dwaraporam and Seringapatam.
(d) The Sindhias of Gwalior and
 The new state of Mysore was handed (e) The Peshwa of Poona
over to the old Hindu dynasty
(Wodeyars) under a minor ruler
Krishnaraja III, who accepted the
subsidiary alliance.  The defeat at Panipat and later the
 In 1831 William Bentinck took control death of the young Peshwa,
of Mysore on grounds of Madhavrao I, in 1772, weakened the
misgovernance. control of the Peshwas over the
 In 1881 Lord Ripon restored the confederacy.
kingdom to its ruler.
The Entry of the English into
This is the first part of the document, in Maratha Politics
the next EduRev document you will read The English in Bombay wanted to
about Anglo Marathas, Anglo Sikhs, and establish a government on the lines of
other foreign territorial wars of British the arrangement made by Clive in

Expansion & Consolidation of British Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Power in India- 2 - History for UPSC ➢ First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-
CSE 82)
ANGLO-MARATHA STRUGGLE
 After the death of Madhavrao in
FOR SUPREMACY
1772, his brother Narayanrao
succeeded him as the fifth Peshwa.
Rise of the Marathas
 Treaties
 Bajirao I (1720-40), considered
of Surat and Purandhar Raghunat
greatest of all the Peshwas, had
hrao, unwilling to give up his
started a confederacy of rapidly
position in power, sought help from
 the English at Bombay and signed territories acquired by the English
the Treaty of Surat in 1775. since 1775.
 Under the  Treaty of Salbai (1782): End of the
treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the first phase of the
territories of Salsette and Bassein to struggle Warren Hastings, the
the English along with a portion of Governor-General in Bengal,
the revenues from Surat and Bharuch rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and
districts. In return, the English were under Colonel Goddard who
to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 captured Ahmedabad in February
soldiers. 1779, and Bassein in December
 The British Calcutta Council 1780.
condemned the Treaty of  Another Bengal detachment led by
Surat (1775) and sent Colonel Captain Popham captured Gwalior in
Upton to Pune to annul it and make a August 1780. In February 1781 the
new treaty (Treaty of Purandhar, English, under General Camac,
1776) with the regency renouncing finally defeated Sindhia at Sipri.
Raghunath and promising him a  Sindhia proposed a new treaty
pension. The Bombay government between the Peshwa and the English,
rejected this and gave refuge to and the Treaty of Salbai was signed
Raghunath. in May 1782, it was ratified by
 In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated his Hastings in June 1782 and by
treaty with the Calcutta Council by Phadnavis in February 1783.
granting the French a port on the  The treaty guaranteed peace between
west coast. the two sides for twenty years.
 Mahadji lured the English army into  The main provisions of the Treaty of
the ghats (mountain passes) near Salbai were:
Talegaon and trapped the English (i) Salsette should continue in the
from all sides and attacked the possession of the English.
English supply base at Khopali. The (ii) The whole of the territory
Marathas also utilised a scorched conquered since the Treaty of
earth policy, burning farmland and Purandhar (1776) including Bassein
poisoning wells. should be restored to the Marathas.
 The English surrendered by mid- (iii) In
January 1779 and signed the Treaty Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad sho
of Wadgaon that forced the Bombay uld remain in possession of the
government to relinquish all territory which he had before the war
and should serve the Peshwa as
 before. than 6,000 troops), with the usual
(iv) The English should not offer any proportion of field artillery and
further support to Raghunathrao and European artillerymen attached, to
the Peshwa should grant him a be permanently stationed in his
maintenance allowance. territories.
(v) Haidar Ali should return all the (b) To cede to the Company
territory taken from the English and territories yielding an income of Rs
the Nawab of Arcot. 26 lakh.
(vi) The English should enjoy the (c) To surrender the city of Surat.
privileges at trade as before. (d) To give up all claims for Chauth
(vii) The Peshwa should not support on the Nizam's dominions.
any other European nation. (e) To accept the Company’s
(viii) The Peshwa and the English arbitration in all differences between
should undertake that their several him and the Nizam or the Gaekwad.
allies should remain at peace with (f) Not to keep in his employment
one another. Europeans of any nation at war with
(ix) Mahadji Sindhia should be the the English and
mutual guarantor for the proper (g) To subject his relations with
observance of the terms of the treaty. other states to the control of the
English.
➢ Second Anglo Maratha War (h) Defeat of Bhonsle (December 17,
(1803-1805) 1803, Treaty of Devgaon), the defeat
of Sindhia (December 30, 1803,
 The death of Nana Phadnavis in Treaty of Surajianjangaon) and the
1800 gave the British an added defeat of Holkar (1806, Treaty of
advantage. Rajpurghat).
On October 25, 1802, Jaswant  Treaty was signed by a Peshwa who
defeated the armies of the Peshwa lacked political authority, but the
and Sindhia decisively at Hadaspar gains made by the English were
near Poona and placed Vinayakrao, immense.
son of Amritrao, on the Peshwa’s  The treaty "gave the English the key
seat. to India”.
 A terrified Bajirao II fled to Bassein
on December 31, 1802. ➢ Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-
 Treaty of Bassein (1802) Under the 19)
treaty, the Peshwa agreed:
(a) To receive from the Company a
native infantry (consisting of not less
 By the Charter Act of 1813, the and Jaswantrao Holkar were
East India Company’s monopoly of worthless and selfish leaders.
trade in China (except tea) ended.  Defective Nature of Maratha
 Bajirao II made the last bid in 1817 State - The cohesion of the people of
by rallying together the Maratha the Maratha state was not organic
chiefs against the English in course but artificial and accidental, and
of the Third Anglo-Maratha War. hence precarious.
 The Peshwa attacked the British  Loose Political Set-up-the lack of a
Residency at Poona. Appa Sahib of cooperative spirit among the Maratha
Nagpur attacked the residency at chiefs proved detrimental to the
Nagpur. Maratha state.
 The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki,  Inferior Military System- Though
Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at full of personal prowess and valour,
Mahidpur. the Marathas were inferior to the
 Important treaties were signed. English in the organisation of the
These were: forces, in war weapons, in
(i) June 1817, Treaty of Poona, with disciplined action and ineffective
Peshwa. leadership.
(ii) November 1817, Treaty of  Unstable Economic Policy- The
Gwalior, with Sindhia. Maratha leadership failed to evolve a
(iii) January 1818, Treaty of stable economic policy
Mandasor, with Holkar. In June  Superior English Diplomacy and
1818. Espionage- The English had the
 The Peshwa finally surrendered and better diplomatic skill to win allies
the Maratha confederacy was and isolate the enemy.
dissolved. The peshwaship was  Progressive English Outlook- The
abolished. Peshwa Bajirao became a English were rejuvenated by the
British retainer at Bithur near forces of Renaissance The English
Kanpur. attacked a 'divided house' which
 Pratap Singh made ruler of Satara, started crumbling after a few pushes.
formed out of the Peshwa's
dominions. The Conquest of Sindh

Why the Marathas Lost Rise of Talpuras Amirs

 Inept Leadership-the later Maratha  Before the rule of Talpuras Amirs,

leaders Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia Sindh was ruled by
the Kallora chiefs.
 In 1758, an English factory was built exclude the French from Sindh and
at Thatta, owing to a parwana given to exchange agents at each other's
by the Kallora prince, Ghulam Shah. court.
In 1761, Ghulam Shah, on the arrival (iii) The treaty was renewed in 1820
of an English resident in his court, with the addition of an article
not only ratified the earlier treaty but excluding the Americans and
also excluded other Europeans from resolving some border disputes on
trading there. the side of Kachch after the final
 This advantage was enjoyed by the defeat of the Maratha confederacy in
English up to 1775 1818.
 In the 1770s, a Baluch tribe  Treaty of 1832- In 1832, William
called Talpuras descended from the Bentinck sent Colonel Pottinger to
hills and settled in the plains of Sindh to sign a treaty with the
Sindh. Amirs.
 In 1783, the Talpuras, under the The provisions of the treaty were as
leadership of Mir Fath (Fatah) Ali follows:
Khan, established a complete hold (i) Free passage through Sindh
over Sindh. would be allowed to the English
 They conquered Amarkot from traders and travellers and the use of
the Raja of Jodhpur, Karachi from Indus for trading purposes, however,
the chief of no warships would ply, nor any war
Luz, Shaikarpur and Bukkar from materials would be carried.
the Afghans. (ii) No English merchant would
settle down in Sindh, and passports
Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh would be needed for travellers.
(iii) Tariff rates could be altered by
 Under the influence of Tipu Sultan
the Amirs if found high and no
and the jealousy of the local traders,
military dues or tolls would be
aided by the anti-British party at
demanded.
Hyderabad (Sindh), the amir in (iv) The Amirs would work with the
October 1800, ordered the British
Raja of Jodhpur to put down the
agent to quit Sindh within ten days.
robbers of Kutch.
 Treaty of ‘Eternal Friendship’  Lord Auckland and Sindh - Lord
(i) Metcalfe was sent to Lahore,
Auckland, who became the
Elphinstone to Kabul and Malcolm
to Teheran. Governor-General in 1836. Lord
(ii) After professing eternal Auckland
friendship, both sides agreed to
 Tripartite Treaty of 1838 - The  To compensate for this, they annexed
Company persuaded Ranjit Singh to Sindh which prompted Elphinstone
sign a tripartite treaty in June 1838 to comment: “Coming from
agreeing to British mediation in his Afghanistan it put one in mind of a
disputes with the Amirs, and then bully who has been knocked in the
made Emperor Shah Shuja give up street and went home to beat his wife
his sovereign rights on Sindh, in revenge.”
provided the arrears of tribute were
paid. Conquest of Punjab
 Sindh Accepts Subsidiary Alliance ➢ Consolidation of Punjab under the
(1839) - B. L. Grover writes: “Under Sikhs
threat of superior force, the Amirs
accepted a treaty in February 1839  In 1715, Banda Bahadur was
by which a British subsidiary force defeated by Farrukhsiyar and put to
had to be stationed at Shikarpur and death in 1716. Thus the Sikh polity,
Bukkar and the Amirs of Sindh were once again, became leaderless and
to pay Rs. 3 lakh annually for the later got divided into two groups—
maintenance of the Company’s Bandai (liberal) and Tat Khalsa
troops”. (Orthodox).
 The capitulation of Sindh -The  In 1784 Kapur Singh Faizullapuria
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42), organised the Sikhs under Dal
fought on the soil of Sindh. The Khalsa, to unite followers of
whole of Sindh capitulated within a Sikhism, politically, culturally and
short time, and the Amirs were made economically.
captives and banished from Sindh. In  The whole body of the Khalsa was
1843, under Governor-General formed into two sections—
Ellenborough, Sindh was merged Budha Dal, the army of the
into the British Empire and Charles veterans, and Taruna Dal, the army
Napier was appointed its first of the young. The Sikhs
governor. consolidated in mislsMisl is an
Arabic word which means equal or
Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh alike. Another meaning
of Misl is State.
 In the instance of the First Afghan
War, the English suffered terribly at ➢ Sukarchakiya Misl and Ranjit
the hands of the Afghans with a Singh
corresponding loss of prestige.
  At the time of the birth of Ranjit political compulsions to sign
Singh (November 2, 1780), there the Tripartite Treaty with the
were 12 important misls: English.
Ahluwaliya, Bhangi, Dallewalia,
Faizullapuria, Kanhaiya,
➢ Punjab After Ranjit Singh
Krorasinghia, Nakkai, Nishaniya,
Phulakiya, Ramgarhiya
 Beginning of Court Factions -
Sukharchakiya, and Shaheed.
 The central administration of a misl Discontent was growing among the
was based on Gurumatta Sangh. troops as a result of irregularity of
 In 1799, Ranjit Singh was appointed payment. The appointment of
as the governor of Lahore by Zaman unworthy officers led to indiscipline.
Shah, the ruler of Afghanistan. These marches resulted in the
 In 1805, Ranjit Singh acquired commotion and economic dislocation
Jammu and Amritsar and thus the in Punjab.
political capital (Lahore) and  Rani Jindal and Daleep Singh -
religious capital (Amritsar) of Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit
Punjab came under the rule of Ranjit Singh, was proclaimed the Maharaja
Singh. with Rani Jindan as regent and Hira
Singh Dogra as wazir.
➢ Ranjit Singh and the English
The Napoleonic danger receded and the ➢ First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
English became more assertive, Ranjit
Singh agreed to sign the Treaty of
Amritsar (April 25, 1809) with the
 The causes were as follows:
Company.
(i) The anarchy in the Lahore
Treaty of Amritsar
kingdom following the death of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh resulting in a
 It checked one of the most cherished
power struggle for domination
ambitions of Ranjit Singh to extend
between the court at Lahore and the
his rule over the entire Sikh nation
ever-powerful and increasingly local
by accepting the river Sutlej as the
army.
boundary line for his dominions and
(ii) Suspicions amongst the Sikh
the Company.
army arising from English military
 Now he directed his energies
campaigns to achieve the annexation
towards the west and captured
of Gwalior and Sindh in 1841 and
Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819) and
the campaign in Afghanistan in
Peshawar (1834). In June 1838,
1842.
Ranjit Singh was compelled by
 (iii) The increase in the number of and Lai Singh as wazir.
English troops being stationed near (vi) Since, the Sikhs were not able to
the border with the Lahore kingdom. pay the entire war indemnity,
 The war began in December 1845 Kashmir including Jammu was sold
with 20,000 to 30,000 troops in the to Gulab Singh and he was required
British side, while the Sikhs had to pay Rupees 75 lakh to the
about 50,000 men. Company as the price.
 The treachery (vii) The transfer of Kashmir to
of Lai Singh and Teja Singh caused Gulab Singh was formalised by a
five successive defeats to the Sikhs separate treaty on March 16, 1846.
at Mudki (December 18, 1845),  Treaty of Bhairowal - The Sikhs
Ferozeshah (December 21-22, 1845), were not satisfied with the Treaty of
Buddelwal, Aliwal (January 28, Lahore over the issue of Kashmir, so
1846), and at Sobraon (February 10, they rebelled. In December 1846,
1846). Lahore fell to the British the Treaty of Bhairowal was
forces on February 20, 1846, without signed. According to the provisions
a fight. of this treaty, Rani Jindan was
 Treaty of Lahore (March 8, 1846) - removed as regent and a council of
The end of the First Anglo-Sikh regency for Punjab was set up. The
War forced the Sikhs to sign a council consisted of 8 Sikh sardars
humiliating treaty on March 8, 1846. presided over by the English
Resident, Henry Lawrence.
 The main features of the Treaty of
Lahore were as follows: ➢ Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)
(i) War indemnity of more than 1
crore of rupees was to be given to  Sher Singh was sent to suppress the
the English. revolt, but he joined Mulraj, leading
(ii) The Jalandhar Doab (between to a mass uprising in Multan. This
the Beas and the Sutlej) was annexed could be considered as the
to the Company’s dominions. immediate cause of the war.
(iii) A British resident was to be  Three important battles were fought
established at Lahore under Henry before the final annexation of
Lawrence. Punjab.
(iv) The strength of the Sikh army These three battles were:
was reduced. (i) Battle of Ramnagar, led by Sir
(v) Daleep Singh was recognised as Hugh Gough, the commander-in-
the ruler under Rani Jindan as regent chief of the Company.
(ii) Battle of Chillhanwala, January
 1849.  Warren Hastings followed a policy
(iii) Battle of Gujarat, February 21, of ring-fence which aimed at
1849, the Sikh army surrendered creating buffer zones to defend the
at Rawalpindi, and their Afghan Company’s frontiers.
allies were chased out of India.  This policy of Warren
 At the end of the war came: Hastings was reflected in his war
(i) Surrender of the Sikh army and against the Marathas and Mysore.
Sher Singh in 1849;  The states brought under the ring-
(ii) Annexation of Punjab, and for fence system were assured of
his services the Earl of Dalhousie military assistance against external
was given the thanks of the British aggression—but at their own
Parliament and promotion in the expense.
peerage, as Marquess.  Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary
(iii) Setting up of a three-member alliance was, in fact, an extension of
board to govern Punjab, comprising the ring-fence system which sought
of the Lawrence brothers (Henry and to reduce the Indian states into a
John) and Charles Mansel. position of dependence on the British
 In 1853 John Lawrence became the government.
first chief commissioner.
 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh ➢ Subsidiary Alliance
Wars -The Anglo-Sikh wars gave
the two sides a mutual respect's  The subsidiary alliance system was
fighting prowess. used by Lord Wellesley, who was
governor-general from 1798-1805.
Extension of British Paramountacy  Under the system, the allying Indian
through Administrative Policy state’s ruler was compelled to accept
The process of imperial expansion and the permanent stationing of a British
consolidation of British paramountcy force within his territory and to pay a
was carried on by the Company during subsidy for its maintenance.
the 1757-1857 period through a two-fold  The Indian ruler had to agree to the
method: posting of a British resident in his
(a) Policy of annexation by conquest or court. Under the system, the Indian
war and ruler could not employ any European
(b) Policy of annexation by diplomacy in his service without the prior
and administrative mechanisms. approval of the British.
 Nor could he negotiate with any
➢ The Policy of Ring-Fence other Indian ruler without consulting
the governor-general. In return for
 all this, the British would defend the and that the contingent would be
ruler from his enemies and adopt a available to the ruler for his personal and
policy of non-interference in family's protection as also for keeping
the internal matters of the allied out aggressors, all for a fixed sum of
state. money.
 Evolution and Perfection - It was (iv) In the fourth or the last stage, the
probably Dupleix, who first gave on money or the protection fee was fixed,
hire (so to say) European troops to usually at a high level; when the state
Indian rulers to fight their wars. failed to pay the money in time, it was
 The first Indian state to fall into this asked to cede certain parts of its
protection trap (which anticipated territories to the Company in place of
the subsidiary alliance system) was payment.
Awadh which in 1765 signed a treaty
under which the Company pledged to
defend the frontiers of Awadh.
 It was in 1787 that the Company States which Accepted Alliance The
insisted that the subsidiary state Indian princes who accepted the
should not have foreign relations. subsidiary system were:
(i) The Nizam of Hyderabad (September
This was included in the treaty with
1798 and 1800)
the Nawab of Carnatic which (ii) The ruler of Mysore (1799), The
Cornwallis signed in February 1787. ruler of Tanjore (October 1799)
(iii) The Nawab of Awadh (November
Stages of Application of Subsidiary 1801)
Alliance (iv) The Peshwa (December 1801)
(i) The first stage, the Company offered (v) The Bhonsle Raja of Berar
to help a friendly Indian state with its (December 1803)
(vi) The Sindhia (February 1804)
troops to fight any war the state might be
(vii) The Rajput states of Jodhpur Jaipur,
engaged in. Macheri, Bundi and the ruler of
(ii) The second stage consisted of Bharatpur (1818)
making a common cause with the Indian (viii) The Holkars were the last Maratha
state now made friendly and taking the confederation to accept the Subsidiary
field with its soldiers and those of the Alliance in 1818.
state. ➢ Doctrine of Lapse
(iii) The third stage when the Indian
 In simple terms, the doctrine stated
ally was asked not for men but money.
The Company promised that it would that the adopted son could be the
recruit, train, and maintain a fixed heir to his foster father's private
number of soldiers under British officers property, but not the state; it was for
 the paramount power (the British) to  The war ended in the Treaty of
decide whether to bestow the state Sagauli,1816 which was in favour of
on the adopted son or to annex it. the British.
 Though this policy is attributed As per the treaty:
to Lord Dalhousie (1848-56), he (i) Nepal accepted a British
was not its originator. resident.
 Seven states were annexed under (ii) Nepal ceded the districts of
the Doctrine of Lapse: Satara Garhwal and Kumaon and
(1848), Jhansi and Nagpur (1854). abandoned claims to Terai.
The other small states included (iii) Nepal also withdrew from
Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Sambalpur Sikkim.
(Orissa), and Baghat (Madhya  This agreement brought many
Pradesh). advantages to the British:
 Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in (i) The British empire now reached
1856. the Himalayas.
(ii) It got better facilities for trade
RELATIONS OF BRITISH INDIA with Central Asia.
WITH NEIGHBOURING (iii) It acquired sites for hill stations,
COUNTRIES such as Shimla, Mussoorie and
➢ Anglo-Bhutanese Relations Nainital and
(iv) The Gorkhas joined the British
 In 1865, the Bhutanese were forced Indian Army in large numbers.
to surrender the passes in return for
an annual subsidy. ➢ Anglo-Burmese Relations
 It was the surrendered district which
became a productive area with tea  The expansionist urges of the
gardens. British, fuelled by the lure of the
forest resources of Burma, market
➢ Anglo-Nepalese Relations for British manufactures in Burma.
 First Burma War (1824-26)- The
 In 1801, the English annexed first war with Burma was fought
Gorakhpur which brought the when the Burmese expansion
Gorkhas boundary and the westwards and occupation of Arakan
Company’s boundary together. and Manipur, and the threat to
 The conflict started due to the Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley.
Gorkhas capture of Butwal and The British expeditionary forces
Sheoraj in the period of Lord occupied Rangoon in May 1824 and
Hastings (1813-23). reached within 72 km of the capital
 at Ava. Peace was established in Tibetan officials which provided
1826 with the Treaty of Yandabo that:
which provided that the Government (i) Tibet would pay an indemnity of
of Burma. Rs 75 lakh at the rate of one lakh
(i) Pay rupees one crore as war rupees per annum.
compensation. (ii) As security for payment, the
(ii) Cede its coastal provinces of Indian Government would occupy
Arakan and Tenasserim. the Chumbi Valley (territory
(iii) Abandon claims on Assam, between Bhutan and Sikkim) for 75
Cachar and Jaintia. years.
(iv) Recognise Manipur as an (iii) Tibet would respect the frontier
independent state, negotiate a of Sikkim.
commercial treaty with Britain and (iv) Trade marts would be opened at
(v) Accept a British resident at Ava, Yatung, Gyantse, Gartok and
while posting a Burmese envoy at (v) Tibet would not grant any
Calcutta. concession for railways, roads,
 Second Burma War (1852)- The telegraph, etc., to any foreign state,
second war was the result of the but give Great Britain some control
British commercial need and the over foreign affairs of Tibet.
imperialist policy of Lord Dalhousie. (vi) The treaty was revised reducing
The British merchants were keen to the indemnity from Rs 75 lakh to Rs
get hold of timber resources of upper 25 lakh and providing for evacuation
Burma and also sought further of Chumbi valley after three years.
inroads into the Burmese market.  Significance - Only China gained in
 Third Burma War (1885)- A the end out of the whole affair
humiliating fine had been imposed because of the Anglo- Russian
on a British timber company by convention of 1907.
Thibaw. Duffer in ordered the
invasion and final annexation of ➢ Anglo-Afghan Relations
upper Burma in 1885.
 Treaty of Turkomanchai (1828),
➢ Anglo -Tibetan Relations Passes of the north-west seemed to
hold the key to enter India. The need
 Tibet was ruled by a theocracy of was felt for Afghanistan to be under
Buddhist monks (lamas) under the the control of a ruler friendly to the
nominal suzerainty of China. British.
 Treaty of Lhasa (1904)  Forward Policy of Auckland,
Younghusband dictated terms to the Auckland who came to India as the
 governor-general in 1836, advocated cost India one-and-a-half crore
a forward policy. This implied that rupees and nearly 20,000 men.
the Company government in India
itself had to take initiatives to protect John Lawrence and the Policy of
the boundary of British India. Masterly Inactivity
 A Tripartite Treaty (1838) was Lawrence’s policy rested on the
entered into by the British, Sikhs and fulfilment of two conditions I. that the
Shah Shuja The treaty provided peace at the frontier was not disturbed
that— and II. that no candidate in civil war
(i) Shah Shuja is enthroned with the sought foreign help.
armed help of the Sikhs, the
Company remaining in the Lytton and the Policy of Proud
background, "jingling the money- Reserve
bag'. Lytton, a nominee of the Conservative
(ii) Shah Shuja conduct foreign government under Benjamin Disraeli
affairs with the advice of the Sikhs (1874-80), became the Viceroy of India
and the British. in 1876. He started a new foreign policy
(iii) Shah Shuja give up his of 'proud reserve', which was aimed at
sovereign rights over Amirs of Sindh having scientific frontiers and
in return for a large sum of money. safeguarding spheres of influence.
(iv) Shah Shuja recognise the Sikh
ruler, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's claims Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80)
over the Afghan territories on the Sher Ali fled in face of the British
right bank of the River Indus. invasion, and the treaty of
Gandamak (May 1879) was signed with
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) Yakub Khan, the eldest son of Sher Ali.
Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) the
 The British decided to go ahead with treaty signed after the Second-Anglo
their forward policy. This resulted Afghan War provided that:
in the First Afghan War (1839 -The (i) The Amir conduct his foreign policy
British intention was to establish a with the advice of the Government of
permanent barrier against schemes of India.
aggression from the north-west. The (ii) A permanent British resident be
British were compelled to sign a stationed at Kabul and
treaty (1841) with the Afghan chiefs (iii) The Government of India give Amir
by which they agreed to evacuate all support against foreign aggression
Afghanistan and restore Dost and an annual subsidy.
Mohammed. The First Afghan War
 British India and the North-West All the previous documents that you
Frontier have read is to gather knowledge about
the background events. In this EduRev
 A compromise was finally reached document you will reading about the
by drawing a boundary line known first war of independence which
considered as the starting point of the
as the Durand Line between Afghan
unity between people across the
and British territories. country. You will read about what are
 Curzon, the viceroy between 1899 the causes that led to this war and what
and 1905, followed a policy of is outcome of this and how company
withdrawal and concentration. rule ended and crown rule started in
 He created the North-West Frontier our country.
Province (NWFP) directly under the Simmering discontent
Government of India.
 In January 1932, it was announced  In 1757, after the Battle of Plassey,
that the NWFP was to be constituted the British laid the first step
towards getting power in northern
as a governor’s province. Since
India, And in 1857 took place the
1947, the province belongs to major "Revolt" which was a product
Pakistan. of the character and policies of
colonial rule after 1757, and after
………………………………………… which noteworthy changes took
………. place in the British policy of ruling
The Revolt of 1857 - over India.
 The cumulative effect of British
Table of contents expansionist
policies, economic exploitation,
Introduction and administrative innovations ove
The Revolt of 1857 - The Major Causes r the years had adversely affected the
positions of all—rulers of Indian
Beginning and Spread of the Revolt states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants,
traders, artisans, pundits, maulvis,
Suppression of the Revolt etc. The simmering discontent burst
in the form of a violent storm in
Why the Revolt Failed?
1857 which shook the British empire
Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor in India to its very foundations.
 However, the period between 1757
Nature of the Revolt and 1857 was not all peaceful and
trouble-free, it saw a series of
Consequences sporadic popular outbursts in the
Significance of the Revolt form of religiopolitical
violence, tribal
Introduction
 movements, peasant uprisings,  The ruin of the Indian industry
and agrarian riots, and civil increased the pressure on agriculture
rebellions. Enhanced revenue and land.
demands—even in famine years -
caused anger. ➢ Political Causes

The Revolt of 1857 - The Major  The East India Company’s greedy
policy of
Causes aggrandizement accompanied by
➢ Economic Causes broken pledges and promises
resulted in contempt for the
 The colonial policies of the East India Company and loss of political
Company destroyed the traditional prestige, besides causing suspicion
economic fabric of Indian society. in the minds of almost all the ruling
 British rule also meant misery to the princes in India, through policies as
artisans and handicrafts people. of 'Effective Control’, 'Subsidiary
 The annexation of Indian states by the Alliance' and 'Doctrine of Lapse'.
Company cut off their major source of  The collapse of rulers—the erstwhile
patronage. aristocracy—also adversely affected
 The Indian trade and mercantile class those sections of the Indian society.
was deliberately crippled by the British
who imposed high tariff duties on ➢ Administrative Causes
Indian-made goods.
 At the same time, the import of British  Rampant corruption in the Company’s
goods into India attracted low tariffs, administration, especially among the
thus encouraging their entry into India. police, petty officials, and lower law
 Free Trade and refusal to impose courts, was a major cause of
protective duties against the machine- discontent.
made goods from Britain, simply killed
Indian manufacture. ➢ Socio-Religious Causes
 Zamindars, the traditional landed
aristocracy, often saw their land rights  Racial overtones and a superiority
forfeited with frequent use of a quo complex characterised the British
warranto by the administration. administrative attitude towards the
native Indian population.
Example- In Awadh, the storm centre  The government’s decision to tax
of the revolt, 21,000 taluqdars had mosque and temple lands and
their estates confiscated and suddenly making laws such as the Religious
found themselves without a source of Disabilities Act, 1856.
income, "unable to work, ashamed to
beg, condemned to penury". ➢ Influence of Outside Events
 The revolt of 1857 coincided with bitten off before loading and the
certain outside events in which the grease was reportedly made
British suffered serious losses— of beef and pig fat.
the First Afghan War (1838-
42), Punjab Wars (1845-49), and ➢ Starts at Meerut
the Crimean Wars (1854-56).
 The revolt began at Meerut, 58 km
➢ Discontent Among Sepoys from Delhi, on May 10, 1857, and
then, gathering force rapidly, soon
 The conditions of service in the embraced a vast area from Punjab in
Company's Army and cantonments the north and the Narmada in the
increasingly came into conflict with south to Bihar in the east and
the religious beliefs and prejudices Rajputana in the west.
of the sepoys.  Sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry,
 In 1856, Lord Canning's government Mangal Pande, went a step further
passed the General Service and fired at the sergeant major of his
Enlistment Act which decreed that unit at Barrackpore.
all future recruits to the Bengal  On April 24, ninety men of the 3rd
Army would have to give an Native Cavalry refused to accept the
undertaking to serve anywhere their greased cartridges.
services might be required by the  On May 9, eighty-five of them were
government. This caused resentment. dismissed, sentenced to 10 years
 The immediate cause of the sepoys' imprisonment, and put in fetters.
dissatisfaction was the order that  On May 10, they released their
they would not be given the foreign imprisoned comrades, killed their
service allowance (bhatta) when officers, and unfurled the banner of
serving in Sindh or in Punjab. revolt.
 History of revolts in the British
Indian Army— ➢ Choice of Bahadur Shah as
in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806), B
arrackpore (1825 ) and during Symbolic Head
the Afghan Wars (1838-42).
 This spontaneous raising of the last
Beginning and Spread of the Revolt Mughal king to the leadership of the
➢ The Spark country was a recognition of the fact
that the long reign of
 The reports about the mixing of the Mughal dynasty had become the
bone dust in atta (flour) and the traditional symbol of India’s political
introduction of the Enfield rifle unity.
enhanced the sepoy's growing  The broad outlook of the rebels was
disaffection with the government. not influenced by religious identity
 The greased wrapping paper of the but by the perception of the British
cartridge of the new rifle had to be as the common enemy.
 The entire Bengal Army soon rose in Rohilkhand, not enthusiastic about
revolt which spread the pension being granted by the
quickly. Awadh, Rohilkhand, British, organized an army of 40,000
the Doab, Bundelkhand, central In soldiers and offered stiff resistance
dia, large parts of Bihar and East to the British.
Punjab shook off British authority.  In Bihar, the revolt was led by
Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of
➢ Civilians Join Jagdishpur. He unhesitatingly joined
the sepoys when they
 The revolt of the sepoys was reached Arrah from Dinapore (Dan
accompanied by a rebellion of the apur).
civil population, particularly in the  Maulvi Ahmadullah
north-western provinces and Awadh. of Faizabad fought a stiff battle
The peasants and petty zamindars against the British troops. He
took advantage of the revolt to emerged as one of the revolt’s
destroy the moneylender's account acknowledged leaders once it broke
books and debt records. out in Awadh in May 1857.
 Rani Laxmibai, who assumed the
➢ Storm Centres and Leaders of the leadership of the sepoys at Jhansi.
Revolt The Rani of Jhansi
and Tantia Tope marched towards
 At Delhi the real command lay with Gwalior. Gwalior was recaptured by
a court of soldiers headed by the English in June 1858.
General Bakht Khan Sir Hugh Whe  Shah Mal, a local villager in
eler, commanding the station, Pargana Baraut (Baghpat, Uttar
surrendered on June 27, 1857 and Pradesh) organised the headmen and
was killed on the same day. peasants of 84 villages (referred as
 Nana Saheb expelled the English chaurasi desh), marching at night
from Kanpur, proclaimed himself the from village to village, urging people
Peshwa, acknowledged Bahadur to rebel against the British
Shah as the Emperor of India, and hegemony. Shah Mal's body was cut
declared himself to be his governor. into pieces and his head displayed on
 Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the
reigns at Lucknow where the July 21, 1857.
rebellion broke out on June 4, 1857
and popular sympathy was Suppression of the Revolt
overwhelmingly in favour of the
deposed nawab. In March 1858, the  The revolt was finally suppressed.
city was finally recovered by the The British captured Delhi on
September 20, 1857, thus the great
British. House of Mughals was finally and
 At Bareilly, Khan Bahadur, a completely extinguished.
descendant of the former ruler of
  Sir Colin Campbell occupied traditional conservative forces to
modernity.
Kanpur on December 6, 1857.  Rulers who did not participate
included the Sindhia of Gwalior,
Sir Colin Campbell the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of
Patiala, Sindh and other Sikh
 Tantia Tope was captured while chieftains, and the Maharaja of
asleep in April 1859 and put to Kashmir.
death. The Rani of Jhansi had died
on the battlefield earlier in June ➢ Poor Arms and Equipment
1858. Jhansi was recaptured
by Sir Hugh Rose.  The Indian soldiers were poorly
equipped materially, fighting generally
➢ The British Resistance with swords and spears and very few
guns and muskets.
 Delhi - Lieutenant Willoughby, John
Nicholson, Lieutenant Hudson ➢ Uncoordinated and Poorly
 Kanpur - Sir Hugh Wheeler, Sir Organised
Colin Campbell
 Lucknow - Henry Lawrence,  The revolt was poorly organised with
Brigadier Inglis, Henry Havelock, no coordination or central
James Outram, Sir Colin Campbell leadership.
 Jhansi - Sir Hugh Rose  The principal rebel leaders—Nana
 Benaras - Colonel James Neill Saheb, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh,
Laxmibai.
 The mutineers lacked a clear
Why the Revolt Failed? understanding of the colonial rule,
nor did they have a forward looking
 All-India participation was absent.
programme, a coherent ideology, a
 The limited territorial spread was one
political perspective or a societal
factor, there was no all - India veneer
alternative.
about the revolt.
Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor
➢ All classes did not join
 According to Maulana Azad, “Two
 Big zamindars acted as "break- facts stand out clearly in the midst of
waters to storm", even Awadh the tangled story of the Rising of 1857.
taluqdars backed off once promises The first is the remarkable sense of
of land restitution were spelt out. unity among the Hindus and the
 Educated Indians viewed this revolt Muslims of India in this period. The
as backward-looking, supportive of other is the deep loyalty which the
the feudal order and as a reaction of people felt for the Mughal Crown.”
 Thus, the events of 1857 demonstrated democratic combine against foreign as
that the people and politics of India well as feudal bondage".
were not basically communal or  Jawaharlal Nehru considered the
sectarian before 1858. Revolt of 1857 as essentially
a feudal uprising though there were
Nature of the Revolt some nationalistic elements in it
(Discovery of India).
 It was a mere 'Sepoy Mutiny’ to some  M.N. Roy felt the Revolt was a last-
British historians—"a wholly ditch stand of feudalism
unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny
with no native leadership and no against commercial capitalism.
popular support”, said Sir John  R.P. Dutt also saw the significance of
Seeley. the Revolt of the peasantry against
 Dr. K. Datta considers the revolt of foreign domination It had seeds of
1857 to have been “in the main a nationalism and anti-imperialism but
military outbreak, which was taken the concept of common nationality and
advantage of by certain discontented nationhood was not inherent to the
princes and landlords, whose interests revolt of 1857.
had been affected by the new political  S.B. Chaudhuri observes, the revolt
order”. It was "never all-Indian in was "the first combined attempt of
character, but was localised, restricted many classes of people to challenge a
and poorly organised". Further, says foreign power. This is a real if remote,
Datta, the movement was marked by approach to the freedom movement of
absence of cohesion and unity of India of a later age".
purpose among the various sections of
the rebels.
 A "planned war of national Consequences
independence", by V.D. Savarkar in
his book, The Indian War of  The revolt of 1857 marks a turning
Independence, 1857. Savarkar called point in the history of India. It led to
the revolt the first war of Indian far-reaching changes in the system of
independence. administration and the policies of the
 Dr. S.N. Sen in his Eighteen Fifty- British government.
Seven considers the revolt as having  The British Parliament, on August 2,
begun as a fight for religion but ending 1858, passed an Act for the Better
as a war of independence. Government of India. The Act
 Dr. R.C. Majumdar, however, declared Queen Victoria as the
considers it as neither the first, nor sovereign of British India and provided
national, nor a war of independence as for the appointment of a Secretary of
large parts of the country remained State for India
unaffected According to some Marxist  The assumption of the Government of
historians, the 1857 revolt was "the India by the sovereign of Great Britain
struggle of the soldier-peasant was announced by Lord Canning at a
 durbar at Allahabad in the 'Queen’s  For the British, the Revolt of 1857
Proclamation’ issued on November 1, proved useful in that it showed up the
glaring shortcomings in the Company’s
1858. administration and its army, which
 The proclamation also promised equal they rectified promptly. These defects
and impartial protection under law to would never have been revealed to the
all Indians, besides equal opportunities world if the Revolt had not happened.
in government services irrespective of  For the Indians, the 1857 Revolt had a
race or creed. It was also promised that major influence on the course of the
old Indian rights, customs, and struggle for freedom. It brought out in
practices would be given due regard the open grievances of people and the
while framing and administering the sepoys, which were seen to be genuine.
law.  However, it was also obvious that the
 The Army Amalgamation Scheme, primitive arms which the Indians
1861 moved the Company’s possessed were no match for the
European troops to the services of advanced weapons of the British.
the Crown. Furthermore, the senseless atrocities
 'Conservative brand of liberalism’, as committed by both sides shocked the
it was called by Thomas Metcalf—had Indian intellectuals who were
the solid support of the conservative increasingly convinced that violence
and aristocratic classes of England who was to be eschewed in any struggle for
espoused the complete non- freedom.
interference in the traditional structure  The educated middle class, which was
of Indian society. The Indian economy a growing section, did not believe in
was fully exploited without fear. violence and preferred an orderly
 In accordance with the Queen’s approach. But the Revolt of 1857
Proclamation of 1858, the Indian Civil did establish local traditions of
Service Act of 1861 was passed, which resistance to British rule which were
was to give an impression that under to be of help in the course of
the Queen all were equal, irrespective the national struggle for freedom.
of race or creed.
 Racial hatred and suspicion between General Features of Socio-Religious
the Indians and English was probably Reform Movements
the worst legacy of the revolt.
 The complete structure of the Indian ➢ Factors Giving Rise to Desire for
government was remodeled and based Reform
on the notion of a master race
justifying the philosophy of the  The dawn of the nineteenth
‘Whiteman’s burden’. century witnessed the birth of a new
vision—a modern vision among
Significance of the Revolt some enlightened sections of Indian
society.
 Which have become as much a part the intrusion of colonial culture and
of daily existence in the whole of the ideology, an attempt to reinvigorate
Indian subcontinent as having the traditional institutions and to realize
fruits of these reform movements. the potential of traditional culture
developed during the nineteenth
➢ Impact of British Rule century.

 It came at a time when India, in

contrast to an enlightened Europe of ➢ New Awareness among
the eighteenth century affected in Enlightened Indians
every aspect by science and
scientific outlook, presented the  The impact of modern Western
picture of a stagnant civilization and culture and consciousness of defeat
a static and decadent society. by a foreign power gave birth to a
new awakening. Factors such as the
➢ Social Conditions Ripe for growth of nationalist sentiments, the
Reform emergence of new economic forces,
the spread of education, the impact
 Religious and Social: Indian society of modern Western ideas and culture,
in the nineteenth century was caught and increased awareness of the world
in a vicious web created by religious strengthened the resolve to reform.
superstitions and social
obscurantism. Hinduism had become Social and Ideological Bases of
steeped in magic and superstition. Reform
 Depressing Position of ➢ Middle-Class Base
Women: Attempts to kill female
infants at birth were not unusual.  There was a significant contrast
Child marriage was another bane of between the broadly middle-class
society. The practice of polygamy ideals derived from a growing
prevailed and in Bengal, under awareness of contemporary
Kulinism, even old men took very developments in the West, and a
young girls as wives, Sati which predominantly non-middle class social
Raja Rammohan Roy described as a base.
"murder according to every shastra”  The intelligentsia of nineteenth-
 The Caste Problem: This entailed a century India's roots lay in government
system of segregation, hierarchically service or the professions of law,
ordained on the basis of ritual status. education, journalism, or medicine—
Under a rigid caste system, social with which was often combined some
mobility was checked, the social connection with the land in the form of
division grew, and individual the intermediate tenures.
initiative was thwarted.
 Opposition to Western ➢ The Intellectual Criteria
Culture: Faced with the challenge of
 Raja Rammohan Roy firmly movements like Arya Samaj and
believed in the principle of causality the Deoband movement.
linking the whole phenomenal  The only difference between one
universe and demonstrability as the reform movement and the other lay
sole criterion of truth. in the degree to which it relied on
 Akshay Kumar Dutt, while tradition or reason and conscience.
declaring that "rationalism is our
only preceptor", held that all-natural ➢ The direction of Social Reformat
and social phenomena could be
analyzed and understood by purely  The humanistic ideals of social
mechanical processes. equality and the equal worth of all
 According to Swami Vivekananda, individuals which inspired the newly
the same method of investigation educated middle class influenced the
which applies to sciences should be field of social reform in a major
the basis on which religion must way.
justify itself.  The social reform movements were
 The evolution of an linked to the religious reforms
alternative cultural- primarily because nearly all social
ideological system and the ills like untouchability and gender-
regeneration of traditional based inequity derived legitimacy
institutions were two concerns of from religion in one way or the
these movements. These concerns other.
were manifest in the attempts to  Organizations such as the Social
reconstruct traditional knowledge, Conference, Servants of India
the use and development of Society, and the Christian
vernacular languages, creation of an missionaries were instrumental in
alternative system of education, social reform along with many
defense of religion, efforts to enlightened individuals like Jyotiba
regenerate Indian art and literature, Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T.
the emphasis on Indian dress and Telang, B.M. Malabari, D.K. Karve,
food, attempts to revitalize the Sri Narayana Guru, E.V.
Indian systems of medicine and to Ramaswami Naicker and B.R.
research the precolonial technology Ambedkar.
for its potential.
➢ Fight for Betterment of Position
➢ Two Streams of Women

 The reform movements could  The improvement of the status of

broadly be classified into two women in the society was considered
categories—the reformist to be vital, and social reformers
movements like the Brahmo Samaj, worked towards this since a radical
the Prarthana Samaj, the Aligarh change in the domestic sphere—
Movement, and the revivalist where initial socialization of the
 individual takes place and where a the efforts of Pandit Ishwar
crucial role is played by women— Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91),
was the need of the hour. that the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage

Act, 1856, was passed. Pandit

Steps were taken to Ameliorate Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Women’s Position  Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau
➢ Abolition of Sati Daji were among the active
promoters of girls’ schools
 Influenced by the frontal attack in Maharashtra.
launched by the enlightened Indian  Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the
reformers led by Raja Rammohan Widow Remarriage Association in
Roy, the government declared the the 1850s.
practice of Sati illegal and  Karsondas Mulji started the Satya
punishable by criminal courts as Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to
advocate widow remarriage.
culpable homicide.  Similar efforts were made by
 The regulation of 1829 (Regulation Professor D.K. Karve in western
XVII, A.D. 1829 of the Bengal India and by Veerasalingam Pantulu
Code) was applicable in the first in Madras. Karve himself married a
instance to Bengal Presidency. widow in 1893.
 The right of widows to remarriage
➢ Preventing Female Infanticide was also advocated by B .M.
Malabari, Narmad
 The practice of murdering female (Narmadashankar Labhshankar
infants immediately after their birth Dave), Justice Govind Mahadeo
was a common practice among Ranade, and K. Natarajan among
upper-class Bengalis and Rajputs others.
who considered females to be an
economic burden. ➢ Controlling Child Marriage
 The Bengal regulations
of 1795 and 1804 declared  The Native Marriage Act (or Civil
infanticide illegal and equivalent to Marriage Act), 1872 signified
murder. legislative action in prohibiting child
 An Act passed in 1870 made it marriage.
compulsory for parents to register  The relentless efforts of a Parsi
the birth of all babies. reformer, B.M. Malabari was
rewarded by the enactment of the
➢ Widow Remarriage Age of Consent Act (1891) which
forbade the marriage of girls below
 The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of the age of 12.
widow remarriage high on its agenda  The Sarda Act (1930) further
and did much to popularise it due to pushed up the marriage age
 to 18 and 14 for boys and girls,  Sarojini Naidu went on to become
respectively. the president of the Indian
 In free India, the Child Marriage National Congress (1925) and later
Restraint (Amendment) Act, the governor of the United
1978 raised the age of marriage for Provinces (1947- 49).
girls from 15 to 18 years and for
boys from 18 to 21.
➢ Women’s Organisations
➢ Education of Women
 In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani
 The Christian missionaries were the convened the first meeting of the
first to set up the Calcutta Female Bharat Stree Mahamandal in
Juvenile Society in 1819. Allahabad. Considered the first
 The Bethune School, founded major Indian women’s organization
by J.E.D. Bethune, president of the set up by a woman, its objectives
Council of Education in Calcutta in included the promotion of education
1849 was the first fruit of the for women, the abolition of the
powerful movement for women’s purdah system, and improvement in
education that arose in the 1840s the socio-economic and political
status of women all over India. Sarla
and 1850s. J.E.D Bethune Devi believed that the man working
 Pandit Ishwar for women’s upliftment lived ‘under
Chandra Vidyasagar was the shade of Manu’.
associated with no less than 35 girls’  Ramabai Ranade founded the
schools in Bengal and is considered Ladies Social Conference (Bharat
one of the pioneers of women's Mahila Parishad), under the parent
education. organization National Social
 Charles Wood’s Despatch on Conference, in 1904 in Bombay.
Education (1854) laid great stress on  Pandita Ramabai
the need for female education. Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila
 In 1914, the Women’s Medical Samaj to serve the cause of women.
Service did a lot of work in training She pleaded for improvement in the
nurses and midwives. educational syllabus of Indian
 The Indian Women’s University set women before the English Education
up by Professor D.K. Karve in 1916 Commission which was referred to
was one of the outstanding Queen Victoria. This resulted in
institutions imparting education to medical education for women which
women. In the same year, Lady started in Lady Dufferin College.
Hardinge Medical College was  Later Ramabai Ranade established
opened in Delhi. a branch of Arya Mahila
 Health facilities began to be Samaj in Bombay.
provided to women with the opening  In 1925, the National Council of
of Dufferin Hospitals in the 1880s. Women in India, a national branch
 of the International Council of Struggle Against Caste-Based
Women, was formed. Mehribai Tata Exploitation
played a vital role in its formation The worst-hit by the discriminatory
and advancement. institution of caste were the
 Other women who held important 'untouchables' or the scheduled
positions on the executive committee castes/Dalits
of the council included Cornelia ➢ Factors that Helped to Mitigate
Sorabji, India’s first lady barrister; Caste-based Discrimination
Tarabai Premchand, wife of a
wealthy banker; Shaffi Tyabji, a  British rule, perhaps without
member of one of Mumbai’s intention, created certain conditions
leading Muslim families; that undermined caste consciousness
and Maharani Sucharu Devi, to an extent.
daughter of Keshab Chandra Sen.  The social reform movements also
 The All India Women’s strove to undermine caste-based
Conference (AlWCf founded by exploitation.
Margaret Cousins in 1927, was  The national movement took
perhaps the first women’s inspiration from the principles of
organization with an egalitarian liberty and equality against the
approach. Its first conference was forces which tended to divide the
held at Ferguson College, Pune. Its society. Gandhi, in 1932, founded
objectives were to work for a society the All India Harijan Sangh.
based on principles of social justice,  With increasing opportunities for
integrity, equal rights, and education and general awakening,
opportunities; and to secure for there were stirrings among the lower
every human being, the essentials of castes themselves.
life, not determined by the accident  The struggle of the depressed classes
of birth or sex but by planned social led to the provision of special
distribution. representation for these classes in
 Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Women's the Government of India Act, 1935.
Right to Property Act (1937),  Sri Narayana Guru in Keralacoined
Factory Act (1947), Hindu the slogan “one religion, one caste,
Marriage and Divorce one God for mankind”, which his
Act (1954), Special Marriage disciple Sahadaran Ayyapan changed
Act (1954), Hindu Minority and into “no religion, no caste, no God
Guardianship Act (1956), Hindu for mankind”.
Adoption and Maintenance  Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar led the
Act (1956), the Suppression of Mahad Satyagraha in March 1927 to
Immoral Traffic in Women Act challenge the regressive customs of
(1958), Maternity Benefits the caste Hindus. Dr Ambedkar
Act (1961), Dowry Prohibition established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini
Act (1961) and Equal Sabha in 1924 to highlight the
Remuneration Act (1958,1976). difficulties and grievances of the
 Dalits before the government, its  The nationalist movement arose to
motto was: 'Educate, Agitate and take up the challenge of these
Organise’. contradictions.
 The Constitution of free India has
made equality and non-
discrimination on basis of caste ➢ Political, Administrative and
imperative. Economic Unification of the Country

Beginning of Modern Nationalism in  The British rule in the Indian

India subcontinent extended from the
Himalayas in the north to the Cape
Factors in the Growth of Modern
Comorin in the south and from
Nationalism
Assam in the east to Khyber Pass in
 The rise and growth of Indian the west.
 While Indian provinces were under
nationalism have been traditionally
explained in terms of Indian response 'direct’ British rule, the princely
to the stimulus generated by the British states were under indirect’ British
Raj through the creation of new rule.
 The necessities of administrative
institutions, new opportunities,
resources, etc. In fact, it would be convenience, considerations of
more correct. military defense, and the urge for
 The worldwide upsurge of economic penetration and
the concepts of nationalism and the commercial exploitation (all in
right of self-determination initiated by British interests) were the driving
the French Revolution. forces behind the planned
 Indian Renaissance. development of modern means of
 An offshoot of modernization initiated transport and communication.
 This process of unification had a
by the British in India.
 Strong reaction to British imperialist two-fold effect:
policies in India. (a) The economic fate of the people
of different regions got linked
➢ Understanding of Contradictions together, for instance, the failure of
crops in one region affected the
in Indian and Colonial Interests
prices and supply in another region.
 Colonial rule was the major cause (b) Modern means of transport and
of India’s communication brought people,
economic backwardness and that especially the leaders, from different
the interests of the Indians involved regions together. This was important
the interests of all sections and for the exchange of political ideas
classes. and for mobilization and
organization of public opinion on
political and economic issues.
 ➢ Western Thought and Education ➢ Rise of Middle-Class
Intelligentsia
 The introduction of a modern system
of education afforded opportunities  According to Percival Spear, ''The
for assimilation of modern Western new middle class was a well-
ideas. integrated all-India class with the
 The liberal and radical thought of varied background but a common
European writers like Milton, foreground of knowledge, ideas, and
Shelley, John Stuart Mill, Rousseau, values It was a minority of Indian
Paine, Spencer, and Voltaire helped society, but a dynamic minority It
many Indians imbibe modern had a sense of unity of purpose and
rational, secular, democratic, and of hope.”
nationalist ideas.
➢ Impact of Contemporary
➢ Role of Press and Literature Movements in the World

 In 1877, there were about 169  The rise of a number of nations in

newspapers published particular deeply influenced the
in vernacular languages and their nationalist ranks.
circulation reached the neighborhood
of 1,00,000. ➢ Reactionary Policies and Racial
 The press while criticizing official Arrogance of Rulers
policies, on the one hand, urged the
people to unite, on the other.  Lytton’s reactionary policies such
as reduction of maximum age limit
➢ Rediscovery of India's Past for the I.C.S. examination from 21
years to 19 years 1 1876), the grand
 The historical researches by Delhi Durbar of 1877 when the
European scholars, such as Max country was in the severe grip of
Mueller, Monier Williams, Roth, and famine, the Vernacular Press Act
Sassoon, and by Indian scholars such (1878), and the Arms Act (1878)
as R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, and provoked a storm of opposition in
later Swami Vivekananda, created an
entirely new picture of India’s past. the country.
 Ripon had to modify the bill, thus
Max Mueller almost defeating the original
purpose, because of the stiff
➢ Progressive Character of Socio- opposition from the European
Religious Reform Movements community.

 These reform movements sought to

remove social evils that divided the Political Associations Before the
Indian society. Indian National Congress
 Through long petitions to the British  The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was
Parliament, most of them demanded: founded in 1870 by Mahadeo Govind
(a) Administrative reforms Ranade.
(b) An association of Indians with  The Bombay Presidency Association
the administration. was started by Badruddin Tyabji,
(c) The spread of education. Pherozshah Mehta, and K.T. Telang
in 1885.
➢ Political Associations in Bengal
➢ Political Associations in Madras
 The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha
was formed in 1836 by associates of  The Madras Mahajan Sabha was
Raja Rammohan Roy. founded in 1884 by M.
 The Zamindari Association, more Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya
popularly known as the 'Landholders' Aiyer, and P. Anandacharlu.
Society’, was founded to safeguard
the interests of the landlords. Pre-Congress Campaigns
 The Bengal British India Society was
founded in 1843 In 1851, both the  The associations organized various
Landholders’ Society and the Bengal campaigns before the Indian
British India Society merged into the National Congress appeared on the
British Indian Association. scene.
 The East India Association was  For the imposition of import duty
organized by Dadabhai Naoroji in on cotton (1875).
1866 in London  For Indianisation of government
 The Indian League was started in service (1878-79).
1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh  Against Lytton’s Afghan adventure.
 The Indian Association of  Against Arms Act (1878).
Calcutta (also known as the Indian  Against Vernacular Press Act
National Association) superseded the (1878).
Indian League and was founded in  For the right to join volunteer corps.
1876 by younger nationalists of  Against plantation labour and against
Bengal led by Surendranath Banerjea Inland Emigration Act.
and Ananda Mohan Bose It protested  In support of Ilbert Bill.
against the reduction of the age limit  For an All India Fund for Political
1877 for candidates of the Indian Agitation.
Civil Service examination.
 The association sponsored an all- The Foundation & the Moderate
India conference which first took Phase of the
place in Calcutta on December 28 to ➢ Foundation of Indian National
30, 1883. It later merged with the
Congress
Indian National Congress in 1886.  The final shape to the establishment
of an all-India organisation idea was
➢ Political Associations in Bombay
 given by A.O. Hume, who organised  found a democratic, nationalist
the first session of the Indian movement;
National Congress at Gokuldas  politicize and politically educate
Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay people;
in December 1885.  establish the headquarters for a
 Two sessions of the Indian National movement;
Conference had been held in 1883  promote friendly relations among
and 1885, Surendranath Banerjee nationalist political workers from
and Ananda Mohan Bose were the different parts of the country;
main architects of the Indian  develop and propagate an anti-
National Conference. colonial nationalist ideology;
 The first session of the Indian  formulate and present popular
National Congress was attended by demands before the government with
72 delegates and presided over by a view to unifying the people over a
Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. common economic and political
 Kadambini Ganguly, the first programme;
woman graduate of Calcutta  Develop and consolidate a feeling of
University, addressed the Congress national unity among people
session. irrespective of religion, caste or
province.
➢ Was It a Safety Valve?  Carefully promote and nurture Indian
 Hume formed the Congress with the idea nationhood.
that it would prove to be a safety valve’
for releasing the growing discontent of ➢ The era of Moderates (1885-1905)
the Indians.  The national leaders like Dadabhai
 Even the Marxist historian’s 'conspiracy Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E.
theory’ was an offspring of the "safety Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, S.N.
valve’ notion. Banerjea
 R.P. Dutt opined that the Indian National
Congress was born out of a conspiracy to ➢ Moderate Approach
abort a popular uprising in India and the  They worked on a two-pronged
bourgeois leaders were a party to it. methodology—one, create a strong
 Bipan Chandra observes, the early public opinion to arouse
Congress leaders used Hume as a consciousness and national spirit and
"lightning conductor to bring together then educate and unite people on
the nationalistic forces even if under the common political questions; and
guise of a "safety valve’. two, persuade the British
Government and British public
➢ Aims and Objectives of the opinion to introduce reforms in India
Congress-The main aims of the on the lines laid out by the
Indian National Congress in the nationalists.
initial stage were to—  A British committee of the Indian
National Congress was established in
 London in 1899 which had India as  Criticism of an aggressive foreign
its organ. policy which resulted in the
annexation of Burma, attack on
➢ Contributions of Moderate Afghanistan and suppression of
Nationalists tribals in the North-West—all
 The early nationalists, led by costing heavily for the Indian
Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, treasury.
Dinshaw Wacha and others,  Call for increase in expenditure on
carefully analysed the political welfare (i.e., health, sanitation),
economy of British rule in India and education— especially elementary
put forward the “drain theory" to and technical—irrigation works and
explain British exploitation of India. improvement of agriculture,
 They opposed the transformation of agricultural banks for cultivators,
a basically self-sufficient Indian etc.
economy into a colonial economy.  Demand for better treatment for
Indian labour abroad in other British
➢ Constitutional Reforms and colonies, where they faced
Propaganda in Legislature-From oppression and racial discrimination.
1885 to 1892, the nationalist  Protection of Civil Rights- Through
demands for constitutional reforms an incessant campaign, the
were centered around— nationalists were able to spread
modern democratic ideas, and soon
 Expansion of councils—i.e., greater the defence of civil rights became an
participation of Indians in integral part of the freedom struggle.
councils; and
 Reform of councils—i.e., more ➢ An Evaluation of the Early
powers to councils, especially Nationalists
greater control over finances. They
gave the slogan—“No taxation  They represented the most
without representation". progressive forces of the time.
 They were able to create a wide
➢ Campaign for General national awakening of all Indians
Administrative Reforms-The having common interests and the
Moderates campaigned on the need to rally around a common
following grounds - programme against a common
enemy, and above all, the feeling of
 Indianisation of government service belonging to one nation.
 Call for separation of judicial from  They trained people in political
executive functions. work and popularized modern
 Criticism of an oppressive and ideas.
tyrannical bureaucracy and an  They exposed the basically
expensive and time-consuming exploitative character of colonial
judicial system.
 rule, thus undermining its moral Growth of Militant Nationalism
foundations. A radical trend of a militant nationalist
 Their political work was based on approach to political activity started
hard realities, and not on shallow emerging in the 1890s and it took a
sentiments, religion, etc. concrete shape by 1905. As an adjunct to
 They were able to establish the basic this trend, a revolutionary wing also took
political truth that India should be shape
ruled in the interest of Indians. ➢ Recognition of the True Nature of
 They created a solid base for a British Rule
more vigorous, militant, mass-
based national movement in the  1892: The Indian Councils Act was
years that followed. criticized by nationalists as it failed
 They failed to widen their to satisfy them.
democratic base and the scope of  1897: The Natu brothers were
their demands. deported without trial and Tilak and
others, imprisoned on charges of
➢ Role of Masses sedition.
 1898: Repressive laws under IPC
 The moderate phase of the national Section 124 A were further amplified
movement had a narrow social base with new provisions under IPC
and the masses played a passive role. Section 156 A
This was because the early  1899: The number of Indian
nationalists lacked political faith in members in Calcutta Corporation
the masses; they felt that there were was reduced.
numerous divisions and subdivisions  1904: Official Secrets Act curbed
in the Indian society, and the masses freedom of the press.
were generally ignorant and had  1904: Indian Universities Act
conservative ideas and thoughts. ensured greater government control
over universities
➢ The attitude of the Government ➢ Growth of Confidence and Self-
Respect
 The government resorted to open  There was a growing faith in self-
condemnation of the Congress, effort.
calling the nationalists “seditious  Tilak, Aurobindo, and Bipin
brahmins", “disloyal babus", etc. Chandra Pal repeatedly urged the
Dufferin called the Congress “a nationalists to rely on the character
factory of sedition". Later, the and capacities of the Indian
government adopted a "divide and
rule' policy. people. Sri Aurobindo
 A feeling started gaining currency that
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905- the masses had to be involved in the
1909) - battle against the colonial government
as they were capable of making the
 immense sacrifices needed to win forceful and articulate arguments,
freedom. painting India’s past in brighter colors
than the British ideologues had.
➢ Growth of Education
➢ Dissatisfaction with Achievements
 While, on the one hand, the spread of of Moderates
education led to increased awareness
among the masses, on the other hand,  The younger elements within
the rise in unemployment and the Congress were dissatisfied with
underemployment among the educated the achievements of the Moderates
drew attention to poverty and the during 1906-1916.
underdeveloped state of the country’s  They were strongly critical of the
economy under colonial rule. methods of peaceful and constitutional
agitation, popularly known as the
➢ International Influences “Three P’s”—prayer, petition, and
protest—and described these methods
 The remarkable progress made by as "political mendicancy’.
Japan after 1868 and its emergence as
an industrial power opened the eyes of ➢ Reactionary Policies of Curzon
Indians to the fact that economic
progress was possible even in an Asian  A sharp reaction was created in the
country without any external help. Indian mind by Curzon’s seven-year
 The defeat of the Italian army rule in India which was full of
by Ethiopians (1896), the Boer wars missions, commissions, and
(1899 -1902) where the British faced omissions.
reverses and Japan’s victory over  He refused to recognize India as a
Russia ( 1905) demolished myths of nation, and insulted Indian nationalists
European invincibility. and the intelligentsia by describing
their activities as "letting off of gas”.
➢ Reaction to Increasing He spoke derogatory ily of Indian
Westernisation character in general.

 The new leadership felt the ➢ Existence of a Militant School of

stranglehold of excessive Thought
westernization and sensed colonial
designs to submerge the Indian  Hatred for foreign rule; since no hope
national identity in the British Empire. could be derived from it, Indians
The intellectual and moral inspiration should work out their own salvation;
of the new leadership was Indian.  swaraj to be the goal of national
 Intellectuals like Swami Vivekananda, movement;
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and  direct political action required; belief
Swami Dayananda Saraswati inspired incapacity of the masses to challenge
many young nationalists with their the authority.
 personal sacrifices required and a true  The methods adopted were petitions
nationalist to be always ready for it to the government, public meetings,
memoranda, and propaganda through
➢ The Emergence of a Trained pamphlets and newspapers such
Leadership as Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and
Bengalee.
 The new leadership could provide  Their objective was to exert
proper channelization of the immense sufficient pressure on the
potential for the political struggle government through an educated
which the masses possessed and, as the public opinion in India and England
militant nationalists thought, we're to prevent the unjust partition of
ready to give expression to. Bengal from being implemented.
 This energy of the masses got a release  The government announced the
during the movement against the partition of Bengal in July 1905. On
partition of Bengal, which acquired the August 7, 1905, with the passage of
form of the swadeshi agitation. the Boycott Resolution in a massive
meeting held in the Calcutta
The Swadeshi and Boycott Townhall, the formal proclamation
Movement of the Swadeshi Movement was
The Swadeshi Movement had its genesis made.
in the anti-partition movement which  October 16, 1905, the day the
was started to oppose the British decision partition formally came into force,
to partition Bengal. was observed as a day of mourning
➢ Partition of Bengal to Divide throughout Bengal. 'Amar Sonar
People Bangla', the national anthem of
present-day Bangladesh, was
 The British government’s decision composed by Rabindranath Tagore
to partition Bengal had been made
➢ The Congress’s Position
public in December 1903.
 The idea was to have two provinces:  The Indian National Congress,
Bengal comprising Western Bengal meeting in 1905 under the
as well as the provinces of Bihar and presidentship of Gokhale, resolved to
Orissa, and Eastern Bengal and (i) condemn the partition of Bengal
Assam. and the reactionary policies of
 Bengal retained Calcutta as its Curzon, and (ii) support the anti-
capital, while Dacca became the partition and Swadeshi Movement of
capital of Eastern Bengal. Bengal.
 A big step forward was taken at the
➢ Anti-Partition Campaign Under Congress session held at Calcutta
Moderates (1903-05) (1906) under the presidentship
of Dadabhai Naoroji, where it was
declared that the goal of the Indian
 National Congress was “self-
government or Swaraj. inspired the local masses.
Ashwini Kumar Dutta
➢ The Movement under Extremist  Imaginative use of Traditional
Leadership Popular Festivals and Melas.
 Emphasis is given to Self-Reliance.
 There were three reasons for this:  Program of Swadeshi or National
 The Moderate-led movement had Education-Bengal National College,
failed to yield results. inspired by Tagore's Shantiniketan,
 The divisive tactics of the was set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as
governments of both the Bengals had its principal. On August 15, 1906,
embittered the nationalists. the National Council of Education
 The government had resorted to was set up to organize a system of
suppressive measures, education— literary, scientific and
 The Extremist Programme technical—on national lines and
Extremists gave a call for passive under national control.
resistance in addition to swadeshi  Swadeshi or Indigenous
and boycott The purpose, as Enterprises V.O. Chidambaram
Aurobindo put it, was to “make the Pillai s venture into a national
administration under present shipbuilding enterprise—Swadeshi
conditions impossible by an Steam Navigation Company—at
organized refusal to do anything Tuticorin
which will help either the British  Impact in the Cultural Sphere In
commerce in the exploitation of Tamil Nadu, Subramania Bharati
the country or British officialdom wrote Sudesha Geetham. In painting,
in the administration of it”. 'Political Abanindranath Tagore broke the
freedom is the life-breath of a domination of Victorian naturalism
nation,” declared Aurobindo. over the Indian art scene and took
inspiration from Ajanta, Mughal, and
➢ New Forms of Struggle Rajput paintings. Nandalal Bose,
who left a major imprint on Indian
 Boycott of Foreign Goods, Public art, was the first recipient of a
Meetings, and Processions. scholarship offered by the Indian
 Corps of Volunteers or 'Samitis'- Society of Oriental Art, founded in
Samitis such as the Swadesh 1907.
Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar
Dutta (in Barisal) emerged as a very ➢ The Extent of Mass Participation
popular and powerful means of mass
mobilization. In Tirunelveli, Tamil  Student participation was visible in
Nadu, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, Bengal, Maharashtra, especially in
Subramania Siva, and some lawyers Poona, and in many parts of the
formed the Swadeshi Sangam which South—Guntur, Madras, Salem.
  Women play a significant role in the associated with Gandhian politics—
national movement. noncooperation, passive resistance,
 The nature of the Swadeshi filling of British jails, social reform,
Movement, with leaders evoking and constructive work—but failed to
Hindu festivals and goddesses for give these techniques a disciplined
inspiration, tended to exclude the focus.
Muslims. In September 1905, more  The movement was rendered
than 250 Bengali clerks of the Burn leaderless with most of the leaders
Company, Howrah, walked out in either arrested or deported by 1908
protest against a derogatory work and with Aurobindo Ghosh and
Bipin Chandra Pal retiring from
regulation. Swadeshi Movement active politics.
 In July 1906, a strike of workers in  Internal squabbles among leaders,
the East Indian Railway resulted in magnified by the Surat split (1907),
the formation of a Railwaymen’s did much harm to the movement.
Union.  The movement aroused the people
 Between 1906 and 1908, strikes in but did not know how to tap the
the jute mills were very frequent, newly released energy or how to find
Subramania Siva and Chidambaram new forms to give expression to
Pillai led strikes in Tuticorin and popular resentment. The movement
Tirunelveli in a foreign-owned largely remained confined to the
cotton mill. In Rawalpindi (Punjab), upper and middle classes and
the arsenal and railway workers went zamindars and failed to reach the
on strike masses—especially the peasantry.
 All India Aspect Movements in  Non-cooperation and passive
support of Bengal's unity and the resistance remained mere ideas.
swadeshi and boycott agitation were  It is difficult to sustain a mass-based
organized in many parts of the movement at a high pitch for too
country. long.

➢ Annulment of Partition ➢ Movement a Turning Point

 The annulment came as a rude shock to  It proved to be a “leap forward" in

the Muslim political elite. It was also more ways than one. Hitherto
decided to shift the capital to Delhi untouched sections— students,
women, workers, some sections of
➢ Evaluation of the Swadeshi the urban and rural population—
Movement participated.
 All the major trends of the national
 The movement failed to create an movement, from conservative
effective organization or a party moderation to political extremism,
structure. It threw up an entire gamut from revolutionary activities to
of techniques that later came to be incipient socialism, from petitions
 and prayers to passive resistance and of Bengal and the reactionary
non-cooperation, emerged during the policies of Curzon and supporting
Swadeshi Movement. the swadeshi and boycott program in
 The richness of the movement was Bengal was passed.
not confined to the political sphere  The Calcutta session of the Congress
but encompassed art, literature, in December 1906
science, and industry also.  Moderates wanted to restrict
 People were aroused from slumber the Boycott Movement to Bengal
and now they learned to take bold and to a boycott of foreign cloth and
political positions and participate in liquor. Extremists wanted to take the
new forms of political work. movement to all parts of the country
 The swadeshi campaign undermined and include within its ambit all
the hegemony of colonial ideas and forms of association
institutions.
 The future struggle was to draw ➢ Split Takes Place
heavily from the experience gained.
 The split became inevitable, and the
➢ Moderate Methods Give Way to Congress was now dominated by the
Extremist Modes Moderates who lost no time in
reiterating Congress’ commitment to
 Moderates had outlived their utility the goal of self-government within
and their politics of petitions and the British Empire and to the use of
speeches had become obsolete. constitutional methods only to
 Their failure to get the support of the achieve this goal.
younger generation for their style of
politics. ➢ Government Repression
 Their failure to work among the
masses had meant that their ideas did  The Seditious Meetings Act,
not take root among the masses. 1907; Indian
 The Extremist ideology and its Newspapers (Incitement to
functioning also lacked consistency. Offences) Act, 1908;
Its advocates ranged from open  Criminal Law Amendment
members and secret sympathizers to Act, 1908; and The Indian Press Act,
those opposed to any kind of 1910.
political violence.  Tilak, the main Extremist leader, was
tried in 1909 for sedition for what he
➢ Run-up to Surat had written in
 1908 in his Kesari about a bomb was
 In December 1905, at the Benaras thrown by Bengal revolutionaries
session of the Indian National in Muzaffarpur 107.
Congress presided over by Gokhale.  On 30 April 1908, Khudiram Bose
 A relatively mild resolution threw a bomb on a carriage at
condemning the partition Muzzafarpur, to kill the Chief
 Presidency Magistrate Douglas
Kingsford. ➢ Morley-Minto Reforms—1909
 Khudiram Bose Indian Minto at left and Morley at right
revolutionary who opposed British
rule of India.  In October 1906, a group of Muslim
(i) He was sentenced to death at elites called the Simla Deputation,
the age of 19 making him one of led by the Agha Khan, met Lord
the youngest revolutionaries in Minto and demanded separate
India. electorates for the Muslims.
(ii) Khudiram was hanged on 11  The same group quickly took over
August 1908. the Muslim League, initially floated
 The first attempt to kill Kingsford by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca along
was in the form of a book bomb with Nawabs Mohsin-ul-
constructed by Hemchandra. Mulk and Waqar-ul- Mulk in
 Indian revolutionary Prafulla December 1906.
Chandra Chaki also associated
with the Muzzafarpur bomb case ➢ The Reforms
along with Khudiram Bose.
 The Morley- Minto (or Minto-
➢ The Government Strategy Morley) Reforms translated into the
Indian Councils Act of 1909.
 In the government’s view, the  The elective principle was
Moderates still represented an anti- recognized for the nonofficial
imperialist force consisting of membership of the councils in India.
basically patriotic and liberal Indians were allowed to participate
intellectuals.. in the election of various legislative
 The policy was to be of Tallying councils, though on the basis of class
them’ (John Morley— the secretary and community.
of state) or the policy of 'carrot and  For the first time, separate
stick’. electorates for Muslims for election
 It may be described as a three- to the central council was
pronged approach of repression established—a most detrimental step
conciliation- suppression. for India.
 In the first stage, the Extremists were  The number of elected members in
to be repressed mildly the Imperial Legislative Council and
 In the second stage, the Moderates the Provincial Legislative Councils
were to be placated through some was increased. In the provincial
concessions councils, a non-official majority was
 The Surat split suggested that the introduced, but since some of these
policy of carrot and stick had non-officials were nominated and not
brought rich dividends to the British elected, the overall non-elected
Indian government. majority remained.
 According to Sumit Sarkar, in the  Lord Morley said, “If it could be
Imperial Legislative Council, of the said that this chapter of reforms led
total 69 members, 37 were to be the directly or indirectly to the
officials and of the 32 non-officials, establishment of a parliamentary
5 were to be nominated. Of system in India, I, for one, would
the 27 elected non-officials, 8 have nothing at all to do with it.”
seats were reserved for the Muslims  The system of election was too
under separate electorates (only indirect and it gave the impression of
Muslims could vote here for the “infiltration of legislators through
Muslim candidates), while 4 a number of sieves".
seats were reserved for the British  What the reforms of 1909 gave to the
capitalists, 2 for the landlords, people of the country was a shadow
and 13 seats came under the general rather than substance.
electorate.  The people had demanded self-
 The elected members were to be government but what they were
indirectly elected. The local bodies given was ''benevolent despotism''.
were to elect an electoral college,
which in turn would elect members …………………………………………
of provincial legislatures, who in ……….
turn would elect members of the
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities
central legislature.
(1907-1917)
 Besides separate electorates for the
Muslims, representation in excess of Why the Surge of Revolutionary
the strength of their population was Activities
according to the Muslims. Also, the
income qualification for Muslim  The first phase acquired a more
voters was kept lower than that for activist form as a fallout of the
Hindus. Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
 Powers of legislatures—both at the and continued till 1917. The second
center and in provinces—were phase started as a fallout of the Non-
enlarged and the legislatures could
now pass resolutions (which may or Cooperation Movement.
may not be accepted), ask questions  After the decline of the open
and supplementary, vote separate movement, the younger nationalists
items in the budget through the who had participated in the
budget as a whole could not be voted movement found it impossible to
upon. leave off and disappear into
 One Indian was to be appointed to the background.
the viceroy’s executive council  They looked for avenues to give
(Satyendra Sinha was the first Indian expression to their patriotic energies
to be appointed in 1909). but were disillusioned by the failure
of the leadership, even the
➢ Evaluation Extremists, to find new forms of
 struggle to bring into practice the Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others.)
new militant trends.
 The Extremist leaders, although they Barindra Kumar Ghosh
called upon the youth to make  In April 1906, an inner circle
sacrifices, failed to create an within Anushilan (Barindra Kumar
effective organisation or find new Ghosh, Bhupendranath Dutta) started
forms of political work to tap these the weekly Yugantar and conducted
revolutionary energies. a few abortive 'actions’.
 After severe police brutalities on
participants of the Barisal
The Revolutionary Programme Conference (April 1906), the
Yugantar wrote: "The remedy lies
 The revolutionaries considered but with the people. The 30 crore people
did not find it practical at that stage inhabiting India must raise their 60
to implement, the options of creating crore hands to stop this curse of
a violent mass revolution throughout oppression. Force must be stopped
the country or of trying to subvert by force.”
the loyalties of the Army.  Rashbehari Bose and Sachin
 Instead, they opted to follow in the Sanyal had organised secret society
footsteps of Russian nihilists or the covering far-flung areas
Irish nationalists. This methodology of Punjab, Delhi and United
involved individual heroic actions, Provinces while some others like
such as organising assassinations of Hemachandra Kanungo went abroad
unpopular officials and of traitors for military and political training.
and informers among the  In 1907, an abortive attempt was
revolutionaries themselves, made by the Yugantar group on the
conducting swadeshi dacoities to life of a very unpopular British
raise funds for revolutionary official, Sir Fuller (the first Lt.
activities, and (during the First Governor of the new province of
World War) organising military Eastern Bengal and Assam).
conspiracies with the expectation of  In December 1907, there were
help from the enemies of Britain. attempts to derail the train on which
the lieutenant- governor, Sri Andrew
Fraser.
A Survey of Revolutionary Activities  In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and
➢ Bengal Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a
carnage. The whole Anushilan group
 First revolutionary groups was arrested including the Ghosh
were organised in 1902 in brothers, Aurobindo and Barindra,
Midnapore (under Jnanendranath who were tried in the Alipore
Basu) and in Calcutta (the Anushilan conspiracy case, variously
Samiti founded by Promotha Mitter, called Manicktolla
and including Jatindranath Banerjee,
 bomb conspiracy or Muraripukur 1904. SoonNasik, Poona and
conspiracy. Bombay emerged as centres of bomb
 In February 1909, the public manufacture.
prosecutor was shot dead in Calcutta
and in February 1910, a deputy ➢ Punjab
superintendent of police met the
same fate while leaving the Calcutta  Lala Lajpat Rai who brought out
High Court. Punjabi (with its motto of self-help
 In 1908, Barrah dacoity was at any cost) and Ajit Singh (Bhagat
organised by Dacca Anushilan under Singh's uncle) who organised the
Pulin Das to raise funds for extremist Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-
revolutionary activities. Watan in Lahore with its
 Jatin Mukherjee was shot and died
a hero's death in Balasore on the journal, Bharat Mata. Lala
Orissa coast in September 1915. Lajpat Rai
“We shall die to awaken the nation ",
was the call of Bagha Jatin. ➢ Revolutionary Activities Abroad
 Newspapers and journals advocating
revolutionary activity included  Shyamji Krishnavarma had started
Sandhya and Yugantar in Bengal in London in 1905 an Indian Home
and Kal in Maharashtra. Rule Society— "India House’—as a
centre for Indian students, a
➢ Maharashtra scholarship scheme to bring radical
youth from India, and a journal The
 First of the revolutionary activities Indian Sociologist.
in Maharashtra was the  Madanlal Dhingra from this circle
organisation of the Ramos Peasant assassinated the India office
Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke. bureaucrat Curzon- Wyllie in 1909.
New centres emerged on the
Vasudev Balwant Phadke continent—Paris and Geneva.
 In 1879 Tilak propagated a spirit of  The Ghadar
militant nationalism, including use  Ghadar Party was a revolutionary
of violence, through Ganapati and group organised around a weekly
Shivaji festivals and his journals newspaper. The Ghadar with its
Kesari and Mahratta. Two of his headquarters at San Francisco and
disciples—the Chapekar brothers, branches along the US coast and in
Damodar and Balkrishna—murdered
the Plague Commissioner of Poona, the Far East.
Rand, and one Lt. Ayerst in 1897.  These revolutionaries included
 Savarkar and his brother organised mainly ex-soldiers and peasants
Mitra Mela, a secret society, in 1899 who had migrated from Punjab to
which merged with Abhinav Bharat the USA and Canada in search of
(after Mazzini's Young Italy') in better employment opportunities.
 To carry out revolutionary nationalism with a completely
activities, the earlier activists had secular approach.
set up a 'Swadesh Sevak Home’ at
Vancouver and 'United India ➢ Revolutionaries in Europe
House' at Seattle. Finally, in 1913,
the Ghadr was established.  Berlin Committee for Indian
 Their plans were encouraged by Independence was established
two events in 1914— the in 1915 by Virendranath
Komagata Maru incident and the Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath
outbreak of the First World War. Dutta, Lala Hardayal and others
 Komagata Maru Incident and the with the help of the German foreign
Ghadr Komagata Maru was the
name of a ship which was office under 'Zimmerman Plan’.
carrying 370 passengers,  Indian revolutionaries in Europe sent
mainly Sikh and Punjabi missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey
Muslim would-be immigrants, and Kabul to work among Indian
from Singapore to Vancouver. troops and the Indian prisoners of
 The ship finally anchored at war (POWs) and to incite anti-
Calcutta in September 1914. The British feelings among the people of
inmates refused to board the these countries.
Punjab bound train. In the ensuing  One mission under Raja Mahendra
conflict with the police at Budge Pratap Singh, Barkatullah and
Budge near Calcutta, 22 persons Obaidullah Sindhi went to Kabul to
died. organise a 'provisional Indian
 Ghadrites fixed February government' there with the help of
21, 1915, as the date for an armed the crown prince, Amanullah.
revolt
in Ferozepur, Lahore and Rawal ➢ Mutiny in Singapore
pindi garrisons. The authorities
took immediate action, aided by  Most notable was in Singapore on
the Defence of India Rules, 1915. February 15, 1915, by Punjabi
 British met the wartime threat with Muslim 5th Light Infantry and the
a formidable battery of repressive 36th Sikh battalion under Jamadar
measures— the most Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani
intensive since 1857—and above
all by the Defence of India Act and Subedar Daud Khan. Mutiny
passed in March 1915 primarily to in Singapore
 It was crushed after a fierce battle in
smash the Ghadr movement.
 Evaluation of Ghadr The which many were killed.
achievement of the Ghadr
movement lay in the realm of ➢ Decline
ideology. It preached militant
  There was a temporary respite in  Two Indian Home Rule Leagues were
revolutionary activity after the First organized on the lines of the Irish
World War because the release of Home Rule Leagues and they
prisoners held under the Defence of represented the emergence of a new
India Rules cooled down passions a trend of aggressive politics.
bit, there was an atmosphere of  Annie Besant and Tilak were the
conciliation after Montagu’s August
1917 statement. pioneers of this new trend. Annie
Besant
…………………………………………  Factors leading to the Movement
……… Some of the factors leading to the
formation of the home rule movement
First World War & Nationalist were as follows:
Response
(i) A section of the nationalists felt that
 Nationalist response to British popular pressure was required to attain
participation in the First World War concessions from the government.
was three-fold: (ii) Moderates were disillusioned with
the Morley- Minto reforms.
(i) Moderates supported the empire in (iii) People were feeling the burden of
the war as a matter of duty. wartime miseries caused by high taxation
(ii) Extremists, including Tilak (who and a rise in prices and were ready to
was released in June 1914), supported participate in any aggressive
the war efforts in the mistaken belief movement of protest.
that Britain would repay India's loyalty (iv) The war, being fought among the
with gratitude in the form of self- major imperialist powers of the day and
government. backed by naked propaganda against
(iii) Revolutionaries decided to utilize each other, exposed the myth of
the opportunity to wage a war white superiority.
on British rule and liberate the (v) Tilak was ready to assume leadership
country. after his release in June 1914 and had
made conciliatory gestures—to the
 The revolutionary activity was carried
government reassuring it of his loyalty
out through the Ghadr Party in North
and to the Moderates that he wanted, like
America, Berlin Committee in
the Irish Home Rulers, a reform of the
Europe, and some scattered mutinies
administration and not an overthrow of
by Indian soldiers, such as the one
the government. He also admitted that
in Singapore.
the acts of violence had only served to
retard the pace of political progress in
India. He urged all Indians to assist the
Home Rule League Movement
British government in its hour of crisis.
(vi) Annie Besant, the Irish theosophist
based in India since 1896, had decided
 to enlarge the sphere of her activities to Tej Bahadur Sapru, and Lala Lajpat
include the building of a movement for Rai.
home rule on the lines of the Irish Home
Rule Leagues. ➢ Government Attitude

➢ The Leagues  Tilak was barred from entering

the Punjab and Delhi. In June
 By early 1915, Annie Besant had 1917, Annie Besant and her
launched a campaign to demand self- associates, B.P. Wadia and George
government for India after the war Arundale were arrested.
on the lines of white colonies. She  Montagu, the Secretary of State for
campaigned through her newspapers, India, commented that “Shiva ...cut
New India and Commonweal, and his wife into fifty-two pieces only to
through public meetings and discover that he had fifty-two wives.
conferences. This is what happens to the
 Tilak's League-Tilak set up his Government of India when it
Home Rule League in April 1916 interns Mrs. Besant.”
and it was restricted to Maharashtra
(excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, ➢ Why the Agitation Faded Out by
Central Provinces, and Berar. 1919
 Besant's League-Annie Besant set
up her league in September 1916 in  There was a lack of an effective
Madras and covered the rest of India organization.
(including Bombay city). It had 200  Communal riots were witnessed
branches during 1917-18.
 Moderates who had joined the
➢ The Home Rule League Congress after Annie Besant's arrest
Programme were pacified by talk of reforms and
Besant's release.
 League campaign aimed to convey to  Talk of passive resistance by the
the common man the message of Extremists kept the Moderates away
home rule as self-government. The from an activity from September
Russian Revolution of 1917 1918 onwards.
proved to be an added advantage for  Montagu-Chelmsford reforms which
became known in July 1918 further
the Home Rule campaign. Indian
divided the nationalist ranks.
Home Rule Movement
 Tilak had to go abroad (September
 Home Rule agitation was later
1918) in connection with a case
joined by Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal
while Annie Besant vacillated over
Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai,
her response to the reforms and the
Chittaranjan Das, Madan Mohan
techniques of passive resistance.
Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah,
➢ Positive Gains
  The movement shifted the emphasis Extremists realized that the split had
from the educated elite to the masses led to political inactivity.
and permanently deflected the (c) Annie Besant and Tilak had made
movement from the course mapped vigorous efforts for the reunion.
by the Moderates. (d) Death of two Moderates, Gokhale
 It created an organizational link and Pherozshah Mehta, who had led
between the town and the country, the Moderate opposition to the
which was to prove crucial in later Extremists, facilitated the reunion.
years when the national movement
entered its mass phase in a true 2. Lucknow Pact between Congress
sense. and Muslim League
 It created a generation of ardent
nationalists.
 It prepared the masses for politics of  Development to take place at
the Gandhian style. Lucknow was the coming together of
 August 1917 declaration of Montagu the Muslim League and the Congress
and the Montford reforms were and the presentation of common
influenced by the Home Rule demands by them to the government.
agitation.
 Efforts of Tilak and Annie Besant
towards the Mo derate-Extremist
➢ Why the Change in the League’s
reunion at Lucknow (1916) revived
Altitude
the Congress as an effective
instrument of Indian nationalism.
 Britain's refusal to help Turkey in its
 The home rule movement lent a new
wars in the Balkans (1912-13) and with
dimension and a sense of urgency to
Italy (during 1911) had angered the
the national movement.
Muslims.
 Annulment of the partition of Bengal
in 1911 had annoyed those sections of
Lucknow Session of the Indian
the Muslims who had supported the
National Congress (1916)
partition.
 Refusal of the British government in
1. Readmission of Extremists to
India to set up a university at Aligarh
Congress
with powers to affiliate colleges all
over India also alienated some
 Lucknow session of the Indian Muslims.
 Younger League members were turning
National Congress presided over by a
Moderate, Ambika Charan Majumdar. to bolder nationalist politics and were
Various factors facilitated this reunion: trying to outgrow the limited political
(a) Old controversies had become outlook of the Aligarh school. The
meaningless now. Calcutta session of the Muslim League
(b) Both the Moderates and the (1912) had committed the League to
 “working with other groups for a  Lucknow Pact demands were thus
system of self-government suited to just a significantly expanded version
India, provided it did not come in of the Morley-Minto reforms. This
conflict with its basic objective of was a major landmark in the
protection of interests of the Indian evolution of the two-nation theory by
Muslims”. Thus, the goal of self- the Muslim League.
government similar to that of Congress  The government decided to placate
brought both sides closer. the nationalists by declaring its
 Younger Muslims were infuriated by intention to grant self-government to
the government repression during Indians in times to come, as
the First World War. Maulana contained in Montagu’s August
Azad’s A1 Hilal and Mohammad Airs 1917 declaration.
Comrade faced suppression while the
leaders such as the Ali brothers,
Maulana Azad and Hasrat Mohani Montagu’s Statement of August 1917
faced internment. This generated anti-
imperialist sentiments among the
'Young Party'.  Secretary of State for India, Edwin
Samuel Montagu, made a statement
➢ The Nature of the Pact- on August 20, 1917, in the British
The joint demands was: House of Commons in what has
come to be known as the August
 The government should declare that it Declaration of 1917.
would confer self-government on  The statement said: “The
Indians at an early date. government policy is of an
 Representative assemblies at the increasing participation of Indians in
central as well as provincial-level every branch of administration and
should be further expanded with an gradual development of self-
elected majority and more powers governing institutions with a view to
given to them. The term of the the progressive realization of
legislative council should be five responsible government in India as
years. an integral part of the British
 Salaries of the Secretary of State for Empire.”
India should be paid by the British  Reforms were not intended to give
treasury and not drawn from Indian self-government to India.
funds.
 Half the members of the viceroy’s and ➢ Indian Objections
provincial governors’ executive Objections of the Indian leaders to
councils should be Indians. Montagu's statement were two-fold:

➢ Critical Comments  No specific time frame was given.

 The government alone was to decide
the nature and the timing of advance
 towards a responsible government, awareness of racism in the attitude of the
and the Indians were resentful that British.
the British. Expectations of Political Gains for
Cooperation in the War
………………………………………… After the war, there were high
……….. expectations of political gains from the
British government and this too
Emergence of Gandhi
contributed towards the charged
Towards the end of the First World War, atmosphere in the country.
various forces were at work in India and Nationalist Disillusionment with
on the international scene. After the end Imperialism Worldwide
of the war, there was a resurgence of The Paris Peace Conference and other
nationalist activity in India and in many peace treaties that the imperialist powers
other colonies in Asia and Africa. had no intention of loosening their hold
The Indian struggle against imperialism over the colonies; in fact they went on to
took a decisive turn towards a broad- divide the colonies of the vanquished
based popular struggle with the powers among themselves.
emergence of Mohandas Karamchand Impact of Russian Revolution
Gandhi on the Indian political scene. (7 November,1917)
Why Nationalist Resurgence Now -
After the war, the conditions in India  The Bolshevik Party of workers
and influences from abroad created a overthrew the Czarist regime and
situation that was ready for a national founded the first socialist state, the
upsurge against foreign rule. Soviet Union, under the leadership
Post-War Economic Hardships of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov or Lenin.
(i) Industry- First, an increase in prices,  The Soviet Union unilaterally
then a recession coupled with increased renounced the Czarist imperialist
foreign investment brought many rights in China and the rest of Asia,
industries to the brink of closure and gave rights of self determination to
loss. former Czarist colonies in Asia and
(ii) Workers and Artisans- This gave equal status to the Asian
section of the populace faced nationalities within its borders.
unemployment and bore the brunt of
high prices. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and
(iii) Peasantry- Faced with high Government of India Act, 1919
taxation and poverty, the peasants waited
for a lead to protest.  The carrot was represented by the
(iv) Soldiers- Soldiers who returned insubstantial Montagu-Chelmsford
from battlefields abroad gave an idea of Reforms, while measures such as the
their experience to the rural folk. Rowlatt Act represented the stick.
(v) Educated Urban Classes- This  In line with the government policy
section was facing unemployment as contained in Montagu's statement of
well as suffering from an acute August 1917, the government
 announced further constitutional the scope for their interference was
reforms in July 1918, known as restricted.
Montagu- Chelmsford or Montford
Reforms. Based on these, the II. Legislature
Government of India Act, 1919 was
enacted.  Provincial legislative councils were
further expanded and 70 per cent of
Main Features the members were to be elected.
Provincial Government—  The system of communal and class
Introduction of Dyarchy electorates was further consolidated.
I. Executive  Women were also given the right to
vote.
 Dyarchy, i.e., rule of two—executive  The legislative councils could
councillors and popular ministers— initiate legislation but the governor’s
was introduced. The governor was to assent was required. The governor
be the executive head in the could veto bills and issue ordinances.
province.  The legislative councils could reject
 Subjects were divided into two lists: the budget but the governor could
‘reserved' and ‘transferred' subjects. restore it, if necessary.
 The reserved subjects were to be  The legislators enjoyed freedom of
administered by the governor speech.
through his executive council of
bureaucrats, and the transferred Central Government—Still Without
subjects were to be administered by Responsible Government
ministers nominated from among the I. Executive
elected members of the legislative
council.  The governor-general was to be the
 The ministers were to be responsible chief executive authority.
to the legislature and had to resign if  There were to be two lists for
a no- confidence motion was passed administration— central and
against them by the legislature, while provincial.
the executive councillors were not to  In the viceroy’s executive council of
be responsible to the legislature. eight, three were to be Indians.The
 In case of failure of constitutional governor-general retained full
machinery in the province the control over the reserved subjects in
governor could take over the the provinces.
administration of transferred subjects  The governor-general could restore
also. cuts in grants, certify bills rejected
 The secretary of state for India and by the central legislature and issue
the governor general could interfere ordinances.
in respect of reserved subjects while
in respect of the transferred subjects, II. Legislature
 A bicameral arrangement was of two parts was irrational and,
introduced. The lower house or hence, unworkable. Subjects like
Central Legislative Assembly would irrigation, finance, police, press and
consist of 145 members and the justice were 'reserved’.
upper house or Council of State  The provincial ministers had no
would have 60 members. control over finances and over the
 The Council of State had a tenure of bureaucrats; this would lead to
5 years and had only male members, constant friction between the two.
while the Central Legislative Ministers were often not consulted
Assembly had a tenure of 3 years. on important matters too; in fact,
 The legislators could ask questions they could be overruled by the
and supplementaries, pass governor on any matter that the latter
adjournment motions and vote a part considered special.
of the budget, but 75 per cent of the
budget was still notvotable. Congress’s Reaction
 On the home government (in Britain)
front, the Government of India Act,  The Congress met in a special
1919 made an important change— session in August 1918 at Bombay
the Secretary of State for India was under Hasan Imam's presidency and
henceforth to be paid out of the declared the reforms to be
British exchequer. "disappointing" and “unsatisfactory”
 The Montford reforms were termed
Drawbacks “unworthy and disappointing—a
sunless dawn by Tilak, even as
 Franchise was very limited. The Annie Besant found them “unworthy
electorate was extended to some one- of England to offer and India to
and-a-half million for the central accept''
legislature, while the population of
India was around 260 million, as per Making of Gandhi
one estimate. Early Career and Experiments with
 At the centre, the legislature had no Truth in South Africa
control over the viceroy and his
executive council.  Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
 Division of subjects was not born on October 2, 1869 in
satisfactory at the centre. Porbandar in the princely state of
 Allocation of seats for central Kathiawar in Gujarat. After studying
legislature to the provinces was law in England, Gandhi went to South
based on importance of provinces— Africa on May 24, 1893. He stayed
for instance, Punjab’s military there till 1914 after which he
importance and Bombay’s returned to India.
commercial importance.  The Indians in South Africa
 At the level of provinces, division of consisted of three categories—one,
subjects and parallel administration the indentured Indian labour; two,
 the merchants; and three,the ex-  Gandhi found that the masses had
indentured labourers. immense capacity to participate in
 Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894- and sacrifice for a cause that moved
1906)-To unite different sections of them.
Indians, Gandhiset up the Natal  He was able to unite Indians
Indian Congress and started a paper belonging to different religions and
Indian Opinion. classes, and men and women alike
 Phase of Passive Resistance or under his leadership.
Satyagraha (1906-1914)-The second  He also came to realise that at times
phase, which began in 1906, was the leaders have to take decisions
characterized by the use of the unpopular with their enthusiastic
method of passive resistance or civil supporters.
disobedience, which Gandhi named  He was able to evolve his own style
satyagraha. of leadership and politics and new
 Satyagraha against Registration techniques of struggle on a limited
Certificates (1906)- Gandhi formed scale, untrammelled by the
the Passive Resistance Association opposition of contending political
to conduct the campaign of defying currents.
the law and suffering all the
penalties. Thus was born satyagraha Gandhi's Technique of Satyagraha -
or devotion to truth, the technique of Gandhi evolved the technique of
resisting adversaries without Satyagraha during his stay in South
violence. Africa. It was based on truth and non-
 Campaign against Restrictions on violence.
Indian Migration-The earlier
campaign was widened to include  A satyagrahi was not to submit to
protest against a new legislation what he considered as wrong, but
imposing restrictions on Indian was to always remain truthful, non-
migration. violent and fearless.
 Campaign against Poll Tax and  A satyagrahi works on the principles
Invalidation of Indian Marriages of withdrawal of cooperation and
 Protest against Transvaal boycott. Methods of satyagraha
Immigration Act-The Indians include non-payment of taxes, and
protested the Transvaal Immigration declining honours and positions of
Act, by illegally migrating from authority.
Natal into Transvaal. Even the  A satyagrahi should be ready to
viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned accept suffering in his struggle
the repression and called for an against the wrongdoer. This
impartial enquiry. suffering was to be a part of his love
 Compromise Solution for truth.
 While carrying out his struggle
Gandhi's Experience in South Africa against the wrong-doer, a true
satyagrahi would have no ill feeling
 for the wrong-doer; hatred would be  As a compromise with the planters,
alien to his nature. he agreed that only 25 per cent of the
 A true satyagrahi would never bow money taken should be compensated.
before the evil, whatever the
consequence. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—
 Only the brave and strong could First Hunger Strike
practise satyagraha;
 In March 1918, Gandhi intervened in
Gandhi in India- Gandhi returned to a dispute between cotton mill owners
India in January 1915. During 1917 and of Ahmedabad and the workers over
1918, Gandhi was involved in three the issue of discontinuation of the
struggles—in Champaran, Ahmedabad plague bonus.
and Kheda—before he launched the  The workers of the mill turned to
Rowlatt Satyagraha. Anusuya Sarabhai for help in
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)— fighting for justice. Anusuya
First Civil Disobedience Sarabhai was a social worker who
was also the sister of Ambalal
 The European planters had been Sarabhai, one of the mill owners and
forcing the peasants to grow indigo the president of the Ahmedabad Mill
on 3/20 part of the total land (called Owners Association (founded in
tinkathia system). The peasants were 1891 to develop the textile industry
forced to sell the produce at prices in Ahmedabad).
fixed by the Europeans.  Gandhi asked the workers to go on a
 When Gandhi, joined now by strike and demand a 35 per cent
Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul- Haq, increase in wages instead of 50 per
Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, and cent.
 J.B. Kripalani, reached Champaran
to probe into the matter, the Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First
authorities ordered him to leave the Non- Cooperation
area at once.
 This passive resistance or civil  Because of drought in 1918, the
disobedience of an unjust order was crops failed in Kheda district of
a novel method at that time. The Gujarat. According to the Revenue
government appointed a committee Code, if the yield was less than one-
to go into the matter and nominated fourth the normal produce, the
Gandhi as a member. farmers were entitled to remission.
 Gandhi was able to convince the  Gandhi asked the farmers not to pay
authorities that the tinkathia system the taxes. Patel along with his
should be abolished and that the colleagues organized the tax revolt
peasants should be compensated for which the different ethnic and caste
the illegal dues extracted from them. communities of Kheda supported.
 Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad Defence of India Act (1915) by a
and Kheda permanent law.

 Gandhi demonstrated to the people Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt

the efficacy of his technique of Act— First Mass Strike - Gandhi called
satyagraha. the Rowlatt Act the “Black Act'’. There
 He found his feet among the masses was a radical change in the situation by
and came to have a surer now.
understanding of the strengths and
weaknesses of the masses.  The masses had found a direction;
 He acquired respect and commitment now they could act’ instead of just
of many. giving verbal expression to their
grievances.
Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jaliianwala  From now onwards, peasants,
Bagh Massacre artisans and the urban poor were to
The Rowlatt Act play an increasingly important part
in the struggle.
 Two bills were introduced in the  Orientation of the national
Imperial Legislative Council. One of movement turned to the masses
them was dropped, but the other— permanently.
an extension to the Defence of India  Satyagraha was to be launched on
Regulations Act 1915—was passed April 6, 1919 but before it could be
in March 1919. launched, there were large-scale
 It was what was officially called the violent, anti-British demonstrations.
Anarchical and Revolutionary
Crimes Act, but popularly known as Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April
the Rowlatt Act. It was based on the 13,1919)
recommendations made by the
Rowlatt Commission, headed by the  On April 9, two nationalist leaders,
British judge, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, to Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal,
investigate the 'seditious conspiracy' were arrested by the British officials
of the Indian people. without any provocation except that
 The act allowed political activists to they had addressed protest meetings,
be tried without juries or even and taken to some unknown
imprisoned without trial. It allowed destination.
arrest of Indians without warrant on  This caused resentment among the
the mere suspicion of ‘treason’. Indian protestors who came out in
 The law of habeas corpus, the basis thousands on April 10 to show their
of civil liberty, was sought to be solidarity with their leaders. Soon
suspended. The object of the the protests turned violent because
government was to replace the the police resorted to firing in which
repressive provisions of the wartime some of the protestors were killed.
 By then the city had returned to calm  On October 14, 1919, the
and the protests that were being held Government of India announced the
were peaceful. Dyer, however, formation of the Disorders Inquiry
issued a proclamation on April 13 Committee, which came to be more
(which was also Baisakhi) forbidding widely and variously known as the
people from leaving the city without Hunter Committee/Commission
a pass and from organising  The purpose of the commission was
demonstrations or processions, or to “investigate the recent
assembling in groups oi more than disturbances in Bombay, Delhi and
three. Punjab, about their causes, and the
 On Baisakhi day, a large crowd of measures taken to cope with them’.
people mostly from neighbouring  There were three Indians among the
villages, unaware of the prohibitory members, namely, Sir Chimanlal
orders in the city, gathered in the Harilal Setalvad, Vice-Chancellor of
Jallianwala Bagh, a popular place for Bombay University and advocate of
public events, to celebrate the the Bombay High Court; Pandit
Baisakhi festival. Jagat Narayan, lawyer and Member
 The troops surrounded the gathering of the Legislative Council of the
under orders from General Dyer and United Provinces; and Sardar
blocked the only exit point and Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan,
opened fire on the unarmed crowd. lawyer from Gwalior State.
 According to official British Indian  Dyer is reported to have explained
sources, 379 were identified dead, his sense of honour by saying, “I
and approximately 1,100 were think it quite possible that I could
wounded. Indian National Congress, have dispersed the crowd without
on the other hand, estimated more firing but they would have come
than 1,500 were injured, and back again and laughed, and I would
approximately 1,000 were killed. But have made, what I consider, a fool of
it is precisely known that 1650 myself.”
bullets were fired into the crowd.  The government had passed an
 Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i- Indemnity Act for the protection of
Hind, bestowed by the British for his its officers. The “white washing bill"
work during the Boer War. Gandhi as the Indemnity Act was called, was
was overwhelmed by the atmosphere severely criticised by Motilal Nehru
of total violence and withdrew the and others.
movement on April 18, 1919.  In the House of Commons, Churchill
 According to the historian, A.P.J (no lover of Indians) condemned
Taylor, the Jallianwala Bagh what had happened at Amritsar. He
massacre was the “decisive moment called it “monstrous”.
when Indians were alienated from  A former prime minister of Britain,
British rule*’. H.H. Asquith called it “one of the
worst outrages in the whole of our
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry history”.
  The honouring of Dyer by the priests the immediate background to the
of Sri Darbar Sahib, Amritsar, was movement and gave an added
one of the reasons behind the advantage of cementing Hindu-Muslim
intensification of the demand. unity against the British.
 Congress View-The Indian National
Congress appointed its own non-
official Committee and put forward Background
its own view. Background of the two movements was
provided by a series of events after
………………………………………… the First World War.
……… The year 1919, in particular, saw a
strong feeling of discontent among all
Non-Cooperation Movement &
sections of Indians for various reasons:
Khilafat Aandolan
 The economic situation of the
Table of contents
country in the post- War years had
become alarming with a rise in
Introduction prices of commodities, a decrease in
the production of Indian industries,
Background an increase in the burden of taxes
and rents etc.
 Rowlatt Act, the imposition of
The Khilafat Issue
martial law in Punjab and the
Jallianwalla Bagh massacre exposed
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement the brutal and uncivilised face of the
foreign rule. The Hunter Committee
Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement on the Punjab atrocities proved to be
an eyewash. In fact, the House of
Lords (of the British Parliament)
Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movementendorsed General Dyer’s action and
the British public showed solidarity
Introduction with General Dyer by helping The
Morning Post collect 30,000 pounds
 During 1919-22, the British were for him.
opposed through two mass movements:  Montagu-Chelmsford
(i) The Khilafat Reforms with their ill-conceived
(ii) Non-Cooperation scheme of dyarchy failed to satisfy
Though the two movements emerged the rising demand of the Indians for
from separate issues, they adopted a self-government.
common programme of action—that of  Post-First World War period also
saw the preparation of the ground for
non-violent noncooperation.
common political action by Hindus
 The Khilafat issue was not directly
and Muslims:
linked to Indian politics but it provided
 (i) Lucknow Pact (1916) had  It was felt that this was a golden
stimulated Congress-Muslim League opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim
cooperation. unity and to bring Muslim masses
(ii) Rowlatt Act agitation brought into the national movement, now
Hindus and Muslims, and also other different sections of society could
sections of the society, together. come into the national movement by
(iii) Radical nationalist fighting for their own rights and
Muslims had now become more realising that the colonial rule was
influential than the conservative opposed to them.
Aligarh school elements who had  Congress was losing faith in the
dominated the League earlier. constitutional struggle, especially
after the Punjab incidents and the
blatantly partisan Hunter Committee
The Khilafat Issue Report.
In India, too, Muslims demanded from  Congress was aware that the masses
the British: were eager to give expression to
their discontent.
 That the Khalifa’s control over
Muslim sacred places should be ➢ Muslim League Support to
retained. Congress
 The Khalifa should be left with
sufficient territories after territorial  The Muslim League also decided to
arrangements. In early 1919, a give full support to the Congress and
Khilafat Committee was formed. its agitation on political questions.

The Non-Cooperation Khilafat

➢ Development of the Khalifat-Non-
Movement
Cooperation Programme

 At All India Khilafat Conference held  February 1920 In early 1920, a joint
in Delhi in November 1919, a call was Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent
made for the boycott of British goods. to the viceroy to seek redress of
Gandhi, who was the president of the grievances on the issue of Khilafat.
All India Khilafat Committee, saw in  In February 1920, Gandhi announced
the issue a platform from which mass that the issues of the Punjab wrongs
and united non-cooperation could be and constitutional advance had been
declared against the Government. overshadowed by the Khilafat
question.
➢ Congress Stand on Khilafat  May 1920 Treaty of Sevres with
Question Turkey, signed in May 1920,
completely dismembered Turkey.
 June 1920 An all-party conference itself to an extraconstitutional mass
at Allahabad approved a programme struggle.
of boycott.  Some important organisational
 August 31, 1920, The Khilafat changes were made: A congress
Committee started a campaign of working committee (CWC) of 15
non-cooperation and the movement members was set up to lead
was formally launched. the Congress from now onwards,
 September 1920 At a special session provincial congress committees on
in Calcutta, the Congress approved a linguistic basis were organised, ward
non-cooperation programme till the committees were organised, and the
Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were entry fee was reduced to four annas.
removed and swaraj was established.  Gandhi declared that if the non-
cooperation programme was
➢ The programme was to include: implemented completely, swaraj
would be ushered in within a year.
 Boycott of government schools and  Surendranath Banerjea founded
colleges. the Indian National Liberal
 Boycott of law courts and Federation and played a minor role
dispensation of justice through in national politics henceforward.
panchayats instead.
 Boycott of legislative councils. ➢ The Spread of the Movement
 Boycott of foreign cloth and use of
khadi instead, also practice of hand-  Gandhi accompanied by the Ali
spinning to be done. brothers undertook a nationwide
 Renunciation of government honours tour. Educational institutions were
and titles, the second phase could organised under the leadership
include mass civil disobedience of Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R.
including resignation from Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir
government service, and non- Hussain, Subhash Bose (who
payment of taxes. became the principal of National
College at Calcutta) and included
➢ December 1920 At the Nagpur Jamia Millia at Aligarh, Kashi
session of the Indian National Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth and
Congress Bihar Vidyapeeth.
 A no-tax movement against union
 An important change was made in board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal)
the Congress creed: Now, instead of and in Guntur (Andhra) was going
having the attainment of self- on.
government through constitutional  In Assam, strikes in tea plantations,
means as its goal, the Congress steamer services and Assam-Bengal
decided to have the attainment of Railways had been organised. J.M.
swaraj through peaceful and Sengupta was a prominent leader in
legitimate means, thus committing these strikes.
 In November 1921, the visit of the leaders and refused to fall into the
Prince of Wales to India invited trap.
strikes and demonstrations. The
spirit of defiance and unrest gave ➢ The Last Phase of the Movement
rise to many local struggles such as
Awadh Kisan Movement (UP), Eka  Gandhi was now under increasing
Movement (UP), Mappila Revolt pressure from the Congress rank and
(Malabar) and the Sikh agitation for file to start the civil disobedience
the removal of mahants in Punjab. programme. The Ahmedabad session
in 1921 appointed Gandhi the sole
➢ People’s Response authority on the issue.
 On February 1, 1922, Gandhi
 Middle Class - People from the threatened to launch civil
middle classes led the movement at disobedience from Bardoli (Gujarat)
the beginning but later they showed if :
a lot of reservations about Gandhi's (i) Political prisoners were not
programme. released.
 Business Class - The economic (ii) Press controls were not removed.
boycott received support from the  Chauri Chaura Incident - Chauri-
Indian business group because they Chaura (Gorakhpur district in United
had benefited from the nationalists' Provinces) has found a place in
emphasis on the use of swadeshi. history books due to an incident of
 Peasants - Peasants’ participation violence on February 5, 1922,
was massive. which was to prompt Gandhi to
 Students - Students became active
volunteers of the movement. withdraw the movement.
 Women - Women gave up purdah  Congress Working Committee met at
and offered their ornaments for Bardoli in February 1922 and
the Tilak Fund. resolved to stop all activity that led
 Hindu- Muslim Unity - The to the breaking of the law and to get
massive participation of Muslims down to constructive work.
and the maintenance of communal  In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested
unity, despite the events like and sentenced to six years in jail. He
Moppila Uprisings, were great made the occasion memorable by a
achievements. magnificent court speech: “I am
here, therefore, to invite and submit
➢ Government Response cheerfully to the highest penalty that
can be inflicted upon me for what in
 Talks between Gandhi and Reading, law is a deliberate crime, and what
the viceroy, broke down in May appears to me to be the highest duty
1921 Gandhi realised that the of a citizen.”
government was trying to drive a
wedge between him and the Khilafat
 Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement  They wanted to 'end or mend'
these councils, which meant that
 The movement was also showing if the government did not respond
signs of fatigue. In November 1922, to the nationalists' demands, they
the people of Turkey rose under would obstruct the councils' work.
Mustafa Kamal Pasha and deprived  Their only intention was to use
the sultan of political power. the councils as a forum for
In 1924, the caliphate was abolished. political struggle; they had no
intention of using the councils to
gradually transform colonial rule.
Evaluation of Khilafat Non-  The Swarajists were those who
Cooperation Movement advocated for inclusion in
legislative councils.
 The movement brought the urban
Muslims into the national No Changers
movement, but at the same time, it
communalized national politics, to  The 'No-changers' were those who
an extent. opposed council entry.
 With the Non-Cooperation  They advocated for a focus on
Movement, nationalist sentiments constructive work while
reached every nook and corner of the maintaining the boycott and
country and politicized noncooperation.
every stratum of the population.  They also advocated for the quiet
resumption of the suspended civil
……………………………………… disobedience programme.
………  The 'No-changers' were a school
of thought led by Vallabhbhai
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C.
Ideas, Revolutionary Activities & New Rajagopalachari, and M.A.
Forces Ansari.
Swarajists and No-Changers
Genesis of Congress-Khilafat
Swarajists Swarajya Party

 One group, led by C R Das,  After Gandhi’s arrest (March

Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan, 1922), there was disintegration,
wanted to end the boycott of disorganization, and demoralization
legislative councils so that among nationalist ranks. A debate
nationalists could enter them to started among Congressmen on what
expose the fundamental flaws of to do during the transition period,
these assemblies and use them as i.e., the passive phase of the
a platform for political struggle. movement.
 Those advocating entry into progressive transition of colonial
legislative councils came to be administration, but they may be used
known as the "Swarajists’. as a venue for political confrontation.

The other school of thought led No-Changers Arguments

by C. Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai
Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and M.A.  No-Changers argued that
Ansari came to be known as the parliamentary work would lead to
'Nochangers’. neglect of constructive work, loss of
 "No-changers’ opposed council revolutionary zeal, and to political
entry, advocated concentration on corruption.
constructive work, and continuation
of boycott and non-cooperation, and Agree to Disagree
quiet preparation for the resumption
of the suspended civil disobedience  Both sides also realized the
program. significance of putting up a united
 Congress and announced the front to get a mass movement to
formation of Congress- force the government to introduce
Khilafat Swarajya Party or simply reforms, and both sides accepted the
Swarajist Party, with C.R. Das as the necessity of Gandhi’s leadership of
president and Motilal Nehru as one a united nationalist front.
of the secretaries.  Keeping these factors in mind, a
compromise was reached at a
Swarajists Arguments meeting in Delhi in September
1923. The elections to the newly
 The Swarajists argued for their constituted Central Legislative
inclusion in the councils for a variety Assembly and to provincial
of reasons. assemblies were to be held
 Entering the councils would not in November 1923.
undermine the noncooperation agenda;
rather, it would be like continuing the The Swarajist Manifesto for
movement on a different front. Elections
 Council work would assist to
energise the populace and maintain  Released in October 1923, the
their morale during a period of Swarajist manifesto took a strong anti-
political uncertainty. The presence of imperialist line.
nationalists would dissuade the  The guiding motive of the British in
government from packing the councils governing India lay in the selfish
with unsavoury characters who could interests of their own country.
be used to legitimise government  So-called reforms were only a blind to
actions. further the said interests under the
 The objective was not to use pretense of granting a responsible
the councils as vehicles for the government, the real objective being to
 continue exploitation of the unlimited support the tenants' cause against the
resources of the country by keeping zamindars in Bengal.
Indians permanently in a subservient  Responsivity among Swarajists—
position to Britain. Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan
 Swarajists would present the Malaviya, and N.C. Kelkar—
nationalist demand of self-government advocated cooperation with the
in councils. government and holding of office
 If this demand was rejected, they wherever possible.
would adopt a policy of uniform,  Thus, the main leadership of the
continuous and consistent obstruction Swarajist Party reiterated faith in
within the councils to make mass civil disobedience and
governance through councils withdrew from legislatures in March
impossible. 1926.
 Councils would thus be wrecked from  In 1930, the Swarajists finally
within by creating deadlocks on every walked out as a result of the Lahore
measure. Congress resolution on purna swaraj
and the beginning of the Civil
Gandhi’s Attitude Disobedience Movement.

 Gandhi was initially opposed to the Achievements

Swarajist proposal of council entry.
But after his release from prison on  With coalition partners, they out-
health grounds in February 1924, he voted the government several times,
gradually moved towards a even on matters relating to budgetary
reconciliation with the Swarajists. grants, and passed adjournment
 He felt public opposition to the motions.
program of council entry would be  They agitated through powerful
counterproductive. speeches on self-government, civil
 In the November 1923 elections, the liberties, and industrialization.
Swarajists had managed to win 42 out  Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker
of 141 elected seats and a clear of the Central Legislative Assembly
majority in the provincial assembly of in 1925.
Central Provinces.
 There was a government crackdown
on revolutionary terrorists and the Vithalbhai Patel
Swarajists towards the end of 1924.
 Both sides came to an agreement  A noteworthy achievement was the
in 1924 defeat of the Public Safety Bill in
1928 which was aimed at
Swarajist Activity in Councils empowering the Government to
deport undesirable and subversive
 Swarajists lost the support of many foreigners.
Muslims when the party did not
 By their activities, they filled the  National schools and colleges were set
political vacuum at a time when the up where students were trained in
national movement was recouping its a noncolonial ideological
strength. framework.
 They exposed the hollowness of the  Significant work was done for Hindu-
Montford scheme. Muslim unity, removing
 They demonstrated that the councils untouchability, a boycott of foreign
could be used creatively. cloth and liquor, and for flood relief.
 The constructive workers served as the
Drawbacks backbone of civil disobedience
as active organizers.
 Swarajists lacked the policy to
coordinate their militancy inside A Critique of Constructive Work
legislatures with the mass struggle
outside. They relied totally on  National education benefited the
newspaper reporting to communicate urban lower middle classes and the
with the public. rich peasants only.
 An obstructionist strategy had its  The popularisation of khadi was an
limitations. uphill task since it was costlier than
 They could not carry on with their the imported cloth.
coalition partners very far because of
conflicting ideas, which further Muddiman Committee (1924)
limited their effectiveness.
 They failed to resist the perks and  In response to the demand of
privileges of power and office. Indian leaders and in light of the
 They failed to support the peasants' resolution adopted by the Swaraj
cause in Bengal and lost support Party in the early 1920s, the
among Muslim members who were British Government established a
a pro peasant. committee headed by Sir
Alexander Muddinman.
Constructive Work by No-Changers  It also advocated for the
establishment of a Royal
 The No-Changers devoted themselves Commission.
to constructive work that connected  To meet the demand of Indian
them to the different sections of the leaders and in light of the
masses. resolution adopted by the Swaraj
 Ashrams sprang up where young Party in the early 1920s, the
men and women worked among tribals British government established
and lower castes and popularised the the Muddinman Committee, led
use of charkha and khadi. by Sir Alexander Muddinman.
 Apart from British members, the
Committee had four Indian
Gandhi Ji with Charkha members.
 Committee members who were Indian jailed in the Kanpur Bolshevik
Conspiracy Case.
 Sir Sivaswami Aiyar  In 1925, the Indian Communist
 Dr. R P Paranjape Conference at Kanpur formalized the
 Sir Tejbahadur Sapru foundation of the CPI.
 Mohammad Ali Jinnah  In 1929, the government crackdown on
communists resulted in the arrest and
The emergence of New Forces: trial of 31 leading communists, trade
Socialistic Ideas, Youth Power, unionists, and left-wing leaders; they
Trade Unionism were tried at Meerut in the famous-
The spread of Marxist and Socialist Meerut conspiracy case.
Ideas
The activism of Indian Youth
 The Ideas of Marx and Socialist
thinkers inspired many young  All over, students' leagues were
nationalists, inspired by the Soviet being established and students’
Revolution and dissatisfied with conferences were being held. In
Gandhian ideas and political programs, 1928, Jawaharlal Nehru presided
began advocating radical solutions for over the All Bengal Students’
the economic, political, and social ills Conference.
of the country.
(i) Were critical of both Swarajists and Peasants’ Agitations
No-Changers;
(ii) Advocated a more consistent anti-  Peasant agitations took place in the
imperialist line in the form of a slogan Rampa region of Andhra, in
for purna swaraj (complete Rajasthan, in ryotwari areas of
independence) Bombay and Madras. In Gujarat, the
(iii) Were influenced by an awareness, Bardoli Satyagraha was led
stressed the need to combine
nationalism and anti-imperialism with by Vallabhbhai Patel (1928).
social justice, and simultaneously
raised the question of internal class Growth of Trade Unionism
oppression by capitalists and landlords.
 The trade union movement was led
 Communist Party of India (CPI) was
formed in 1920 in Tashkent (now, the by the All India Trade Union
capital of Uzbekistan) by M.N. Roy, Congress (AITUC) founded in 1920.
Abani Mukherji, and others after the Lala Lajpat Rai was its first
second Congress of Comintern. M.N. president and Dewan Chaman Lai its
Roy was also the first to be elected to general secretary.
the leadership of Comintern.
 In 1924, many communists—Shripad
Amrit Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed,
Shaukat Usmani, Nalini Gupta—were
 major strikes during  Hindustan Republican
the 1920s included those in Association (H.R.A.)—in Punjab-UP-
Kharagpur Railway Workshops, Tata Bihar
Iron and Steel Works (Jamshedpur),  Yugantar, Anushilan groups and later
Bombay Textile Mills (this involved Chittagong Revolt Group under Surya
1,50,000 workers and went on for 5 Sen—in Bengal
months), and Buckingham Carnatic
Mills. Revolutionary Activity During the
 In 1923, the first May Day was 1920s
celebrated in India in Madras. Why Attraction for Revolutionary
Activity after Non-Cooperation
Caste Movements Movement- Two separate strands of
These movements could be divisive, revolutionary groups emerged during this
conservative, and at times potentially period—one operating in Punjab-UP-
radical, and included: Bihar and the other in Bengal.
Major Influences
 Justice Party (Madras)
 Self-respect movement (1925) under  The upsurge of working-class trade
“Periyar”—E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker unionism after the War; the
(Madras) revolutionaries wanted to harness the
 Satyashodhak activists in Satara revolutionary potential of the new
(Maharashtra) emergent class for nationalist
 Bhaskar Rao Jadhav (Maharashtra) revolution.
 Russian Revolution (1917) and the
success of the young Soviet state in
Bhaskar Rao Jadhav consolidating itself.
 Mahars under Ambedkar
(Maharashtra) Russian Revolution
 Radical Ezhavas under K.
Aiyappan and C. Kesavan in  Newly sprouting communist groups
Kerala with their emphasis on Marxism,
 Yadavs in Bihar for improvement in socialism, and the proletariat.
social status Unionist Party  Journals publishing memoirs and
under Fazl-i-Hussain (Punjab). articles extolling the self-sacrifice of
revolutionaries, such as Atmasakti,
Revolutionary Activity with a Turn Sarathi, and Bijou.
towards Socialism  Novels and books such as Bandi
Jiwan by Sachin Sanyal and Pather
 This line was adopted by those Dabi by Sharatchandra Chatterjee (a
dissatisfied with the nationalist government ban only enhanced its
strategy of the political struggle with popularity).
its emphasis on nonviolence.
 In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar liberties in general and workers' civil
liberties in particular.
 The Hindustan Republican  In the Lahore conspiracy
Association/Army, or HRA, led case, action against Revolutionary
revolutionary action in this region Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru
(later renamed Hindustan Socialist was tried. On the 64th day of his
Republican Association or HSRA). fast, Jatin Das became the first
The HRA was created in Kanpur in martyr. In December 1929, Azad was
October of 1924. part in a plot to blow up Viceroy
 The Kakori theft (August Irwin's train near Delhi. In the year
1925) was the HRA's most 1930, a number of violent incidents
significant action. Men boarded the occurred in Punjab and the towns of
8-Down train at Kakori, a tiny town the United Provinces (26 incidents in
near Lucknow, and plundered the 1930 in Punjab alone). In February
train's official railway currency. 1931, Azad was killed by police in a
park in Allahabad. On March 23,
1931, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and
Rajguru were hung.
 HSRA-Determined to overcome the
In Bengal
Kakori defeat, the younger
revolutionaries, inspired by socialist
 After Das’s death (1925), the
principles, convened a historic
Bengal Congress broke up into two
assembly in the ruins of Ferozshah
factions—one led by J.M. Sengupta
Kotla in Delhi to reorganise the
(Anushilan group joined forces with
Hindustan Republic Association
him) and the other led by Subhash
(September 1928).
Bose (Yugantar group backed him).
 Saunders' Murder (December
The actions of the reorganized
1928, Lahore)- The death of Sher-i-
groups included an assassination
Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai in October
attempt on the notorious Calcutta
1928 as a result of lathi blows
Police Commissioner, Charles Tegart
received during a lathi-charge on an
(another man named Day got killed)
anti-Simon Commission procession
by Gopinath Saha in 1924.
prompted them to turn to individual
 Chittagong Armoury Raid (April
assassination once more.
1930)- Surya Sen decided to
 On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh
organize an armed rebellion along
and Batukeshwar Dutt were asked
with his associates—Anant Singh,
to throw a bomb in the Central
Ganesh Ghosh, and Lokenath Baul—
Legislative Assembly to protest the
to show that it was possible to
passage of the Public Safety Bill and
challenge the armed might of the
the Trade Disputes Bill, both of
mighty British Empire. The raid was
which aimed to restrict citizens' civil
conducted in April 1930 and
involved 65 activists under the
 banner of the Indian Republican conservative elements.
Army—Chittagong Branch. Surya (ii) It failed to evolve broader socio-
Sen was arrested in February 1933 economic goals.
and hanged in January 1934. (iii) Those working with Swarajists
failed to support the cause of Muslim
Chittagong Revolutionaries peasantry against zamindars in
Bengal.
Aspects of the New Phase of the
Revolutionary Movement in Bengal- Official Reaction
Some noteworthy aspects were as
follows.  There was panic at first and then
severe government repression.
 There was large-scale participation  Armed with 20 repressive Acts, the
of young women especially under government let loose the police on the
Surya Sen. Prominent women revolutionaries.
revolutionaries in Bengal during this
phase included Pritilata Waddedar, Ideological Rethinking
who died conducting a raid; Kalpana
Dutt who was arrested and tried  A real breakthrough was made
along with Surya Sen and given a by Bhagat Singh and his comrades
life sentence; Santi Ghosh and Suniti in terms of revolutionary ideology,
Chandheri, schoolgirls of Comilla, forms of revolutionary struggle, and
who shot dead the district magistrate. the goals of the revolution.
(December 1931); and Bina Das who  A famous statement of the
fired point-blank at the governor revolutionary position is contained in
while receiving her degree at the the book The Philosophy of the
convocation (February 1932). Bomb written by Bhagwaticharan
 There was an emphasis on group Vohra. In other words, the
action aimed at organs of the revolution could only be 'By the
colonial State, instead of individual masses, for the masses”.
action. The objective was to set an  That is why Bhagat Singh helped
example before the youth and to establish the Punjab Naujawan
demoralize the bureaucracy. Bharat Sabha (1926) as an open
 Some of the earlier tendency towards wing of revolutionaries to carry out
Hindu religiosity was shed, and there political work
were no more rituals like oath-taking
and this facilitated participation by Redefining Revolution
Muslims. Surya
Sen had Muslims such as Satar, Mir  Revolution was no longer equated
Ahmed, Fakir Ahmed Mian, and with militancy and violence. Its
Tunu Mian in his group. objective was to be national
 There were some drawbacks too: liberation
(i) The movement retained some
 Bhagat Singh said in the court,  So the British government thought it
“Revolution does not necessarily necessary to go more fully into the
involve sanguinary strife, nor is there working of the 1919 Act. The
a place in it for personal vendetta. It Conservative Secretary of State for
is not the cult of bomb and pistol. By India, Lord Birkenhead, who had
revolution we mean the present order constantly talked of the inability of
of things, which is based on manifest Indians to formulate a concrete
injustice, must change.” scheme of constitutional reforms
 He defined socialism scientifically as which had the support of wide
the abolition of capitalism and class sections of Indian political opinion,
domination. was responsible for the appointment
of the Simon Commission.
…………………………………………
…….. ➢ Indian Response
Simon Commission & the Nehru
 The Indian response to the Simon
Report
Commission was immediate and nearly
➢ Appointment of the Indian unanimous.
Statutory Commission  Congress Response: The Congress
session in Madras (December 1927)
 The Government of India Act, meeting under the presidency of M.A.
1919 had a provision that a Ansari decided to boycott the
commission would be appointed ten commission "'at every stage and in
years from the date to study the every form”.
progress of the government scheme  Other Groups: Those who decided to
support the Congress call of a boycott
and suggest new steps. of the Simon Commission included the
 An all-white, seven-member Indian liberals of the Hindu Mahasabha and
Statutory Commission, popularly the majority faction of the Muslim
known as the Simon Commission League under Jinnah. The Muslim
(after the name of its chairman, Sir league had two sessions in 1927 - one
John Simon ), was set up by the under Jinnah at Calcutta where it was
British government under Stanley decided to oppose the Simon
Baldwin’s prime ministership Commission, and another at Lahore
on November 8, 1927. under Muhammad Shafi, who
 The Lee Commission went into Raj’s supported the government.
failure to recruit enough British  Public Response: The commission
officers; the Muddiman Commission landed in Bombay on February 3,
looked into the deadlock within the 1928. Wherever the commission went,
Diarchy dispensation, and the there were black flag demonstrations,
Linlithgow Commission inquired hartals, and slogans of "Simon Go
into the crisis of Indian agriculture. Back’.
 Police Repression: The police came established which should include
down heavily on demonstrators; there representatives of both the British
were Lathi charges not sparing even provinces as well as princely states.
the senior leaders. Lala Lajpat  It suggested that the North-West
Rai received severe blows on his chest Frontier Province and Baluchistan
in October 1928 which proved fatal should get local legislatures. It
and he died on November 17, 1928. recommended that Sindh should be
separated from Bombay, and Burma
➢ Impact of Appointment of Simon should be separated from India.
Commission on the National
Movement
➢ Nehru Report
 It gave a stimulus to radical forces
demanding not just complete  As an answer to Lord Birkenhead’s
independence but major socio- challenge, an All Parties Conference
economic reforms on socialist lines. met in February 1928 and appointed
When the Simon Commission was a subcommittee under the
announced, the Congress, which did chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to
not have any active program in hand, draft a constitution. This was the
got an issue on which it could once first major attempt by the Indians to
again forge mass action. draft a constitutional framework for
 The challenge of Lord the country.
Birkenhead to Indian politicians to  The report was finalized by August
produce an agreed constitution was 1928. The recommendations of the
accepted by various political Nehru Committee were unanimous
sections, and thus prospects for except in one respect—while the
Indian unity seemed bright at that majority favored the ' dominion
point in time. status' as the basis of the
Constitution, a section of it wanted
➢ The Simon Commission "complete independence" as the
Recommendations basis

 The Simon Commission published a ➢ Main Recommendations

two-volume report in May 1930. It
proposed the abolition of dyarchy  Dominion status on lines of self-
and the establishment of governing dominions as the form of
representative government in the government desired by Indians
provinces which should be given  Rejection of separate electorates
autonomy which had been the basis of
 The report rejected parliamentary constitutional reforms so far; instead,
responsibility at the center. It demand for joint electorates with
suggested that a Consultative reservation of seats for Muslims at
Council of Greater India should be the Centre and in provinces where
 they were in minority in proportion (i) joint electorates in place of
to the Muslim population there with separate electorates with reserved
the right to contest additional seats. seats for Muslims;
 Linguistic provinces. (ii) one-third representation to
 Nineteen fundamental rights Muslims in the Central Legislative
including equal rights for women, Assembly;
the right to form unions, and (iii) representation to Muslims in
universal adult suffrage. Punjab and Bengal in proportion to
 Responsible government at the their population;
Centre and in provinces (iv) Formation of three new Muslim
(i) The Indian Parliament at the majority provinces— Sindh,
Centre to consist of a 500-member Baluchistan, and North-West
House of Representatives elected on Frontier Province.
the basis of adult suffrage, a 200-  Hindu Mahasabha Demands: The
member Senate to be elected by Hindu Mahasabha was vehemently
provincial councils; the House of opposed to the proposals for creating
Representatives to have a tenure of 5 new Muslim-majority provinces and
years and the Senate, one of 7 years; reservation of seats for Muslim
the central government to be headed majorities in Punjab and Bengal
by a governor-general, appointed by  Compromises: The concessions
the British government but paid out made in the Nehru Report to
of Indian revenues, who would act Hindu communalists included the
on the advice of the central executive following:
council responsible to the (i) Joint electorates proposed
Parliament. everywhere but reservation for
(ii) Provincial councils to have a 5- Muslims only wherein minority;
year tenure, headed by a governor (ii) Sindh to be detached from
acting on the advice of the provincial Bombay only after dominion status
executive council. was granted and subject to the
 Full protection to cultural and weightage given to the Hindu
religious interests of Muslims. minority in Sindh;
 Complete dissociation of State from (iii) Political structure proposed
religion. broadly unitary, as residual powers
rested with the center.
➢ The Muslim and Hindu
Communal Responses ➢ Amendments Proposed by Jinnah

 Delhi Proposals of Muslim League-  At the All Parties Conference held at

proposals, which were accepted by Calcutta in December 1928 to consider
the Madras session of the Congress the Nehru Report, Jinnah, on behalf of
(December 1927), came to be known the Muslim League, proposed three
as the 'Delhi Proposals’. amendments to the report:
These were: (i) One-third representation
 to Muslims in the central legislature;  Full religious freedom to all
(ii) Reservation to Muslims in Bengal communities.
and Punjab legislatures proportionate  Protection of Muslim rights in
to their population, till adult suffrage religion, culture, education,
was established; and residual powers to and language.
provinces.
➢ Nehru Report Found
Unsatisfactory
➢ Jinnah’s Fourteen Points
 Not only were the Muslim League,
 Federal Constitution with residual the Hindu Mahasabha, and the Sikh
powers to provinces. communalists unhappy about the
 Provincial autonomy. No Nehru Report, but the younger
constitutional amendment by the section of the Congress-
center without the concurrence of the led by Jawaharlal
states constituting the Indian Nehru and Subhash Bose was also
federation. angered.
 All legislatures and elected bodies to  The younger section regarded the
have adequate representation idea of dominion status in the report
of Muslims in every province as a step backward, and the
without reducing a majority of developments at the All Parties
Muslims in a province to a minority Conference strengthened their
or equality. criticism of the dominion status idea.
 Adequate representation to Muslims Nehru and Subhash Bose rejected the
in the services and in self-governing Congress’ modified goal and jointly
bodies. set up the Independence for India
 One-third of Muslim representation League.
in the central legislature.
 In any cabinet at the center or in the …………………………………………
provinces, one-third to be Muslims. ……….
 Separate electorates.
 No bill or resolution in any Civil Disobedience Movement &
legislature to be passed if three- Round Table Conferences
fourths of a minority community
Table of contents
consider such a bill or resolution to
be against their interests.
 Any territorial redistribution not to The Run-up to the Civil Disobedience Movement
affect the Muslim majority in
Punjab, Bengal, and NWFP. Civil Disobedience Movement the Salt Satyagraha and
 Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
 Constitutional reforms in the NWFP
and Baluchistan. Forms of Mobilisation
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact campaign in March 1929 in Calcutta
and was arrested.
 This was followed by the bonfires of
The Round Table Conferences foreign cloth all over the country.
Other developments that kept the
Outcome political temperature high during
1929 included the Meerut
Civil Disobedience Resumed Conspiracy Case (March), a bomb
explosion in Central Legislative
Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B.K.
Communal Award and Poona Pact Dutt (April) and the coming to power
of the minority Labour government
led by Ramsay MacDonald in
Joint Electorates and Its Impact on Depressed Classes
England in May.
The Run-up to the Civil
Disobedience Movement Irwin’s Declaration (October 31,
Calcutta Session of Congress 1929)

 It was at the Calcutta session of  Declaration by Lord Irwin was made.

the Congress in December 1928 that It was the combined effort of the
the Nehru Report was approved. Labour government and a
Conservative viceroy. The purpose
behind the declaration was to
“restore faith in the ultimate purpose
of British policy''.
 Congress decided that if the  Declaration was made in the form of
government did not accept a an official communique in the Indian
constitution based on dominion Gazette on October 31, 1929. Lord
status by the end of the year, the Irwin also promised a Round Table
Congress would not only demand Conference after the Simon
complete independence but would Commission submitted its report.
also launch a civil disobedience
movement to attain its goal. Delhi Manifesto

Political Activity during 1929  Leaders issued a 'Delhi Manifesto'

which put forward certain conditions
 Gandhi traveled incessantly for attending the Round Table
during 1929 preparing people for Conference.
direct political action. The Congress  that the purpose of the Round Table
Working Committee (CWC ) Conference should be not to determine
organized a Foreign Cloth Boycott whether or when dominion status was
Committee. Gandhi initiated the to be reached but to formulate a
constitution for implementation of the
 dominion status and the basic principle (Swarajya) Day, to be celebrated
of dominion status should be everywhere.
immediately accepted;
 that the Congress should have majority December 31, 1929
representation at the conference; and
 There should be a general amnesty for  At midnight on the banks of River
political prisoners and a policy of Ravi, the newly adopted tricolor flag
conciliation. of freedom was hoisted by
 Viceroy Irwin rejected the demands put Jawaharlal Nehru amidst slogans of
forward in the Delhi Manifesto. The Inquilab Zindabad.
stage for confrontation was to begin
now. January 26, 1930: the Independence
Pledge
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj
 It is the inalienable right of Indians
 Jawaharlal Nehru was nominated the to have freedom.
president for the Lahore session of  British Government in India has not
the Congress (December 1929) only deprived us of freedom and
mainly due to Gandhi's backing (15 exploited us, but has also ruined us
out of 18 Provincial Congress economically, politically, culturally,
Committees had opposed Nehru). and spiritually. India must therefore
Nehru was chosen sever the British connection and
(i) because of the appositeness of the attain purna swaraj or complete
occasion and independence.
(ii) To acknowledge the upsurge of  We are being economically ruined
youth that had made the anti-Simon by high revenue, destruction of
campaign a huge success. village industries with no
substitutions made, while customs,
Following major decisions were currency, and exchange rate are
taken at the Lahore Session manipulated to our disadvantage.
 No real political powers are given—
 Round Table Conference was to be rights of free association are denied
boycotted. to us and all administrative talent in
 Complete independence was us is killed.
declared as the aim of Congress.  Culturally, the system of education
 Congress Working Committee was has torn us from our moorings.
authorized to launch a program of  Spiritually, compulsory disarmament
civil disobedience including non- has made us unmanly.
payment of taxes and all members of  We hold it a crime against man and
legislatures were asked to resign God to submit any longer to British
their seats. January 26, 1930, was rule.
fixed as the first Independence  We will prepare for complete
independence by withdrawing, as far
 as possible, all voluntary association make salt the central formula for the
from the British government and will movement
prepare for civil disobedience
through non-payment of taxes. By Why Salt was Chosen as the
this, an end to this inhuman rule is Important Theme
assured.
 We will carry out the Congress  Salt in a flash linked the ideal of
instructions for purpose of Swaraj
establishing purna swaraj.  Salt afforded a very small but
psychologically important income.
Civil Disobedience Movement the
Salt Satyagraha and Other Dandi March (March 12-April
Upsurges Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 6,1930)
Gandhi gave an ultimatum of January 31,
1930, to accept or reject these demands.  On March 2, 1930, Gandhi informed
the viceroy of his plan of action.
According to this plan Gandhi, along
Issues of General Interest with a band of seventy-eight members
of Sabarmati Ashram, was to march
 Reduce expenditure on Army and civil from his headquarters in Ahmedabad
services by 50 percent. through the villages of Gujarat for 240
 Introduce total prohibition. miles.
 Carry out reforms in the Criminal  Gandhi gave the following directions
Investigation Department (CID). for future action.
 Change Arms Act allowing popular  Wherever possible civil disobedience
control of the issue of firearms of the salt law should be started.
licenses.  Foreign liquor and cloth shops can be
 Release political prisoners. picketed.
 Accept Postal Reservation Bill.  We can refuse to pay taxes if we have
the requisite strength.
Specific Bourgeois Demands  Lawyers can give up the practice.
 The public can boycott law courts by
 Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio refraining from litigation.
to 1:4  Government servants can resign from
 Introduce textile protection. their posts.
 Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.  All these should be subject to one
condition—truth and non-violence as a
Specific Peasant Demands
means to attain swaraj should be
faithfully adhered to.
 Reduce land revenue by 50 percent.
 Local leaders should be obeyed after
 Abolish salt tax and government's salt
Gandhi’s arrest.
monopoly.
 The historic march, marking the
 With no positive response by
launch of the Civil Disobedience
February-end, Gandhi had decided to
 Movement, began on March 12, and  Assam: The civil disobedience failed
Gandhi broke the salt law by picking to regain the heights attained in
up a lump of salt at Dandi on April 6. 192122 due to divisive issues
 Bengal: During the same period,
The spread of Salt Disobedience Surya Sen’s Chittagong revolt group
carried out a raid on two armories
 Nehru's arrest in April 1930 for and declared the establishment of a
defiance of the salt law evoked huge provisional government.
demonstrations in Madras, Calcutta,  Bihar: Champaran and Saran were
and Karachi. Gandhi’s arrest came the first two districts to start salt
on May 4, 1930, when he had satyagraha. In Patna, Nakhas Pond
announced that he would lead a raid was chosen as a site to make salt and
on Dharasana Salt Works on the west break the salt law under Ambika
coast. Kant Sinha. The tribal belt of
 After Gandhi’s arrest, the CWC Chhotanagpur (now in Jharkhand),
sanctioned: saw instances of lower-class
(i) non-payment of revenue in militancy.
ryotwari areas;  Peshawar: Gaffar Khan, also called
(ii) the no-chowkidar-tax campaign Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi,
in zamindari areas; and had started the first Push to political
(iii) Violation of forest laws in the monthly Pukhtoon and had organized
Central Provinces. a volunteer brigade Khudai
Khidmatgars’, popularly known as
Satyagraha at Different Places the Red- Shirts’,
 Sholapur: This industrial town of
 Tamil Nadu: In April 1930, C. southern Maharashtra saw the
Rajagopalachariorganised a march fiercest response to Gandhi’s arrest.
from Thiruchirapallito Textile workers went on a strike
Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore (or from May 7
Thanjavur) coast to break the salt  Dharasana: On May 21, 1930,
law. Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and
 Malabar: K. Kelappan, a Nair Manilal (Gandhi's son) took up the
Congress leader famed for the unfinished task of leading a raid on
Vaikom Satyagraha, organized salt the Dharasana Salt Works.
marches.  Gujarat: The impact was felt in An
 Andhra Region: District salt and, Borsad and Nadiad areas in
marches were organized in east and Kheda district, Bardoli in Surat
West Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur. district andJambusar in Bharuch
 Orissa: Under Gopalbandhu district
Chaudhuri, a Gandhian leader, salt  Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central
satyagraha proved effective in the Provinces: These areas saw defiance
coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack, of forest laws
and Puri districts.
 United Provinces: A non-revenue leaders to stay away from the
campaign was organized; a call was movement
given to zamindars to refuse to pay  Merchants and Petty
revenue to the government. The Traders: They were very
activity picked up speed in October enthusiastic. Traders' associations
1930, especially in Agra and Rai and commercial bodies were active
Bareilly. in implementing the boycott,
 Manipur and Nagaland: These especially in Tamil Nadu and
areas took a brave part in the Punjab.
movement. Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga  Tribals: Tribals were active
spiritual leader, who followed her participants in Central Provinces,
cousin Haipou Jadonang, born in Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
what is now the state of Manipur,  Workers: The workers participated
raised the banner of revolt against in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
foreign rule. Sholapur, etc.
 Peasants: were active in the United
Forms of Mobilisation Provinces, Bihar, and Gujarat.
Mobilization of masses was also carried
out through Prabhat pheris, vanar sena, Government Response - Efforts for
Manjari sena, secret Patrika, and magic Truce
lantern shows.
Impact of Agitation  It faced the classic dilemma of
'damned if you do, damned if you
 Imports of foreign cloth and other don't’, if force was applied, the
items fell. Congress cried 'repression', and if
 The government suffered a loss of little action is taken, the Congress
income from liquor, excise, and land cried ‘victory’.
revenue.  In July 1930- the viceroy, Lord
 Elections to Legislative Assembly Irwin, suggested a round table
were largely boycotted. conference and reiterated the goal of
dominion status.
The extent of Mass Participation  In August 1930- The Nehrus and
Gandhi unequivocally reiterated the
 Women: Gandhi had specially asked demands of:
women to play a leading pail in the (i) right of secession from Britain;
movement. (ii) complete national government
 Students: students and youth played with control over defense and
the most prominent part in the finance; and
boycott of foreign cloth and liquor. (iii) An independent tribunal to settle
 Muslims: The Muslim participation Britain’s financial claims.
was nowhere near the 1920-22 level
because of appeals by Muslim Gandhi-Irwin Pact
 A pact was signed between the viceroy,  To participate in the next Round
representing the British Indian Table Conference on the
Government, and Gandhi, representing constitutional question around the
the Indian people, in Delhi on February three lynch-pins of the federation,
14, 1931. This Delhi Pact, also known as Indian responsibility, and
the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, placed the reservations and safeguards that may
Congress on an equal footing with the be necessary for India’s interests.
government.
Irwin on behalf of the government Was Gandhi-Irwin Pact a Retreat -
agreed on
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact was not a retreat,
 immediate release of all political because:
prisoners not convicted of violence;  Mass movements are necessarily short-
 remission of all fines not yet lived;
collected;  The capacity of the masses to make
 return of all lands not yet sold to sacrifices, unlike that of the activists, is
third parties; limited; and
 lenient treatment to those  There were signs of exhaustion
government servants who had after September 1930, especially among
resigned; shopkeepers and merchants, who had
 right to make salt in coastal villages participated so enthusiastically.
for personal consumption (not for
sale); Comparison to Non-Cooperation
 right to peaceful and non-aggressive Movement
picketing; and
 Withdrawal of emergency  There were certain aspects in which the
ordinances. Civil Disobedience Movement differed
from the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Viceroy, however, turned down two  The stated objective this time was
of Gandhi’s demands complete independence and not just
remedying two specific wrongs and a
 a public inquiry into police excesses, vaguely-worded swaraj.
and  The methods involved a violation of
 Commutation of Bhagat Singh and the law from the very beginning and
his comrades’ death sentence to life not just non-cooperation with foreign
sentence. rule.
 There was a decline in forms of
Gandhi on behalf of the Congress protests involving the intelligentsia,
agreed— such as lawyers giving up the practice,
students giving up government schools
 to suspend the civil disobedience to join national schools and colleges.
movement, and
 Muslim participation was nowhere near  The neutrality of the state in religious
that in the Non-Cooperation Movement matters
level.  Free and compulsory primary
 No major labor upsurge coincided with education
the movement.  Protection to culture, language, the
 The massive participation of peasants script of minorities and linguistic
and business groups compensated for groups
the decline of other features.
 The number of those imprisoned was Resolution on National Economic
about three times more this time. Programme included
 Congress was organisationally
stronger.  Substantial reduction in rent and
revenue in the case of landholders and
Karachi Congress Session-1931 peasants
 Exemption from rent for uneconomic
 In March 1931, a special session of holdings
the Congress was held at Karachi to  Relief from agricultural indebtedness
endorse the Gandhi - IrwinPact. control of usury
 Better conditions of work including a
living wage, limited hours of work,
and protection of women workers in
Congress Resolutions at Karachi
the industrial sector
 Right to workers and peasants to form
 While disapproving of and
unions
dissociating itself from political
 State ownership and control of key
violence, Congress admired the
industries, mines, and means of
'bravery’ and 'sacrifice' of the three
transport.
martyrs.
 Delhi Pact or Gandhi-Irwin Pact was
The Round Table Conferences
endorsed.
The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, and
 The goal of purna swaraj was
the Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay
reiterated. Two resolutions were
MacDonald, agreed that a round table
adopted which made the session
conference should be held, as the
particularly memorable.
recommendations of the Simon
Commission report were clearly
Resolution on Fundamental Rights
inadequate.
guaranteed
First Round Table Conference
 Free speech and free press
 First Round Table Conference was
 Right to form associations
held in London between November
 Right to assemble
1930 and January 1931. It was
 Universal adult franchise
opened officially by King George V
 Equal legal rights irrespective of caste,
creed, and sex
 on November 12, 1930, and chaired responsible government at the center
by Ramsay MacDonald. as well as in the provinces.
 Outcome- Nothing much was  The session soon got deadlocked on
achieved at the conference. It was the question of the minorities. All
generally agreed that India was to these came together in a 'Minorities’
develop into a federation Pact’.
 Princes were also not too
Second Round Table Conference enthusiastic about a federation.

 The Second Round Table Conference Outcome

was held in London from September lack of agreement among the many
7, 1931, to December 1, 1931. The delegate groups meant that no substantial
Indian National Congress nominated results regarding India's constitutional
Gandhi as its sole representative. Not future would come out of the conference.
much was expected from the The session ended with MacDonald’s
conference because of the following announcement of
reasons.
 By this time, Lord Irwin had been  Two Mulsim majority provinces—
replaced by Lord Willingdon as North-West Frontier Province
viceroy in India. Just before the (NWFP) and Sindh;
conference began, the Labour  the setting up of an Indian
government in England had been Consultative Committee;
replaced by a National Government.  setting up of three expert
 Right-Wing or Conservatives in committees—finance, franchise, and
Britain led by Churchill strongly states; and
objected to the British government  The prospect of a unilateral British
negotiating with the Congress on an Communal Award if Indians failed
equal basis. They, instead, demanded to agree.
a strong government in India. The
Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald Third Round Table Conference
headed the Conservative-dominated
cabinet with a weak and reactionary  Third Round Table Conference, held
secretary of state for India, Samuel between November 17, 1932,
Hoare. and December 24, 1932, was not
 At the conference, Gandhi claimed to attended by the Indian National
represent all people of India against Congress and Gandhi.
imperialism. The other delegates,  Recommendations were published in
however, did not share this view. a White Paper in March 1933 and
 Gandhi pointed out that there was a debated in the British Parliament
need for a partnership between afterward. A Joint Select Committee
Britain and India on the basis of was formed to analyze the
equality. He put forward the demand recommendations and formulate a
for the immediate establishment of a new Act for India, and that
 committee produced a draft Bill in  The national movement would not be
February 1935 which was enforced allowed to consolidate itself in rural
as the Government of India Act of areas.
1935 in July 1935.
Government Action
Civil Disobedience Resumed
On the failure of the second Round Table  A series of repressive ordinances
Conference, the Congress Working were issued which ushered in a
Committee decided on December 29, virtual martial law, though under
1931, to resume the civil disobedience civilian control, or a 'Civil Martial
movement. Law’.
During the Truce Period (March-
December 1931) Popular Response

 In the United Provinces, the  People responded with anger.

Congress had been leading a Though unprepared, the response
movement for a rent reduction and was massive. Finally, in April 1934,
against summary evictions, Gandhi decided to withdraw the civil
 In the NWFP, severe repression had disobedience movement.
been unleashed against the Khudai
Khidmatgars Communal Award and Poona Pact
 In Bengal, draconian ordinances and
mass detentions had been used in the Communal Award was announced
name of fighting terrorism. by the British prime minister, Ramsay
 In September 1931, there was a MacDonald, on August 16, 1932.
firing incident on political prisoners Ramsay MacDonald, who had chaired
in Hijli Jail. the committee on minorities, offered to
mediate on the condition that the other
Changed Government Attitude After members of the committee supported his
Second RTC- decision. And, the outcome of this
mediation was the Communal Award.
 There were three main considerations Main Provisions of the Communal
in British policy: Award
 Gandhi would not be permitted to
build up the tempo for a mass  An arrangement for the depressed
movement again. classes was to be made for a period
 Goodwill of the Congress was not of 20 years.
required, but the confidence of those  In the provincial legislatures, the
who supported the British against the seats were to be distributed on a
Congress—government functionaries, communal basis.
 Existing seats of the provincial
loyalists, etc.—was very essential.
legislatures were to be doubled.
 Muslims, wherever they were in  The seats reserved for the depressed
minority, were to be granted a classes were increased from 71 to 147
weightage. in provincial legislatures and to 18
 Except in the Northwest Frontier percent of the total in the Central
Province, 3 percent of seats were to Legislature.
be reserved for women in all  The Poona Pact was accepted by the
provinces. government as an amendment to the
 Depressed classes to be Communal Award.
declared/accorded the status of
minority. Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits
 Depressed classes were to get
‘double vote", one to be used
through separate electorates and the
 The pact made the depressed classes
other to be used in the general
political tools that could be used by the
electorates.
majoritarian caste Hindu
 In the province of Bombay, 7
organizations.
seats were to be allocated for the
 It made the depressed classes
Marathas.
leaderless as the true representatives
of the classes were unable to win
Congress Stand
against the stooges who were chosen
 Though opposed to separate and supported by the caste Hindu
electorates, the Congress was not in organizations.
 This led to the depressed classes to
favor of changing the Communal
Award without the consent of the submit to the status quo in political,
minorities. ideological, and cultural fields and
not being able to develop
Gandhi's Response independent and genuine leadership
to fight the Brahminical order.
 Gandhi saw the Communal Award as  It subordinated the depressed classes
an attack on Indian unity and into being part of the Hindu social
nationalism. And to press his order by denying them a separate and
demands, he went on an indefinite fast distinct existence.
on September 20, 1932.  Poona Pact perhaps put obstructions
in the way of an ideal society based
Poona Pact on equality, liberty, fraternity, and
justice.
 Signed by B.R. Ambedkar on behalf  By denying to recognize the Dalits
of the depressed classes on September as a separate and distinct element in
24, 1932, the Poona Pact abandoned the national life, it pre-empted the
the idea of separate electorates for the rights and safeguards for the Dalits
depressed classes. in the Constitution of independent
India.
 Joint Electorates and Its Impact on  Throughout his Harijan tour, social
Depressed Classes work, and fasts, Gandhi stressed
The provisions of the joint electorate certain themes:
gave the Hindu majority the virtual right (i) He put forward a damning
to nominate members of the scheduled indictment of Hindu society for the
castes who were prepared to be the tools kind of oppression practiced on
of the Hindu majority. The working Harijans.
committee of the federation, thus, (ii) He called for the total eradication
demanded the restoration of the system of untouchability symbolized by his
of separate electorates, and nullification plea to throw open temples to the
of the system of joint electorates and untouchables.
reserved seats. (iii) He stressed the need for caste
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and Hindus to do 'penance' for untold
thoughts on Caste miseries inflicted on Harijans. He
said, "'Hinduism dies if
 Gandhi gave up all his other untouchability lives, untouchability
preoccupations and launched a has to die if Hinduism is to live.”
whirlwind campaign against (iv) His entire campaign was based
untouchability first from jail and then, on principles of humanism and
after his release in August 1933, from reason. He said that the Shastras do
outside jail. not sanction untouchability, and if
they did, they should be ignored as it
was against human dignity.
 Gandhi felt that whatever the
 While in jail, he set up the All India limitations and defects of the
Anti-Untouchability League varnashrama system, there was
in September 1932 and started the nothing sinful about it.
 Untouchability, Gandhi felt, was a
weekly Harijan in January 1933.
Starting from Wardha, he conducted product of distinctions of high and
a Harijan tour of the country in the low and not of the caste system
period from November 1933 to July itself.
 Impact of the Campaign-Gandhi
1934, covering 20,000 km, collecting
money for his newly set up Harijan repeatedly described the campaign as
Sevak Sangh, and propagating being primarily meant to purify
removal of untouchability in all its Hinduism and Hindu society.
forms.
Ideological Differences and
 He undertook two fasts— on May 8
Similarities between Gandhi and
and August 16, 1934, Gandhi was
Ambedkar
attacked by orthodox and reactionary
elements. The government obliged
 Gandhi, the principal architect of the
them by defeating the Temple Entry
Indian freedom struggle, and B.R.
Bill in August 1934.
 Ambedkar, the principal architect of mechanization of production and
the Constitution of independent India utilization of heavy machinery.
 The burning of foreign cloth by  To Gandhi, untouchability was one
Gandhi and the burning of of the many problems confronted by
Manusmriti by Ambedkar are not to Indian society. To Ambedkar,
be seen as mere acts of sentiment. untouchability was the major
Rather, foreign cloth and Manusmriti problem that captured his sole
represented the bondage and slavery attention.
for India.  Ambedkar wanted to solve the
 Gandhi believed that freedom was problem of untouchability through
never to be bestowed but to be laws and constitutional methods,
wrested from the authority by the whereas Gandhi treated
people who desire it, whereas untouchability as a moral stigma.
Ambedkar expected the bestowing of
freedom by the imperial rulers. …………………………………………
 Ambedkar advocated a parliamentary ………
system of government for
Debates Movement on the Future
independent India, but Gandhi had
Strategy after Civil Disobedience
very little respect for the
parliamentary system of governance. Introduction
 Gandhi believed that democracy
tends to get converted into mass  In 1934- 35, there was a debate among
democracy with a propensity for nationalists on the best course of
domination by leaders. Ambedkar action for the national movement.
was inclined towards mass  Some argued for accepting office
democracy as it could act as a under the Government of India Act, of
pressure on the government with the 1935, while others advocated for a
advancement of the oppressed non-mass struggle.
people.  In 1937, provincial elections were held
 Ambedkar s politics tended to under the autonomy provisions of the
highlight the aspect of Indian Government of India Act, of 1935.
disunity whereas Gandhian politics
tried to show the aspect of Indian The First Stage Debate
unity.
 According to Ambedkar absolute  There were three different perspectives
sovereign power of the State would on what the nationalists should do
annihilate the spirit and personality after the Civil Disobedience
of an individual. Gandhi, in fact, Movement ended.
believed in the least governance  The first was that they should continue
being the best governance. with constructive work on Gandhian
 Gandhi and Ambedkar differed lines.
greatly in their views concerning the
 The second was that they should Congress captured 45 out of 75 seats
participate in elections to the Central reserved for Indians.
Legislature.
 The third was that a strong leftist trend Government of India Act, 1935
within the Congress, represented by Amidst the struggle of 1932, the Third
Nehru, was critical of both of these RTC was held in November, again
things and argued that they would without Congress's participation. The
divert attention from the main issue of discussions led to the formulation of
the struggle against colonialism. the Act of 1935.
Main Features

Nehru’s Vision  The All India Federation was a

proposed federation of Indian states
 Nehru said, 'The basic goal before that never came to fruition.
Indian people as before people of the  The federation was conditional on the
world is the abolition of capitalism fulfillment of two conditions: that
and establishment of socialism.” states with the allotment of 52 seats in
the proposed Council of States should
Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle- agree to join the federation, and that
Truce-Struggle Strategy the aggregate population of these
states should be 50 percent of the total
 The S-T-S strategy, proposed by population of all Indian states.
Gandhi, suggests that a mass phase of  Since these conditions were not met,
the movement (struggle phase) should the central government continued to
be followed by a phase of reprieve operate under the provisions of the
(truce phase) before the next stage of Government of India Act, of 1919.
mass struggle.
 The truce period would enable the Federal Level
masses to recoup their strength and
also give the government a chance to  The Constitution of India divided the
respond to the demands of the subjects to be administered into
nationalists. reserved and transferred subjects, with
 Nehru's counter-proposal, the S-V the Governor-General in charge of the
strategy, suggests that victory should entire system.
be strived for instead of a truce.  He was responsible for the security
and tranquillity of India and could act
Finally, Yes to Council Entry in his individual judgment to discharge
his responsibilities.
 In 1934, the Indian National Congress
set up a Parliamentary Board to Legislature
contest elections.
 In the November 1934 elections to the  The 1935 Indian Constitution created a
Central Legislative Assembly, bicameral legislature with an upper
 house (Council of States) and a lower authority on the king’s behalf in a
house (Federal Assembly). province.
 The Council of States was to be a 260-  The Governor was to have special
member House elected by direct vote, powers regarding minorities, rights of
and the Federal Assembly was to be a civil servants, law and order, British
375-member house elected by indirect business interests, partially excluded
vote. areas, princely states, etc.
 The Council of States was to be a  The Governor could take over and
permanent body with one-third of indefinitely run the administration.
members retiring every third year,
while the Federal Assembly was to Legislature
have a five-year duration.
 Three lists for legislation purposes  The Communal Award led to the
were to be federal, provincial, and establishment of separate electorates
concurrent. based on communal representation.
 Members of the Federal Assembly  All members were to be directly
could move a vote of no-confidence elected and the franchise was extended
against ministers, but members of the to include women.
Council of States could not.  Ministers were to administer all
 The system of religion-based and provincial subjects in a council of
class-based electorates was further ministers headed by a premier.
extended, and 80 percent of the budget  Ministers were made answerable to
was non-votable. and removable by the adverse vote of
 The Governor-General was given the legislature.
residuary powers.  The provincial legislature could
legislate on subjects in the provincial
Provincial Autonomy and concurrent lists.
 40 percent of the budget was still not
 The Government of India Act of 1935 votable. -The governor could refuse
replaced dyarchy with provincial assent to a bill, promulgate ordinances,
autonomy and gave provinces a and enact governor’s Acts.
separate legal identity.
 Provinces were freed from the Evaluation of the Act
supervision of the secretary of state
and governor-general, and they  The Government of India Act 1935 wa
received independent financial powers s an attempt to further the process of I
and resources. ndian self-
government begun by the Government
Executive of India Act 1919.
 The Act increased the autonomy of the
 The Governor was to be the Crown's Indian provinces, while still retaining
nominee and representative to exercise the authority of the governor-general.
 The Act enfranchised 14 percent of the making the working of the Act
British Indian population. impossible.
 The Act provided a rigid constitution  The proponents of office acceptance
with no possibility of internal growth. argued that they were equally
 The right of the committed to combating the 1935 Act,
amendment was reserved with the Briti but that working in legislatures was to
sh Parliament. be only a short-term tactic.

The Long-Term British Strategy Gandhi’s Position

 Repression was used to quell the Civil  The Congress manifesto reaffirmed the
Disobedience Movement, and reforms total rejection of the 1935 Act.
were used to revive the political Congress’ Performance, Congress won
standing of constitutionalist liberals 716 out of the 1,161 seats it contested.
and moderates. It got a majority in all provinces,
 The strategy was to create dissensions except in Bengal, Assam, Punjab,
within the Congress party in order to Sindh, and the NWFP.
placate the right wing with  The Congress Party had a very
constitutional concessions and crush successful showing in the provincial
the left wing with police measures. elections of 1937.
 Provincial autonomy would create  They won a majority in all but five of
powerful provincial leaders who the provinces in which elections were
would gradually become autonomous held.
centers of political power.  The party's platform for rejecting the
1935 Act was reaffirmed in their
Nationalists’ Response election manifesto.
The 1935 Act was condemned by nearly
all sections and unanimously rejected by …………………………………………
Congress. ………..
Divided Opinion
Congress Rules in Provinces
 The left-wing of the Indian National Congress ministries were formed
Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, in Bombay, Madras, Central
Subhash Bose, and the Congress Provinces, Orissa, United Provinces,
socialists and communists, were Bihar, and later in the NWFP and
opposed to accepting offices under the
1935 Government of India Act. Assam also.
 They argued that this would negate the Gandhi’s Advice
nationalists' rejection of the Act. Gandhi advised Congressmen to hold
 As a counter-strategy, the leftists these offices lightly and not tightly. The
proposed entering the councils with offices were to be seen as "crowns of
the aim of creating deadlocks, thus thorns'
Work under Congress Ministries
 ➢ Civil Liberties  War clouds had started
hovering around 1938.
 Laws giving emergency powers  The reactionary second chamber
were repealed. (Legislative Council) dominated by
 Ban on illegal organizations, and on landlords, moneylenders, and
certain books and journals was lifted. capitalists in United
 Press restrictions were lifted. Provinces, Bihar, Bombay, Madras,
 Newspapers were taken out of and Assam had to be conciliated as
blacklists. its support was necessary for
 Confiscated arms and arms licenses legislation.
were restored.  The agrarian structure was
 Police powers were curbed and too complex.
the CID stopped shadowing
politicians. Attitude Towards Labour
 Political prisoners and The basic approach was to advance
revolutionaries were released, and workers’ interests while promoting
deportation and internment orders industrial peace. The ministries took
were revoked. recourse to Section 144 and arrested the
 In Bombay lands confiscated by the leaders.
government during the Civil ➢ Social Welfare Reforms
Disobedience Movement were
restored.  The prohibition imposed in certain
 Pensions of officials associated with areas.
the Civil Disobedience Movement  Measures for the welfare
were restored. of Harijans taken.
 Attention is given to primary,
➢ Agrarian Reforms technical, and higher education and
to public health and sanitation.
 The ministries did not  The encouragement is given to
have adequate powers. khadi through subsidies and other
 There were inadequate financial measures.
resources as a lion’s share was  Prison reforms were undertaken.
appropriated by the Government of  The encouragement is given to
India. indigenous enterprises.
 The strategy of class adjustments  Efforts taken to develop planning
was another hurdle since zamindars, through National Planning
etc., had to be conciliated and Committee set up under Congress
neutralized. president Subhash Bose in 1938.
 There was the constraint of time
since the logic of Congress politics ➢ Extra-Parliamentary Mass
was a confrontation and not Activity of Congress
cooperation with colonialism.
  launching of mass literacy Summary of Nationalist Response in
campaigns, the wake of World War II
 setting up of Congress police
stations and panchayats, ➢ Congress Crisis on Method of
 Congress Grievance Committees Struggle
presenting mass petitions to
 There were issues of bogus
government and states peoples’
membership and unethical means
movements.
employed in trying to getting into the
congressional committees and
➢ Evaluation
controlling them.
 Gandhi firmly believed that
 The 28-month Congress rule was also
Congress should first put its house in
significant for the following reasons.
 The contention that Indian self- order before the movement could
again be launched; besides, he also
government was necessary for radical
felt the masses were not in the mood
social transformation got confirmed.
for a struggle. There were others
 Congressmen demonstrated that a
who felt that the struggle should
movement could use state power to
further its ends without being co-opted. continue.
 The ministries were able to control
communal riots. ➢ Haripura and Tripuri Sessions:
 The morale of the bureaucracy came
Subhash Bose’s Views
down.
 Council work helped neutralize many  Subhash Chandra Bose was
erstwhile hostile elements (landlords, president of the Bengal Provincial
etc). Congress Committee. His main area
 People were able to perceive the shape of work lay in the organization of the
of things to come if independence was youth and promoting the trade union
won. movement. Subhash Bose did not
 Administrative work by Indians further agree with Gandhi and other leaders
weakened the myth that Indians were of the Congress on many aspects of
not fit to rule. the struggle for freedom.
 The Congress ministries resigned  He along with Jawaharlal
in October 1939 after the outbreak of Nehru opposed the Motilal Nehru
the Second World War. Report which spoke for dominion
 The Congress victory resulted in what status for India. Bose was all for full
appeared to be an anti-labor shift in independence; he also announced the
Congress attitudes that led to formation of the Independence
the Bombay Traders Disputes Act in League. When the Lahore Congress
1938. session under Jawaharlal
Nehru’s presidency adopted a
………………………………………… resolution that the Congress goal
………
 would be Toorna Swaraj’, Bose fully but nominated by the president; the
endorsed the decision. election of the president is thus a
constitutional opportunity through
➢ Haripura which the members expressed the
nature of the leadership of the
 At the Congress meeting in Haripura, Congress.
Gujarat, in February 1938, Bose  A resolution was moved by Govind
was unanimously elected president Ballabh Pant, reaffirming faith in
of the session. He was firm in his Gandhian policies and asking Bose
belief that the Congress ministries in to nominate the working committee
the provinces had immense Lin in accordance with the wishes of
revolutionary potential, as he said in Gandhiji i”, and it was passed
his presidential address. without opposition from the
 Bose also talked of the economic socialists or the communists.
development of the country through  Gandhi was not willing to lead a
planning and was instrumental in Congress struggle based on the
setting up a National Planning radical lines preferred by Bose, even
Committee later. as Bose was not willing to
 The session adopted a resolution compromise on his ideas. They
that Congress would give moral preferred a united Congress led by
support to those who were agitating Gandhi, as the national struggle was
against the governance in the of utmost importance
princely states.  Bose resigned from the president’s
post in April 1939.
➢ 1939: Subhash Wins but Congress
Faces Internal Strife ➢ Gandhi and Bose: Ideological

 In January 1939, Subhash Bose decided Differences Gandhi Ji and

to stand again for the president’s post in Subhash Chandra Bose
the Congress. Gandhi was not happy
with Bose’s candidature.  Non-Violence versus Militant
 Subhash Bose won the election by Approach: Gandhi was a firm
1580 votes against 1377, he got the full believer in ahimsa and satyagraha,
support of congress. the nonviolent way to gain any goal.
Bose believed that Gandhi's strategy
➢ Tripuri based on the ideology of non-
violence would be inadequate for
 In March 1939 the Congress session securing India’s independence.
took place at Tripuri, in the Central  Means and Ends: Bose had his eye
Provinces (near Jabalpur in present on the result of the action. Gandhi
Madhya Pradesh). felt that the nonviolent way of
 The working committee, the ruling protest that he propagated could not
body of the Congress, is not elected, be practiced unless the means and
 ends were equally good. Form of Subhash Bose believed in
Government- Bose veered towards Upanishadic teachings.
the idea that, at least in the  He revered the Bhagavad Gita and
beginning, a democratic system was inspired by Vivekananda. He
would not be adequate for the was also inspired by India of the past
process of nation rebuilding and the as reinterpreted by thinkers.
eradication of poverty and social  He named his force Azad Hind
inequality. Gandhi's ideas on Fauz, and there were many non-
government can be found in Hindus in that army and who were
the Hind Swaraj (1909), it was “the close to him. IN A was to be a
nearest he came to producing a mixture of various religions, races,
sustained work of political theory.” and castes with total social equality
 Militarism: Subhas Bose was of all soldiers.
deeply attracted to military discipline  Caste and Untouchability-
and was thankful for the basic Gandhi's goals for society were
training he received in the University mainly three: eradicating
Unit of the India Defence Force. untouchability, maintaining the
 Gandhi was against the military on varna distinctions of the caste
the whole. His Ramrajya, being system, and strengthening tolerance,
built on the concept of truth and modesty, and religiosity in India.
nonviolence and self-regulation  Bose looked forward to an India
 Ideas on Economy, Gandhi's changed by a socialist revolution that
concept of Swaraj had its own brand would bring to an end the traditional
of economic vision. He wanted a social hierarchy with its caste
decentralized economy without state system; in its place would come an
control. Bose considered economic egalitarian, casteless, and classless
freedom to be the essence of social society. Subhas Bose completely
and political freedom. rejected social inequality and the
 He was all in favor of modernization caste system.
which was necessary to be brought  Women: In Gandhi's words, “To call
about by industrialization. Bose women the weaker sex is a libel; it
classified industry into three is man's injustice to women.”
categories: heavy, medium, and Subhash Bose had a more robust
cottage. Heavy industries, he said, view of women. Bose considered
form the backbone of the national women to be the equals of men, and
economy. thus they should be prepared to fight
 Religion, Gandhi was primarily a and sacrifice for the freedom of
man of religion. Truth and non- India. In 1943, he called on women
violence were the two principles that to serve as soldiers in the Indian
helped Gandhi in evolving a National Army.
comprehensive view of religion that  This was the most radical view. He
went beyond narrow sectarianism. formed a women's regiment in the IN
A in 1943, named the Rani
 unconditional support to the Allied
of Jhansi Regiment. Rani of powers.
Jhansi Regiment  Subhas Bose and other socialists- In
 Education: Gandhi was against the their opinion, the war was being fought
English system of education as also by imperialists on both sides; each side
against the use of English as a wanted to protect its colonial possessions
medium of instruction. He wanted and gain more territories to colonize, so
education to be in the vernacular. He neither side should be supported by the
advocated free and compulsory nationalists.
education for all boys and girls  Jawaharlal Nehru was not ready to
between 7 and 14 years. accept the opinion of either Gandhi or of
 Subhash Bose was for higher the socialists.
education, especially in the technical  The CWC resolution condemned Fascist
and scientific fields, as he wanted an aggression. It said that
industrial India.  India could not be a party to a war being
fought, on the face of it, for democratic
Second World War and Nationalistic freedom, while that freedom was being
Response denied to India;
On September 1, 1939, Germany  If Britain was fighting for democracy
attacked Poland - the action that led to and freedom, it should be proved by
the Second World War. On September 3, ending imperialism in its colonies and
1939, Britain declared war against establishing full democracy in India;
Germany government should declare its war aims
➢ Congress Offer to Viceroy soon and, also, as to how the principles
of democracy were to be applied to India
 The Indian offer to cooperate in the war after the war.
effort had two basic conditions
 After the war, a constituent assembly ➢ Government Attitude and
should be convened to determine the Congress Ministries’ Resignation
political structure of a free India.
 Immediately, some form of a genuinely  Viceroy Linlithgow, in his
responsible government should be statement, made on October 17,
established at the Centre. The offer was 1939, tried to use the Muslim League
rejected by Linlithgow, the viceroy. and the princes against the Congress.
The government
➢ CWC Meeting at Wardha (i) Refused to define British war
aims beyond stating that Britain was
 Official Congress position was adopted resisting aggression;
at the Wardha session of the Congress (ii) Said it would, as part of the
Working Committee future arrangement, consult
 Gandhi, who had all sympathy for "representatives of several
Britain in this war because of his total communities, parties and interests in
dislike of the fascist ideology, advocated India, and the Indian princes” as to
 how the Act of 1935 might be Congress was held in March 1940
modified; with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in
(iii) Said it would immediately set up the president’s chair. All agreed that
a "consultative committee" whose a battle must be waged but there was
advice could be sought whenever disagreement over the form.
 Pakistan Resolution: Lahore
required. Viceroy Linlithgow (March 1940) -The Muslim League
 Government’s Hidden passed a resolution calling for the
Agenda: Linlithgow’s statement was “grouping of geographically
not an aberration, but a part of contiguous areas where Muslims are
general British policy—"to take in majority (North West, East) into
advantage of the war to regain the
lost ground from the Congress’' In independent states.
May 1940, a top-secret Draft
Revolutionary Movement Ordinance ➢ August Offer
had been prepared, aimed at
launching crippling pre-emptive  Linlithgow announced the August
strikes on the Congress. Offer (August 1940) which
 Congress Ministries Decide to proposed:
Resign: On October 23, 1939, the (i) Dominion status as the objective
CWC meeting for India;
(i) Rejected the viceregal statement (ii) Expansion of viceroy’s executive
as a reiteration of the old imperialist council which would have a majority
policy; of Indians
(ii) Decided not to support the war; (iii) Setting up of a constituent
and assembly after the war where mainly
(iii) Called upon the Congress Indians would decide the
ministries to resign in the provinces. constitution according to their social,
 Debate on the Question of economic, and political conceptions,
Immediate Mass Satyagraha- subject to fulfillment of the
Gandhi and his supporters were not obligation of the government
in favor of an immediate struggle regarding defense, minority rights,
because they felt that the treaties with States, all Indian
(i) Allied cause was just; communal services; and
sensitiveness and lack of Hindu- (iv) No future constitution to be
Muslim unity could result in adopted without the consent of
communal riots; minorities.
(ii) Congress organization was in  Responses: The Congress rejected
shambles and the atmosphere was the August Offer. The Muslim
not conducive for a mass struggle; League welcomed the veto assurance
and given to the League
(iii) Masses were not ready for a  Evaluation: In July 1941, the
struggle. The Ramgarh session of the viceroy’s executive council was
 enlarged to give the Indians a ➢ Gandhi Designates Nehru as his
majority of 8 out of 12 for the first Successor
time, but the British remained in
charge of defense, finance, and  CWC overrode
home. Gandhi’s and Nehru’s objections
and passed a resolution offering to
➢ Individual Satyagrahas cooperate with the government in the
defense of India, if
 The government had taken the (i) Full independence was given after
adamant position that no the war, and
constitutional advance could be (ii) Substance of power was
made till the Congress came to an transferred immediately.
agreement with the Muslim leaders.  Nehru and Gandhi differed in
It issued ordinance after ordinance temperament and attitudes towards
taking away the freedom of speech modernity, religion, God, State, and
and that of the press and the right industrialization. Despite having so
to organize associations. many differences, Nehru revered
 The aims of launching individual Gandhi, and Gandhi, in turn,
satyagraha were— believed in Nehru more than his own
(i) To show that nationalist patience sons.
was not due to weakness;
(ii) To express people’s feeling that ➢ Both teacher and disciple had
they were not interested in the war fundamental similarities
and that they made no distinction
between Nazism and the double  Patriotism in an inclusive sense, i.e.,
autocracy that ruled India; and they identified with India as a whole
(iii) To give another opportunity to rather than with a particular caste,
the government to accept Congress’ language, region, or religion. Both
demands peacefully. believed in non-violence and a
 If the government did not arrest the democratic form of government.
satyagraha, he or she would not only  Rajmohan Gandhi, in his book, The
repeat it but move into villages and Good Boatman, writes that Gandhi
start a march towards Delhi, thus preferred Nehru to the alternatives
precipitating a movement which because he most reliably reflected the
came to be known as the "Delhi pluralist, inclusive idea of India that
Chalo Movement’. the Mahatma himself stood for.
 Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer
the satyagraha and Nehru, the ➢ Cripps Mission
second. By May 1941,
25,000 people had been convicted  In March 1942, a mission headed by
for individual civil disobedience. Stafford Cripps was sent to India
with constitutional proposals to seek
Indian support for the war.
 ➢ Why Cripps Mission was Sent the governor-general's powers would
remain intact.
 Because of the reverses suffered by
Britain in South - East Asia, the Japanese ➢ Departures from the Past and
threat to invade India seemed real now Implications-
and Indian support became crucial. There
was pressure on Britain from the Allies  The proposals differed from those
(USA, USSR, China) to seek Indian offered in the past in many respects—
cooperation.  The making of the constitution was to
 Indian nationalists had agreed to support be solely in Indian hands now l and not
the Allied cause if substantial power was 'mainly' in Indian hands—as contained
transferred immediately and complete in the August Offer).
independence given after the war.  A concrete plan was provided for
the constituent assembly.
➢ Main Proposals: The main  The option was available to any
proposals of the mission were as follows. province to have a separate
constitution a blueprint for India’s
 An Indian Union with a dominion partition. Free India could withdraw
status would be set up; it would be from the Commonwealth.
free to decide its relations with the  Indians were allowed a large share in
Commonwealth and free to participate the administration in the interim
in the United Nations and other period.
international bodies.
 After the end of the war, a constituent Why the Cripps Mission Failed
assembly would be convened to frame Various parties and groups had
a new constitution. Members of this objections to the proposals on different
assembly would be partly elected by points
the provincial assemblies through ➢ Congress objected to
proportional representation and partly
nominated by the princes.  The offer of dominion status instead
 The British government would of a provision for
accept the new constitution subject to complete independence;
two conditions: Any province not  Representation of the princely states
willing to join the Union could have a by nominees and not by elected
separate constitution and form representatives;
a separate Union, and The new  Right to provinces to secede as this
constitution-making body and went against the principle of national
the British government would unity; and
negotiate a treaty to effect the transfer  Absence of any plan for immediate
of power and to safeguard racial and transfer of power and absence of any
religious minorities. real share in defense; the governor-
 In the meantime, the defense of India general's supremacy had been
would remain in British hands, and retained, and the demand that the
 governor-general is only the invasion. The CWC meeting at Wardha
constitutional head had not been (July 14, 1942) accepted the idea of a
accepted.
 Nehru and Maulana Azad were the struggle.
official negotiators for the Congress. ➢ Why Start a Struggle Now

The reasons were several

Failure of the Cripps Mission to solve
➢ Muslim League the constitutional deadlock
 There was popular discontent because
 Criticized the idea of a single Indian of rising prices and shortage of rice,
Union; salt, etc., and because of factors such
 Did not like the machinery for the as commandeering of boats in Bengal
creation of a constituent assembly and Orissa.
and the procedure to decide on the  There were fears of Britain following a
accession of provinces to the Union, scorched earth policy in Assam, Bengal
and Thought that the proposals and Orissa against possible Japanese
denied the Muslims the right to self- advance.
determination and the creation of  News of reverses suffered by the
Pakistan. British in South- East Asia and an
imminent British collapse enhanced
………………………………………… popular willingness to give expression
…….. to discontent.
Quit India movement, Demand for  The Japanese troops were approaching
Pakistan and the INA the borders of India. Popular faith in
the stability of British rule was so low
Table of contents that people were withdrawing deposits
from banks and post offices.
 British behaviour towards the Indian
Quit India Movement
subjects in South-East Asia exposed
the racist attitude of the rulers.
Gandhi’s General Instructions to Different Sections
 Leadership wanted to condition the
masses for a possible Japanese
Government Repression invasion.

➢ The ‘Quit India’ Resolution

Gandhi Fasts
 Quit India Resolution was ratified at
Quit India Movement the Congress meeting at Gowalia Tank,
Alter Cripps’ departure, Gandhi framed a Bombay, on August 8, 1942. The
resolution calling for British withdrawal meeting also resolved to
and a nonviolent non-cooperation  Demand an immediate end to British
movement against any Japanese rule in India.
 Declare commitment of free India to participants in these activities were
defend itself against all types of the Socialists, Forward Bloc
Fascism and imperialism. members, Gandhi ashramites,
 Form a provisional Government of revolutionary nationalists and local
India after British withdrawal. organisations
 Sanction a civil disobedience  Parallel Governments-Parallel
movement against British rule. governments were established at
many places:
Gandhi’s General Instructions to (i) Ballia (in August 1942 for a
Different Sections week)—under Chittu Pandey.
➢ Government servants (ii) Tamluk (Midnapore, from
December 1942 to September
 Do not resign but declare your 1944)—Jatiya Sarkar
allegiance to the Congress. (iii) Satara (mid-1943 to 1945)—
 Soldiers: Do not leave the Army but do named "Prati Sarkar'', was organised
not fire on compatriots.
 Students: If confident, leave studies. ➢ The extent of Mass Participation
 Peasants: If zamindars are anti-
government, pay mutually agreed rent,  Youth, especially the students of
and if zamindars are pro-government, schools and colleges, remained at the
do not pay rent. forefront.
 Princes: Support the masses and accept  Women, especially school and
the sovereignty of your people. college girls, actively participated
 Princely states' people: Support the and included Aruna Asaf Ali,
ruler only if he is anti-government and Sucheta Kripalani and Usha Mehta.
declare yourselves to be a part of the  Workers went on strikes and faced
Indian nation. repression.
 Peasants of all strata were at the
➢ The spread of the Movement heart of the movement. Even some
zamindars participated.
 Congress Working Committee, the  Government officials, especially
All India Congress Committee and those belonging to lower levels in
the Provincial Congress Committees policy and administration,
were declared unlawful associations participated resulting in erosion of
under the Criminal Law Amendment government loyalty.
Act of 1908.  Muslims helped by giving shelter to
 Public on Rampage- The general underground activists. There were no
public attacked symbols of authority, communal clashes during the
and hoisted national flags forcibly on movement.
public buildings.  The Communists did not join the
 Underground Activity- Many movement; in the wake of Russia
nationalists went underground and (where the communists were in
took to subversive activities. The power) being attacked by Nazi
 Germany, the communists began to agenda of the national movement.
support the British war against After Quit India, there could be no
Germany and the Imperialist War' retreat.
became the 'People’s War’.  In this struggle, the common people
 The Muslim League opposed the displayed unparalleled heroism and
movement, fearing that if the British militancy. The repression they faced
left India at that time, the minorities was the most brutal, and the
would be oppressed by the Hindus. circumstances under which
 The Hindu Mahasabha boycotted resistance was offered were most
the movement. adverse.
 The Princely states showed a low-
key response. Gandhi Fasts
In February 1943, Gandhi started a fast
Government Repression as an answer to an exhortation by the
Although martial law was not applied, government to condemn violence; the
the repression was severe. fast was directed against the violence of
➢ Estimate
the State. Gandhi Begins Hunger
 Left without leaders, there was no Strike
restraint and violence became The fast achieved the following
common.
 Main storm centres of the movement  Public morale was raised.
were in eastern United Provinces,  The anti-British feeling was
Bihar, Midnapore, Maharashtra, heightened.
Karnataka.  An opportunity was provided for
 Students, workers and peasants were political activity.
the backbones of the movement  Government's high-handedness was
while the upper classes and the exposed. Gandhi got the better of his
bureaucracy remained largely loyal. opponents and refused to oblige by
 Loyalty to government suffered dying. On March 23, 1943, Pakistan
considerable erosion. Day was observed
 The movement established the truth
that it was no longer possible to rule ➢ Famine of 1943
India without the wishes of Indians.
 Horror and inconveniences of war
 the element of spontaneity was
higher than before, although a were increased by the famine of
certain degree of the popular 1943. The worst-affected areas were
initiative had been sanctioned by the
south-west Bengal. Bengal
leadership itself, subject to
Famine
limitations of the instructions.
 The fundamental causes of the
 Great significance was that the
famine were as follows
movement placed the demand for
(i) The need to feed a vast Army
independence on the immediate
diverted foodstuffs.
 (ii) Rice imports from Burma and the draft proposal for the formation
South-East Asia had been stopped. of an interim government at the
(iii) The famine got aggravated by centre, consisting of—
gross mismanagement and deliberate  An equal number of persons
profiteering; rationing methods were nominated by the Congress and the
belated and were confined to big League in the central legislature.
cities. 20% reserved seats for minorities.

➢ Rajagopalachari Formula ➢ Wavell Plan

 The Formula: C. Rajagopalachari  Why the Government was Keen on a

(CR), the veteran Congress leader, Solution Now
prepared a formula for Congress- (i) General election in England was
League cooperation in 1944. The scheduled for mid-1945. The
main points in the CR Plan were: Conservatives wanted to be seen as
(i) Muslim League to endorse sincere on reaching a solution.
Congress demand for independence. (ii) There was pressure from the
(ii) League to cooperate with Allies to seek further Indian
Congress in forming a provisional cooperation in the war.
government at the centre. (iii) Government wanted to divert
(iii) After the end of the war, the Indian energies into channels more
entire population of Muslim majority profitable for the British.
areas in the North-West and North-  The Plan- A conference was
East India to decide by a plebiscite, convened by the viceroy, Lord
whether or not to form a separate Wavell, at Shimla in June 1945. The
sovereign state. main proposals of the Wavell Plan
(iv) In case of acceptance of were as follows.
partition, agreement to be made (i) With the exception of the
jointly for safeguarding defence, governor-general and the
commerce, communications, etc. commander-in-chief, all members of
(v) Above terms to be operative only the executive council were to be
if England transferred full powers to Indians.
India. (ii) Caste Hindus and Muslims were
 Objections- Jinnah wanted Congress to have equal representation.
to accept the two-nation theory. (iii) Reconstructed council was to
Hindu leaders led by Vir Savarkar function as an interim government
condemned the CR Plan. within the framework of the 1935
Act (i.e. not responding to the
➢ Desai-Liaqat Pact Central Assembly).
(iv) Governor-general was to
 Bhulabhai Desai, met Liaqat Ali exercise his veto on the advice of
Khan and both of them came up with ministers.
 (v) Representatives of different  Bose came to be called 'Netaji' by
parties were to submit a joint list to the people of Germany. He gave the
the viceroy for nominations to the famous slogan, ‘Jai Hind' from the
executive council. If a joint list was Free India Centre, Germany, He
not possible, then separate lists were began regular broadcasts from Berlin
to be submitted. radio in January 1942, which
(vi) Possibilities were to be kept enthused Indians.
open for negotiations on a new
constitution once the war was finally ➢ Origin and First Phase of the
won, Indian National Army-(INA)
 Muslim League’s Stand- The
League claimed some kind of veto in  The idea of creating an army out of
the council with decisions opposed the Indian prisoners of war (POWs)
to Muslims needing a two-thirds was originally that of Mohan Singh.
majority for approval. The Japanese handed over the Indian
 Congress Stand- The Congress prisoners of war to Mohan Singh
objected to the plan as "an attempt to who tried to recruit them into an
reduce the Congress to the status of a Indian National Army.
pure caste Hindu party and insisted  INA got a boost with the outbreak of
on its right to include members of all the Quit India Movement in India. In
communities among its nominees September 1942, the first division of
 Wavell’s Mistake- Wavell the INA was formed with 16,300
announced a breakdown of talks thus men.
giving the League a virtual veto.  The second phase began with the
arrival of Subhash Bose in
➢ The Indian National Army and Singapore. But before that in June
1943, Subhash Chandra Bose (under
Subhash Bose pseudo name Abid Hussain) reached
Tokyo; met the Japanese prime
 Subhash Chandra Bose was an minister, Tojo.
intrepid man. He passed the Indian  In Japan, Rashbehari Bose
Civil Services examination securing eventually became a naturalized
the fourth position but resigned from citizen He founded the Indian Club
the service in 1921 to join the of Tokyo and gave lectures on the
struggle for freedom. evils of Western imperialism.
 His political guru was Chittaranjan  Subhash Bose became Supreme
Das. He became mayor of Calcutta Commander of the INA on August
in 1923.1n March 1940, Bose 25. On October 21, 1943, Subhash
convened an Anti-Compromise Bose formed the Provisional
Conference at Ramgarh; it was a Government for Free India at
joint effort of the Forward Bloc and Singapore with H.C.
the Kisan Sabha. Chatterjee (Finance portfolio), M.A.
Aiyar (Broadcasting), Lakshmi
 Swaminathan (Women Department), Table of contents
etc. The famous slogan—"Give me
blood, I will give you freedom" was
given in Malaya The INA Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials
headquarters was shifted to Rangoon
(in Burma) in January 1944, and the Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46
army recruits were to march from
there with the war cry "Chalo Three-Stage Pattern
Delhi]” on their lips.
 On November 6, 1943, Andaman
and Nicobar islands were given by Stage II. When the City People Join In
the Japanese army to the INA; the
islands were renamed as Shahid Stage III. When People in Other Parts of the Country Ex
Dweep and Swaraj Dweep
respectively. On July 6, 1944,
Election Results
Subhas Bose addressed Mahatma
Gandhi as 'Father of Nation'—from
the Azad Hind Radio (the first The Cabinet Mission
person to call Gandhi, Father of
Nation’). Main Objections
 Azad Hind Fauz crossed the Burma
border and stood on Indian soil on
March 18, 1944. The INA units Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism
subsequently advanced up to Kohima
and Imphal. On April 14, Colonel ➢ Two Strands of National Upsurge
Malik of the Bahadur Group hoisted
the INA flag for the first time on the  Two basic strands of national upsurge
Indian mainland at Moirang, in can be identified during the last two
Manipur (where the INA Memorial years of British rule.
Complex stands today) to (i) Tortuous negotiations involving the
enthusiastic cries of “Jai Hind" and government, Congress and Muslim
"Netaji Zindabad" On August 15, League, increasingly accompanied by
1945, the surrender of Japan in the communal violence and culminating in
Second World War took place and
freedom and the partition.
with this the INA also surrendered.
(ii) Sporadic, localised and often
 On August 18, 1945, reportedly,
extremely militant and united mass
Subhash Bose died mysteriously in
action by workers, peasants and states'
an air-crash at Taipei (Taiwan).
peoples which took the form of a
………………………………………… countrywide strike wave. This kind of
activity was occasioned by the INA
………
Release Movement, Royal Indian
Post-War National Scenario Navy (RIN) revolt, Tebhaga
 movement, Worli revolt, Punjab Kisan police in the presence of INA men with
Morchas, Travancore peoples' struggle some military experience.
(especially the Punnapra-Vayalar  Elections were inevitable once the war
episode) and the Telangana peasant ended since the last elections had been
revolt. held in 1934 for the Centre and in
 Wav ell Plan backed by the 1937 for the provinces.
Conservative government in Britain
failed to break the constitutional Congress Election Campaign and
deadlock. In July 1945, the Labour INA Trials
Party formed the government in
Britain. In August 1945, elections to
central and provincial assemblies were 1945 INA Trials
announced. In September 1945, it was ➢ Election Campaign for
announced that a constituent assembly Nationalistic Aims:
would be convened after the elections
 The most significant feature of the
➢ Why a Change in Government’s election campaign was that it sought to
Attitude mobilise the Indians against the British
The election campaign expressed the
 End of the War resulted in a change in nationalist sentiments against the state
the balance of global power—the UK repression of the 1942 Quit India
was no more a big power while upsurge.
the USA and USSR emerged as  This was done by glorifying martyrs
superpowers, both of which favoured and condemning officials.
freedom for India.
 New Labour government was more ➢ Congress Support for INA
sympathetic to Indian demands. Prisoners
 Throughout Europe, there was a
wave of socialist radical governments.  At the first post-War Congress session
 British soldiers were weary and tired in September 1945 at Bombay, a
and the British economy lay shattered. strong resolution was adopted
 There was an anti-imperialist wave declaring Congress support for the INA
in South-East Asia—in Vietnam and cause.
 Defence of INA prisoners in the court
Indonesia— resisting efforts to replant
French and Dutch rule there. was organized by Bhulabhai Desai,
⇒ Officials feared another Congress Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath
revolt, a revival of the 1942 situation Katju, Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf
but much more dangerous because of a Ali.
 INA Relief and Enquiry Committee
likely combination of attacks on
communications, agrarian revolts, distributed small sums of money and
labour trouble, army disaffection food and helped arrange employment
joined by government officials and the for the affected.
 Fund collection was organised
 ➢ The INA Agitation—A Landmark joined. Some arrests provoked the
on Many Counts students to defy Section 144.
 Rebellion by Naval Ratings- On
 Celebrations of INA Day (November February 18, 1946, some 1100 Royal
12, 1945) and INA week (November 5- Indian Navy (RIN ) ratings of HMIS
11). Talwar went on a strike to protest
 Nerve centres of the agitation were against racial discrimination,
Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, unpalatable food, abuse by superior
United Provinces towns and Punjab, officers, the arrest of a rating for
the campaign spread to distant places scrawling 'Quit India’ on HMIS
such as Coorg, Baluchistan and Talwar, INA trials And the use of
Assam. The forms of participation Indian troops in Indonesia, demanding
included fund contributions made by their withdrawal.
many people
Stage II. When the City People Join
Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46 In
➢ There were three major upsurges This phase was marked by a virulent
anti-British mood resulting in the virtual
 November 21, 1945—in Calcutta over paralysis of Calcutta and Bombay.
the INA trials. Stage III. When People in Other
 February 11, 1946—in Calcutta Parts of the Country Express
against the seven-year sentence to INA Sympathy and Solidarity
officer Rashid Ali. While the students boycotted classes and
 February 18, 1946—in Bombay, a organised hartals and processions to
strike by the Royal Indian Navy express sympathy with other students
ratings. and the ratings, there were sympathetic
strikes
Three-Stage Pattern ➢ Evaluation of Potential and
➢ Stage I. When a Group Defies Impact of the Three Upsurges
Authority and is Repressed
 Fearless action by the masses was an
 In the first instance of this stage expression of militancy in the popular
(November 21, 1945), a student mind.
procession had joined up with the  Revolt in the armed forces had a great
League and the Congress, tied flags as liberating effect on the minds of
a symbol of anti-imperialist unity, people.
marched to Dalhousie Square—the seat  RIN revolt was seen as an event
of government in Calcutta. marking the end of British rule. These
 In the next step (February 11, 1946), upsurges prompted the British to
the protest was led by Muslim League extend some concessions:
students in which some Congress and  On December 1, 1946, the government
communist students’ organisations announced that only those INA
members accused of murder or brutal
 treatment of fellow prisoners would be  Elections witnessed communal voting
brought to trial. in contrast to the strong anti- British
 Imprisonment sentences passed against unity shown in various upsurges due to
the first batch were remitted  Separate electorates; and
in January 1947.  Limited franchise—for the provinces,
 Indian soldiers were withdrawn from less than 10 per cent of the population
Indo-China and Indonesia could vote and for the Central
by February 1947. Assembly.
 The decision to send a parliamentary
delegation to India (November 1946) The Cabinet Mission
was taken. Attlee government announced in
 The decision to send Cabinet Mission February 1946 the decision to send a
was taken in January 1946. high-powered mission of three British
cabinet members
Election Results ➢ Why British Withdrawal Seemed
➢ Performance of the Congress Imminent Now

 It got 91 per cent of non-Muslim votes.  The success of nationalist forces in the
 It captured 57 out of 102 seats in the struggle for hegemony was fairly
Central Assembly. evident by the end of the War.
 In the provincial elections, it got a Nationalism had penetrated into
majority in most provinces except in hitherto untouched sections and areas.
Bengal, Sindh and Punjab.  There was a demonstration in favour of
The Congress majority provinces nationalism among the bureaucracy
included the NWFP and Assam which and the loyalist sections; because the
were being claimed for Pakistan. paucity of European ICS recruits and a
policy of Indianisation had ended the
➢ Muslim League’s Performance British domination of the ICS and
by 1939, there existed a British-Indian
 It got 86.6 per cent of the Muslim parity.
votes.  British strategy of conciliation and
 It captured the 30 reserved seats in the repression had its limitations and
Central Assembly. contradictions
 In the provincial elections, it got a  After the Cripps’ Offer, there was little
majority in Bengal and Sindh. left to offer for conciliation except for
 Unlike in 1937, now the League full freedom.
clearly established itself as the  When non-violent resistance was
dominant party among Muslims. repressed with force, the naked force
 In Punjab A Unionist-Congress-Akali behind the government stood exposed,
coalition under Khizr Hayat Khan while if the government did not clamp
assumed power. down on sedition' or made offers for a
truce, it was seen to be unable to wield
➢ Significant Features of Elections- authority, and its prestige suffered.
 Efforts to woo the Congress dismayed ➢ Cabinet Mission Arrives
the loyalists. This policy of an unclear
mix presented a dilemma for the  The Cabinet Mission reached Delhi
services, who nevertheless had to on March 24, 1946. It had prolonged
implement it. The prospect of Congress discussions with Indian leaders of all
ministries coming to power in the parties and groups on the issues of (i)
provinces further compounded this interim government; and (ii) principles
dilemma. and procedures for framing a new
 Constitutionalism or Congress constitution giving freedom to India.
Raj had proved to be a big morale-
booster and helped in deeper ➢ Cabinet Mission Plan—Main
penetration of patriotic sentiments
among the masses. Points
 Demands of leniency for INA prisoners
 Rejection of the demand for a full-
from within the Army and the revolt of
the RIN ratings had raised fears that fledged Pakistan,
the armed forces may not be as reliable (i) Grouping of existing provincial
if the Congress started a 1942-type assemblies into three sections: Section-
mass movement, this time aided by the A: Madras, Bombay, Central
provincial ministries. Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and
 The Only alternative to all-out Orissa; Hindu-majority provinces)
repression of a mass movement was an Section-B: Punjab, North
entirely official rule which seemed (ii) West Frontier Province and Sindh
impossible now because the necessary (Muslim-majority provinces) Section-
numbers and efficient officials were C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-
not available. majority provinces).
 Three-tier executive and legislature at
 The government realised that a
settlement was necessary for burying provincial, section and union levels.
 A constituent assembly was to be
the ghost of a mass movement and for
good future Indo-British relations elected by provincial assemblies by
proportional representation. This
➢ On the Eve of Cabinet Mission constituent assembly would be a 389-
Plan- member body.
 In the constituent assembly, members
 The Congress demanded that power from groups A, B and C were to sit
be transferred to one centre and that separately to decide the constitution for
minorities' demands be worked out in a provinces and if possible, for the
framework ranging from autonomy to groups also. Then, the whole
Muslim- majority provinces to self- constituent assembly would sit together
determination or secession from the to formulate the union constitution.
Indian Union—but, only after the  A common centre would control
British left. defence, communication and external
 affairs. A federal structure was option of not joining a group in the
envisaged for India. first place.
 Communal questions in the central  Compulsory grouping contradicts the
legislature were to be decided by a oft-repeated insistence on provincial
simple majority of both communities autonomy.
present and voting.  Absence of provision for elected
 Provinces were to have full autonomy members from the princely states in the
and residual powers. constituent assembly was not
 Princely states were no longer to be acceptable.
under the paramountcy of the British
government. They would be free to ➢ League
enter into an arrangement with
successor governments or the British  Grouping should be compulsory with
government. sections B and C developing into solid
 After the first general elections, a entities with a view to future secession
province was to be free to come out of into Pakistan.
a group and after 10 years, a province
was to be free to call for a ➢ Acceptance and Rejection
reconsideration of the group or the
union constitution.  Muslim League on June 6 and the
 Meanwhile, an interim government was Congress on June 24, 1946, accepted
to be formed from the constituent the long-term plan put forward by the
assembly. Cabinet Mission.
 July 1946 Elections were held in
➢ Different Interpretations of the provincial assemblies for the
Grouping Clause Constituent Assembly.
 July 10, 1946, Nehru stated, "We are
 Congress: To the Congress, the not bound by a single thing except that
Cabinet Mission Plan was against the we have decided to go into the
creation of Pakistan since grouping Constituent Assembly. The big
was optional; one constituent assembly probability is that there would be no
was envisaged, and the League no grouping as NWFP and Assam would
longer had a veto. have objections to joining sections B
 Muslim League: The Muslim League and C.”
believed Pakistan to be implied in a  July 29, 1946, The League withdrew
compulsory grouping. its acceptance of the long-term plan in
response to Nehru’s statement and
Main Objections gave a call for "direct action" from
➢ Congress August 16 to achieve Pakistan.

 Provinces should not have to wait till ➢ Communal Holocaust and the
the first general elections to come out Interim Government
of a group. They should have the
 From August 16, 1946, the Indian viceroy demanding the resignation of
scene was rapidly transformed. There League members and threatening the
were communal riots on an withdrawal of their own nominees.
unprecedented scale, which left around
several thousand dead. The worst-hit Characteristic Features of Indian
areas were Calcutta, Bombay, Communalism
Noakhali, Bihar and Garhmukteshwar Communalism (more accurately
(United Provinces). ‘sectarianism') is basically an ideology,
 Changed Government Priorities- which gives more importance to one’s
Wavell was now eager to somehow get own ethnic/religious group rather than to
the Congress into the Interim the wider society as a whole, evolved
Government, even if the League stayed through three broad stages in India.
out ➢ Communal Nationalism
 Interim Government-Fearing mass
action by the Congress, a Congress-  The notion that since a group or a
dominated Interim Government headed section of people belong to a particular
by Nehru was sworn in on September religious community, their secular
2, 1946, Wavell quietly brought the interests are the same, i.e., even those
Muslim League into the Interim matters which have got nothing to do
Government on October 26, 1946. The with religion affect all of them equally.
League was allowed to join
(i) without giving up the ‘direct ➢ Liberal Communalism
action’;
(ii) despite its rejection of the Cabinet  The notion that since two religious
Mission’s long term and short-term communities have different religious
plans; and interests, they have different interests
(iii) despite the insistence on in the secular sphere also (i.e., in
compulsory grouping with decisions economic, political and cultural
being taken by a majority vote by a spheres).
section as a whole
➢ Extreme Communalism
➢ Obstructionist Approach and
Ulterior Motives of League-  The notion that not only do different
religious communities have different
 The League did not attend the interests but also that these interests
Constituent Assembly which had its are incompatible, i.e., two communities
first meeting on December 9, 1946. cannot co-exist because the interests of
Consequently, the Assembly had to one community come into conflict with
confine itself to passing a general those of the other.
'Objectives Resolution' drafted by
Jawaharlal Nehru. ➢ Reasons for Growth of
 In February 1947, nine Congress Communalism
members of the cabinet wrote to the
 Socio-economic Reasons  1916: The Congress accepted the
 British Policy of Divide and Rule Muslim League demand of separate
 Communalism in History Writing electorates and the Congress and the
 Side-effects of socio-religious Reform League presented joint demands to the
Movements-Reform movements such government.
as the Wahabi Movement among  1920-22: Muslims participated in the
Muslims and Shuddhi among Hindus Rowlatt and Khilafat Non-Cooperation
with their militant overtones made the agitations but there was a communal
role of religion more vulnerable to element in the political outlook of the
communalism. Muslims.
 Side-effects of Militant Nationalism  The 1920s: The shadow of communal
Communal Reaction by Majority riots loomed large over the country.
Community-The Rashtriya  1928: The Nehru Report on
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was constitutional reforms as suggested by
established in 1925 the Congress was opposed by Muslim
hardliners and the Sikh League.
➢ Evolution of the Two-Nation
Theory- The development of the two- ➢ By negotiating with the Muslim
nation theory over the years is as League, Congress made a number of
follows: mistakes:

 1887: Syed Ahmed Khan appealed to  It gave legitimacy to the politics of the
the educated Muslims to stay away League, thus giving recognition to the
from the Congress, although some division of society into separate
Muslims did join the Congress. communities with separate interests.
 1906: Agha Khan led a Muslim  It undermined the role of secular,
delegation (called the Shimla nationalist Muslims.
delegation) to the viceroy, Lord Minto,  Concessions to one community
to demand separate electorates for prompted other communities to
Muslims at all levels demand similar concessions.
 1909: Separate electorates were  Launching an all-out attack on
awarded under Morley-Minto Reforms. communalism became difficult.
Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded by  1930-34: Some Muslim groups, such
U.N. Mukherji and Lai Chand. as the Jamaat- ulema-i-Hind, State of
 1915: The first session of All India Kashmir and Khudai Khidmatgar
Hindu Mahasabha was held under the participated in the Civil Disobedience
aegis of the Maharaja of Kasim Bazar. Movement but overall the participation
 1912-24: During this period, the of Muslims was nowhere attended all
Muslim League was dominated by three of them.
younger Muslim nationalists, but their  1932: The Communal Award accepted
nationalism was inspired by a all Muslim communal demands
communal view of political questions. contained in the 14 points.
 After 1937: After the Muslim League
performed badly in the 1937 provincial the Indian subcontinent. Clement
elections, it decided to resort to Attlee
extreme communalism. There were ➢ Main Points of Attlee’s Statement
several reasons for the advent of
extreme communalism.  The deadline of June 30, 1948, was
 With increasing radicalisation, the fixed for transfer of power even if
reactionary elements searched for a the Indian politicians had not agreed
social base through channels of by that time on the constitution.
communalism.  British would relinquish power
 The colonial administration had either to some form of central
exhausted all other means to divide government or in some areas to the
nationalists. existing provincial governments if
 Earlier failures to challenge communal the constituent assembly was not
tendencies had emboldened the fully representative, i.e., if the
communal forces. Muslim majority provinces did not
 1937-39: Jinnah blocked all avenues join.
for conciliation by forwarding the  British powers and obligations vis-
impossible demand that the Congress a-vis the princely states would lapse
should declare itself a Hindu with the transfer of power, but these
organisation and recognise the Muslim would not be transferred to any
League as the sole representative of successor government in British
the Indian Muslims. India.
 March 24, 1940: The 'Pakistan  Mountbatten would replace Wavell
Resolution' was passed at the Lahore as the viceroy. The statement
session of the Muslim League contained clear hints of partition and
 During Second World War The British even Balkanisation of the country
India Government gave a virtual veto into numerous states and was, in
to the League on a political settlement. essence, a reversion of the Cripps
Offer.
…………………………………………
………. ➢ Why a Date Fixed by Government
for Withdrawal
Independence with Partition
 The government hoped that a fixed
Attlee’s Statement of February 20,
1947 date would shock the parties into an
Clement Attlee, the British prime agreement on the main question.
 The government was keen to avert
minister, sensing the trouble all around,
made an announcement on February 20, the developing constitutional crisis.
 The government hoped to convince
1947. The British House of Commons
declared the British intention of leaving the Indians of British sincerity.
 Truth in WavelTs assessment could
no longer be denied.
 ➢ Congress Stand  Sindh would take its own decision.
 Referendums in NWFP and the
 Provision of transfer of power to Sylhet district of Bengal would
more than one center was acceptable decide the fate of these areas.
to Congress because it meant that the  Since the Congress had conceded a
existing assembly could go ahead unified India, all their other points
and frame a constitution for the areas would be met, namely,
represented by it, and it offered a (i) Independence for princely states
way out of the existing deadlock. ruled out—they would join either
India or Pakistan;
➢ Independence and Partition (ii) Independence for Bengal ruled
out;
 On March 10, 1947, Nehru stated the accession of Hyderabad to
that the Cabinet Mission was the best Pakistan ruled out;
solution if carried out; the only real (iii) freedom to come on August 15,
alternative was the partition of 1947; and
Punjab and Bengal. In April 1947, (iv) A boundary commission to be
the Congress president, Kripalani, set up if the partition was to be
communicated to the viceroy effected.
 Mountbatten as the
Viceroy, Mountbatten proved more ➢ Why Congress Accepted Dominion
firm and quick in taking decisions Status
than his predecessors because he was
informally given more powers to  It would ensure a peaceful and quick
decide things on the spot. His task transfer of power;
was to explore the options of unity  It was more important for Congress
and division till October 1947 and to assume the authority to check the
then advise the British government explosive situation; and
 Would allow for some much-needed
on the form of transfer of power. continuity in the bureaucracy and the
Louis Mountbatten army.
➢ Mountbatten Plan, June 3,1947 ➢ The rationale for an Early Date
(August 15, 1947)
 Punjab and Bengal Legislative
Assemblies would meet in two  The plan was put into effect without
groups, Hindus and Muslims, to vote the slightest delay. The legislative
for partition. If a simple majority of assemblies of Bengal and Punjab
either group voted for partition, then decided in favor of the partition of
these provinces would be partitioned. these two provinces.
 In the case of partition, two  Thus, East Bengal and West Punjab
dominions and two constituent joined Pakistan; West Bengal and
assemblies would be created.
 East Punjab remained with the  There was a delay in announcing the
Indian Union. Boundary Commission Award
(under Radcliffe); though the award
was ready by August 12, 1947,
➢ Indian Independence Act Mountbatten decided to make it
public after August 15 so that the
 On July 5, 1947, the British British could escape all
Parliament passed the Indian responsibility of disturbances.
Independence Act which was based
on the Mountbatten Plan, and the Act ➢ Integration of States
got royal assent on June 18, 1947.
 The act was implemented on August  In July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel took
15, 1947. charge of the new States Department.
 Act provided for the creation of two Under Patel, the incorporation of
independent dominions of India and Indian states took place in two
Pakistan with effect from August 15, phases with a skillful combination of
1947. baits and threats of mass pressure in
 As per the provisions of the Indian both.
Independence Act, 1947, Pakistan  Phase I By August 15, 1947, all
became independent on August 14 states except Kashmir, Hyderabad,
while India got its freedom and Junagarh had signed an
on August 15, 1947. instrument of accession with the
 Jinnah became the first Governor- Indian government
General of Pakistan.  Phase II the second phase involved a
 India, however, decided to request much more difficult process of
Lord Mountbatten to continue as "integration' of states with
the Governor-General of India. neighboring provinces or into new
units
➢ Problems of Early withdrawal
Inevitability of Partition
 The breakneck speed of events under ➢ Why Congress Accepted Partition
Mountbatten caused anomalies in
arranging the details of partition and  Congress was only accepting the
totally failed to prevent the Punjab inevitable due to the long-term
massacre, because failure to draw the Muslim masses
 there were no transitional into the national movement.
institutional structures within which Congress had a two-fold task—(i)
partition problems could be tackled; structuring diverse classes,
 Mountbatten had hoped to be the communities, groups, and regions
common Governor-General of India into a nation, and (ii) securing
and Pakistan, thus providing the independence for this nation.
necessary link, but Jinnah wanted the  Only an immediate transfer of power
position for himself in Pakistan; could forestall the spread of direct
 action" and communal violence. The Contrary to their pre-1857 intentions of
virtual collapse of the Interim trying to modernize India on progressive
Government also made the notion of lines, now the administration adopted
Pakistan appear unavoidable. blatantly reactionary policies on the
 The partition plan ruled out pretext that Indians were not fit for self-
independence for the princely states governance and needed British presence
which could have been a greater in their lives.
danger to Indian unity as it would ➢ Divide and Rule
have meant Balkanisation of the
country.  Determined to avoid a united mass
 Acceptance of partition was only a action challenging their authority,
final act of the process of step-by- the British rulers in India decided to
step concessions to the League's practice a naked policy of divide and
championing of a separate Muslim rule.
state.
 When the CWC resolution stated that ➢ Hostility Towards Educated
Punjab (and by implication, Bengal) Indians:
must be partitioned if the country
was divided and With the 3rd June  At a time when the nationalist
Plan, Congress accepted partition. movement was born (Indian National
 While loudly asserting the Congress was founded in 1885), the
sovereignty of the Constituent British interpreted the moves as a
Assembly, the Congress quietly challenge to their authority and
accepted compulsory grouping and adopted a hostile attitude to such
accepted the partition most of all leadership.
because it could not stop the
communal riots. ➢ Attitude Towards the Zamindars:

➢ Gandhi's Helplessness  In their pursuit of reactionary

policies and hope to expand their
 Gandhi felt helpless because there social base, the British looked for
had been a communalization of the alliances with the most reactionary
people. He had no option but to of social groups—the princes,
accept partition because the people zamindars, etc.
wanted it.
➢ Attitude Towards Social Reforms:
…………………………………………
 Having decided to side with the
…………………………………………
reactionary elements of Indian
Summary of Survey of British Policies society, the British withdrew support
in India
to social reforms,
Administrative Policies
➢ Underdeveloped Social Services:
 A disproportionately large on Indian language press through the
expenditure on army and civil infamousVernacular Press Act, 1878.
administration and the cost of wars This Act had to be repealed under
left little to be spent on social public protest in 1882.
services
➢ White Racism
➢ Labour Legislations The Indian
Factory Act, 1881 dealt primarily with  The notion of white superiority was
the problem of child labor (between 7 maintained very carefully by the
and 12 years of age). colonial rulers by systematically
excluding the Indians from higher
 Its significant provisions were: grades of services— both civil and
(i) Employment of children under 7 military.
years of age prohibited.
(ii) Working hours restricted to 9 British Social and Cultural Policy in
hours per day for children. India
(iii) Children to get four holidays in Till 1813, the British followed a policy
a month. of non-interference in the social,
(iv) Hazardous machinery to be religious, and cultural life of the country.
properly fenced off. After 1813, measures were taken to
transform Indian society and its cultural
➢ The Indian Factory Act, 1891 environs because of the emergence of
new interests and ideas in Britain of the
 Increased the minimum age (from 7 nineteenth century in the wake of
to 9 years) and the maximum (from significant changes in Europe during the
12 to 14 years) for children, 18th and 19th centuries. Some of these
 Reduced maximum working hours changes were
for children to 7 hours a day, ➢ Industrial Revolution
 Fixed maximum working hours for
women at 11 hours per day with a  Which began in the 18th century and
one-and-a-half-hour interval resulted in the growth of industrial
(working hours for men were left capitalism. The rising industrial
unregulated), interests wanted to make India a big
market for their goods and therefore
 Provided weekly holiday for all. required partial modernization and
Various Factory Acts transformation of Indian society.

➢ Restrictions on Freedom of the ➢ Intellectual Revolution

Press
 Which gave rise to new attitudes of
 Lytton, fearing an increased mind, manners, and morals. French
influence of the nationalist press on Revolution which with its message
public opinion, imposed restrictions of liberty, equality, and fraternity,
 unleashed the forces of democracy  The government feared that too
and nationalism. much modernization might generate
forces hostile to their interests
➢ Characteristics of New Thought-
Some of the characteristics of the ➢ Role of Christian Missionaries
new wave of thought were
 The missionaries regarded
 Rationalism advocated faith in Christianity to be a superior religion
reason and a scientific attitude. and wanted to spread it in India
 Humanism advocated the love of through westernization. Towards this
man. These ideals gave rise to end, the Christian missionaries
liberalism, socialism, and  supported the Radicals whose
individualism. scientific approach, they believed,
 The doctrine of Progress according would undermine the native culture
to which nothing is static and all and beliefs;
societies must change with time.  supported the Imperialists since law
and order and the British supremacy
➢ Schools of Thought was essential for their propaganda;
and
 Conservatives advocated the  Sought business and the capitalist
introduction of a few changes as support holding out the hope to them
possible. that the Christian converts would be
 Paternalistic Imperialists were better customers of their goods.
sharply critical of Indian society and
culture and used to justify the British Retreat
economic and political enslavement The Indians proved to be apt pupils and
of India. shifted rapidly towards modernization of
 Radicals went beyond the narrow their society and assertion of their
criticism and imperialistic outlook of culture.
the Conservatives and the ➢ British Policy towards Princely
Imperialists and applied advanced States
humanistic and rational thought to
the Indian situation.  Subordination of princely states to
British authority was completed
➢ Indian Renaissance when the fiction of Indian states
standing in a status of equality with
 There were many Indians who the Crown as independent, sovereign
instigated social reform and caused states ended with the Queen
legislation to be brought about so as adopting the title of Kaiser-i- Hind
to control and eradicate social evils (Queen Empress of India) in 1876, to
embedded in so-called tradition. emphasize British sovereignty over
entire India.
➢ Dilemma before the Government
 ➢ British Foreign Policy in India period between 1773 and 1858 under
the Company rule, and then under
 The pursuance of a foreign policy the British Crown till 1947,
led to India’s conflicts with witnessed a plethora
neighboring countries. These of constitutional and administrativ
conflicts arose due to various e changes.
reasons.  The nature and objective of these
 Firstly, political and administrative changes were to serve the British
consolidation of the country. imperial ideology but
Secondly, the British Government unintentionally they introduced
had as its major aims in Asia and elements of the modern State into
Africa protection of the invaluable India’s political and administrative
Indian empire; expansion of British system.
commercial and economic interests;
Keeping other European imperialist
powers, whose colonial interests Constitutional Development between
came in conflict with those of the 1773 and 1858
British, at an arm’s length in Asia
and Africa.  After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the
East India Company got the Diwani
……………………………………… (right to collect revenue) of Bengal,
……………….. Bihar, and Orissa.
 1767- The first intervention in Indian
affairs by the British government
came in 1767.
 1765-72: This period was
characterized by:
(i) Rampant corruption among
servants of the Company who made
full use of private trading to enrich
themselves.
(ii) Excessive revenue collection
and oppression of peasantry.
(iii) Company’s bankruptcy, while
Constitutional, Administrative and
the servants were flourishing.
Judicial Developments
Introduction ➢ The Regulating Act of 1773
 The establishment of the East India
Company in 1600 and its  British government’s involvement in
transformation into a ruling body Indian affairs in the effort to control
from a trading one in 1765 had a and regulate the functioning of the
little immediate impact on Indian East India Company. It recognized
polity and governance. But the that the Company’s role in India
 extended beyond mere trade to State. The Company’s territories in
administrative and political fields, India were termed British
and introduced the element of possessions’.
centralized administration.  A Board of Control consisting of
 Directors of the Company were the chancellor of the exchequer, a
required to submit all secretary of state and 4 members of
correspondence regarding revenue the Privy Council (to be appointed
affairs and civil and military by the Crown) were to exercise
administration to the government. control over the Company’s civil,
 In Bengal, the administration was to military, and revenue affairs. All
be carried out by the governor- dispatches were to be approved by
general and a council consisting of the board. Thus a dual system of
4 members, representing the civil control was set up.
and military government. They were  In India, the governor-general was
required to function according to the to have a council of three
majority rule. (including the commander-in-chief),
 A Supreme Court of judicature and the presidencies of Bombay
was to be established in Bengal with and Madras were made
original and appellate jurisdictions subordinate to the governor-
where all subjects could seek general.
redressal. In practice, however, the  A general prohibition was placed on
Supreme Court had a debatable aggressive wars and treaties
jurisdiction vis-a-vis the council (breached often).
which created various problems.
 Governor-general could exercise ➢ The Act of 1786:
some powers over Bombay and
Madras again, a vague provision that  Cornwallis wanted to have the
created many problems. powers of both the governor-general
 Amendments-(1781) and the commander-in-chief.
(i) Jurisdiction of the Supreme The new act conceded this demand
Court was defined within Calcutta, it and also gave him power.
was to administer the personal law of  Cornwallis was allowed to override
the defendant. the council’s decision if he owned
(ii) Servants of the government were the responsibility for the decision.
immune if they did anything while Later, this provision was extended to
discharging their duties. all the governors-general.
(iii) Social and religious usages of
the subjects were to be honored. ➢ The Charter Act of 1793:

➢ Pitt’s India Act of 1784:  The Act renewed the Company’s

commercial privileges for the next
 The company became a 20 years.
subordinate department of the
 The Company, after paying the  Powers of the Board of Control were
necessary expenses, interest, further enlarged.
dividends, salaries, etc., from the  A sum of one lakh rupees was to be
Indian revenues, was to pay 5 lakh set aside for the revival, promotion,
pounds annually to the British and encouragement of literature,
government. learning, and science among the
 The royal approval was mandated natives of India, every year.
for the appointment of the governor-  The regulations made by the
general, the governors, and the Councils of Madras, Bombay, and
commander-in-chief. Calcutta were now required to be
 Senior officials of the Company laid before the British Parliament.
were debarred from leaving India The constitutional position of the
without permission—doing so was British territories in India was thus
treated as a resignation. explicitly defined for the first time.
 The Company was empowered to  Separate accounts were to be kept
give licenses to individuals as well regarding commercial transactions
as the Company’s employees to and territorial revenues. The power
trade in India. The licenses, known of superintendence and direction of
as 'privilege’ or 'country trade', the Board of Control was not only
paved the way for shipments of defined but also enlarged
opium to China. considerably.
 The revenue administration was  Christian missionaries were also
separated from the judiciary permitted to come to India and
functions and this led to the preach their
disappearance of the Maal Adalats.
 The Home Government members
were to be paid out of Indian ➢ The Charter Act of 1833
revenues which continued up to
1919.  The lease of 20 years to the
Company was further extended.
➢ The Charter Act of 1813 Territories of India were to be
governed in the name of the Crown.
 The Company’s monopoly over trade
in India ended, but the Company  The company’s monopoly over
retained the trade with China and the trade with China and in tea also
trade-in tea. ended.
 The Company’s shareholders were  All restrictions on European
given a 10.5 percent dividend on the immigration and the acquisition of
revenue of India. The Company was property in India were lifted.
to retain the possession of territories
 In India, a financial, legislative, and
and the revenue for 20 years more,
without prejudice to the sovereignty administrative centralization of the
of the Crown. government was envisaged:
 (i) Governor-general was given the  The strength of the Court of
power to superintend, control, and Directors was reduced to 18.
direct all civil and military affairs of  The company’s patronage over the
services was dissolved—the services
the Company.
were now thrown open to a
(ii) Bengal, Madras, Bombay, and all competitive examination.
other territories were placed under  Law member became the full
complete control of the governor- member of the governor-general’s
general. executive council.
(iii) All revenues were to be raised  separation of the executive and

under the authority of the governor- legislative functions of the

Government of British India
general who would have complete
progressed with the inclusion of six
control over the expenditure too. additional members for legislative
(iv) Governments of Madras and purposes.
Bombay were drastically deprived of ➢ The Act for Better Government of
their legislative powers and left with
India, 1858
a right of proposing to the governor-
 India was to be governed by and in
general the projects of law which the name of the Crown through a
they thought to be expedient. secretary of state and a council of 15.
 A law member was added to the The initiative and the final decision
governor-general’s council for was to be with the secretary of state
professional advice on lawmaking. and the council was to be just
vi. Indian laws were to be codified advisory in nature.
 Governor-general became the
and consolidated. vii. No Indian
viceroy.
citizen was to be denied employment
under the Company on the basis of Developments after 1858 till
religion, color, birth, descent, etc. Independence
 The administration was urged to take
steps to ameliorate the conditions of ➢ Indian Councils Act, 1861
 The 1861 Act marked an advance in
slaves and to
that the principle of representatives
ultimately abolish slavery. (Slavery
of nonofficials in legislative bodies
was abolished in 1843). became accepted, laws were to be
made after due deliberation, and as
➢ The Charter Act of 1853 pieces of legislation, they could be
changed only by the same
 The company was to continue deliberative process.
possession of territories unless the  The portfolio system introduced by
Parliament provided otherwise. Lord Canning laid the foundations of
cabinet government in India, each
 branch of the administration having which were henceforth to be made
its official head and spokesman in on the floor of the legislatures.
the government, who was  Could also put questions within
responsible for its administration. certain limits to the executive on
 The Act by vesting legislative matters of public interest after giving
powers in the Governments of six day's notice.
Bombay and Madras and by making
provision for the institution of ➢ Indian Councils Act, 1909
similar legislative councils in other
provinces laid the foundations of  Popularly known as the Morley-
legislative devolution. Minto Reforms, the Act made the
first attempt to bring in a
➢ Indian Councils Act, 1892 representative and popular element
in the governance of the country.
 In 1885, the Indian National  The strength of the Imperial
Congress was founded. Congress Legislative Council was increased.
saw the reform of the councils as the  With regard to the central
"root of all other reforms" . It was in government, an Indian member was
response to the Congress's demand taken for the first time in the
that the legislative councils be Executive Council of the Governor-
expanded that the number of non- General.
official members was increased both  Members of the Provincial
in the central (Imperial) and Executive Council were increased.
provincial legislative councils by the  Powers of the legislative councils,
Indian Councils Act, 1892. both central and provincial,
 Legislative Council of the Governor- were increased.
General was enlarged.
 Universities, district boards, ➢ Government of India Act, 1919
municipalities, zamindars, trade
bodies, and chambers of commerce  This Act was based on what is
were empowered to recommend popularly known as the Montague-
members to the provincial councils. Chelmsford Reforms.
 Thus was introduced the principle of  Under the 1919 Act, the Indian
representation. Legislative Council at the Centre
 Though the term election was firmly was replaced by
avoided in the Act, an element of the a bicameral system consisting of a
indirect election was accepted in the Council of State (Upper House) and
selection of some of the non-official a Legislative Assembly (Lower
members. House). Each house was to have a
 Members of the legislatures were majority of members who were
now entitled to express their directly elected. So, the direct
views upon financial statements election was introduced, though the
franchise was much restricted being
 based on qualifications of property, British government to consider the
tax, or education. proposals.
 The principle  Subsequently, a White Paper on
of communal representation was Constitutional Reforms was
extended with separate electorates published by the British government
for Sikhs, Christians, and Anglo- in March 1933.
Indians, besides Muslims.
 The act introduced dyarchy in the ➢ Government of India Act, 1935
provinces, which indeed was a
substantial step towards the transfer  Act, with 451 clauses and 15
of power to the Indian people. schedules, contemplated the
 The provincial legislature was to establishment of an All- India
consist of one house only (legislative Federation in which Governors’
council). Provinces and the Chief
 Act separated for the first time the Commissioners’ Provinces and those
provincial and central budgets, with Indian states which might accede to
provincial legislatures being be united were to be included.
authorized to make their budgets.  Dyarchy, rejected by the Simon
 A High Commissioner for India was Commission, was provided for in the
appointed, who was to hold his Federal Executive.
office in London for six years and  Federal Legislature was to have two
whose duty was to look after Indian chambers (bicameral): The Council
trade in Europe. of States and the Federal
 Secretary of State for India who used Legislative Assembly. The Council
to get his pay from the Indian of States (the Upper House) was to
revenue was now to be paid by the be a permanent body.
British Exchequer, thus undoing an  There was a provision for joint
injustice in the Charter Act of 1793. sitting in cases of deadlock between
 Though Indian leaders for the first the houses. There were to be three
time got some administrative subject lists: The Federal
experience in a constitutional set-up Legislative List, the Provincial
under this Act. Legislative List, and the
Concurrent Legislative List.
Residuary, legislative powers were
➢ Simon Commission subject to the discretion of the
governor-general.
 1919 Act had provided that  Dyarchy in the provinces was
a Royal Commission would be abolished and provinces were given
appointed ten years after the Act to autonomy
report on its working.  Provincial legislatures were further
 Three Round Table expanded. Bicameral legislatures
Conferences were called by the were provided in the six provinces of
Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United
 Provinces, Bihar, and Assam, with The Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordis
the other five provinces retaining
unicameral legislatures.
 Principles of communal electorates’ Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture
and 'weightage' were further
extended to depressed classes, Famine and Poverty
women, and labor.
 The franchise was extended, with Commercialization of Indian Agriculture
about 10 percent of the total
population getting the right to vote.
 Act also provided for a Federal Destruction of Industry and Late Development of Mode
Court (which was established in
1937), with original and appellate Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy
powers, to interpret the 1935 Act and
settle inter-state disputes, but the
Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest
Privy Council in London was to
dominate this court. India Council of
the Secretary of State was abolished. According to historians, at the beginning
 All-India Federation as visualized in of the eighteenth century, India had some
the Act never came into being 23 percent of the world economy. This
because of the opposition from share came down to some 3 percent
different parties of India. The British when India got independence.
government decided to introduce the A detailed survey of the economic
provincial autonomy on April 1, impact of British rule follows.
1937, but the Central government Deindustrialization— Ruin of
continued to be governed in Artisans and Handicraftsmen
accordance with the 1919 Act, with One-Way Free Trade
minor amendments. The operative
 Cheap and machine-made imports
part of the Act of 1935 remained in
force till August 15, 1947. flooded the Indian market after the
Charter Act of 1813 allowing one-
………………………………………… way free trade for the British
……… citizens.
 Tariffs of nearly 80 percent were
The Economic Impact of British Rule imposed on Indian textiles so that
in India Indian cloth could no longer be
cheap.
Table of contents
No Steps Towards Modern
Industrialisation
Deindustrialization— Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsmen

The Impoverishment of Peasantry

 The loss of traditional livelihood was Famine and Poverty
not accompanied by a process of
industrialization in India  Regular recurrence of famines
became a common feature of daily
Realization existence in India.

 The feature of deindustrialization

was the decline of many cities and a Starving Indians beg for food at a
process of realization of India British Army Post in 1897
Commercialization of Indian
The Impoverishment of Peasantry Agriculture

 Commercial crops like cotton, jute,

groundnut, oilseeds, sugarcane,
 Transferability of land was one tobacco, etc., were more
feature of the new settlement which remunerative than food grains.
caused great insecurity to the tenants Again, the cultivation of crops like
who lost all their traditional rights condiments, spices, fruits, and
inland. vegetables could cater to a wider
 The peasant turned out to be the market.
ultimate sufferer under the triple  The commercialization trend reached
burden of the Government, the highest level of development in
zamindar, and moneylenders. the plantation sector, i.e., in tea,
coffee, rubber, indigo, etc., which
The Emergence of Intermediaries, was mostly owned by Europeans and
Absentee Landlordism, Ruin of Old the produce was for sale in a wider
Zamindars market.
 The new zamindars, with increased Destruction of Industry and Late
powers but with little or no avenues Development of Modern Industry
for new investments, resorted to land
grabbing and sub-infeudation. An  Indian industry was steadily
increase in the number of destroyed. The destruction of the
intermediaries to be paid gave rise to textile competition of India is a
absentee landlordism and increased glaring example of the
the burden on the peasant. deindustrialization of India.
 A thriving shipbuilding industry was
Stagnation and Deterioration of crushed. Surat and Malabar on the
Agriculture western coast and Bengal and
Masulipatnam on the eastern coast
 The cultivator had neither the means were known for their shipbuilding
nor any incentive to invest in industries.
agriculture.
 Indian traders, moneylenders, and  British Policies Making India
bankers had amassed some wealth as Poor, The problem of poverty was
junior partners of English merchant seen as a problem of raising the
capitalists in India. Their role fitted productive capacity and energy of
in the British scheme of colonial the people or as a problem of
exploitation. The Indian national development, thus making
moneylender provided loans to poverty a national issue.
hardpressed agriculturists and thus  Growth of Trade and Railways to
facilitated the state collection of Help Britain, The development of
revenue. railways, they argued, was not
 The first cotton textile mill was set coordinated with India's industrial
up in 1853 in Bombay by Cowasjee needs and it ushered in a commercial
Nanabhoy and the first jute mill rather than an industrial revolution.
came up in 1855 in Rishra (Bengal). The net effect of the railways was to
The industrial development was enable foreign goods to outsell
characterized by a lopsided pattern— indigenous products.
core and heavy industries and power  One-Way Free Trade and Tariff
generation were neglected and some Policy, The nationalists claimed that
regions were favored more than the one-way free trade was ruining the
others—causing regional disparities Indian handicrafts industry, exposing
it to premature, unequal, and unfair
Nationalist Critique of Colonial competition
Economy  Effect of Economic
Drain, According to nationalist
 Dadabhai Naoroji, the 'Grand Old estimates, the economic drain at that
Man of India’, who after a brilliant time was—
analysis of the colonial economy put i. more than the total land revenue,
forward the theory of economic drain or
in Poverty and un-British Rule in ii. half the total government revenue,
India. or
iii. third of the total savings
Dadabhai Naoroji: Grand Old Man Economic Issue a Stimulant to
of India National Unrest
The nationalist agitation on economic
 The essence of nineteenth-century issues served to undermine the
colonialism, they said, lay in the ideological hegemony of alien rulers
transformation of India into a over Indian minds that the foreign rule
supplier of foodstuffs and raw was in the interest of Indians, thus
materials to the metropolis, a market exposing the myth of its moral
for metropolitan manufacturers, and foundations.
a field for the investment of British First Stage
capital.
 The Period of Merchant transport, mining, and modern
Capital (Mercantilism), often industries in India.
described as the Period of Monopoly  The Permanent Settlement and the
Trade and Direct Appropriation (or Ryotwari system in agriculture were
the Period of East India Company's introduced to transform the
Domination, 1757-1813), was based traditional agrarian structure into a
on two basic objectives— capitalist one.
(i) to acquire a monopoly of trade  The administration was made more
with India, against other English or comprehensive and included villages
European merchants or trading and outlying areas of the country.
companies as well as against the  Personal law was largely left
Indian merchants; untouched since it did not affect the
(ii) to directly appropriate or take colonial transformation of the
over governmental revenues through economy.
control over State power.  Modern education was introduced to
 The only changes made were: provide cheap manpower to the
(i) in military organization and vastly expanded administration. It
technology which native rulers were was also aimed at transforming
also introducing in their armed India's society and culture for two
forces, and reasons:
(ii) in administration at the top of the (a) create an overall atmosphere of
structure of revenue collection so change and development and,
that it could become more efficient (b) give birth to a culture of loyalty
and smooth. to the rulers.
 In this phase, there was a large-scale  The taxation and the burden on
drain of wealth from India which peasants rose sharply due to
constituted 2-3 percent of Britain's economic transformation and costly
national income at the time. administration (civil as well as
military).
Second Stage  India absorbed 10 to 12 percent of
British exports and nearly 20
 Owing to its mode of exploitation percent of Britain’s textile exports.
being trade, this stage is also termed  The Indian army was used for British
as Colonialism of Free Trade. In this expansion of colonialism in Asia and
phase the following dominant Africa.
features were visible:
 India's colonial economy was Third Stage
integrated with the British and world
capitalist economy.  The third stage is often described as
 Free entry was also granted to the the Era of Foreign Investments and
British capitalists to develop tea, International Competition for
coffee, and indigo plantations, trade, Colonies. These changes were as
follows.
 Britain’s industrial supremacy was enacted these. According to these
challenged by several countries of regulations, starting or using a press
Europe, the United States, and Japan. without a license was a penal
 Asa result of the application of offense. Rammohan Roy’s Mirat-ul-
scientific knowledge to the industry, Akbar had to stop publication.
the pace of industrialization  Press Act of 1835 or Metcalfe
increased sharply. Act, Metcalfe ( governor-general—
 The British thus tried to justify their 1835-36) repealed the
rule over Indians for centuries to obnoxious 1823 ordinance The new
come—all in the name of civilizing a Press Act (1835) required a
barbaric people—“the White Man’s printer/publisher to give a precise
burden ". account of premises of a publication
 Licensing Act, 1857, Due to the
………………………………………… emergency caused by the 1857
……….. revolt, this Act imposed licensing
restrictions
Development of Indian Press
 Registration Act, 1867, This
Introduction replaced Metcalfe’s Act of 1835 and
James Augustus Hickey in was of a regulatory, not restrictive,
1780 started The Bengal Gazette or nature. As per the Act, (i) every
Calcutta General Advertiser, the first book/ newspaper was required to
newspaper in India, which was seized in print the name of the printer and the
1872 because of its outspoken criticism publisher and the place of the
of the Government. publication; and (ii) a copy was to be
Later more newspapers/journals came submitted to the local government
up—The Bengal Journal, The Calcutta within one month of the publication
Chronicle, The Madras Courier, The of a book.
Bombay Herald. The Company’s officers
were worried that these newspapers ➢ Struggle by Early Nationalists to
might reach London and expose their Secure Press Freedom
misdeeds. Thus they saw the need for
curbs on the press.  Right from the early nineteenth
➢ Early Regulation century, defense of civil liberties,
including the freedom of the press,
 Censorship of Press Act, had been high on the nationalist
1799, Lord Wellesley enacted this, agenda.
anticipating the French invasion of  As early as 1824, Raja Rammohan
India. It imposed almost wartime Roy had protested against a
press restrictions including pre- resolution restricting the freedom of
censorship. the press.
 Licensing Regulations, 1823, The  The early phase of the nationalist
acting governor-general, John movement from
Adams, who had reactionary views, around 1870 to 1918 focussed more
 on political propaganda and of 1876-77. The Government struck
education, formation and back with the Vernacular Press Act,
propagation of nationalist ideology 1878.
and arousing, training, mobilization,
and consolidation of public opinion, The Vernacular Press Act (VPA)
than on mass agitation or active Designed to better control’ the
mobilization of masses through open vernacular press and effectively punish
meetings. and repress seditious writing.
 For this purpose, the press proved a ➢ The provisions of the Act included
crucial tool in the hands of the the following.
nationalists. The Indian National
Congress in its early days relied  The district magistrate was
solely on the press to propagate its empowered to call upon the printer
resolutions and proceedings. and publisher of any vernacular
 Many newspapers emerged during newspaper to enter into a bond with
these years under distinguished and the government undertaking not to
fearless journalists. These included cause disaffection against the
The Hindu and Swadesamitran government or antipathy between
under G. Subramaniya Aiyar, The persons of different religions, caste,
Bengalee under Surendranath race through published material; the
Banerjea, Voice of India printer and publisher could also be
under Dadabhai Naoroji, Amrita required to deposit security which
Bazar Patrika under Sisir Kumar could be forfeited if the regulation
Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh, Indian were contravened, and press
Mirror under N.N. Sen, Kesari (in equipment could be seized if the
Marathi) and Mahratta (in English) offense re-occurred.
under Bal Gangadhar Tilak,  The magistrate's action was final and
Sudharak under Gopal Krishna no appeal could be made in a court
Gokhale, and Hindustan and of law.
Advocate under G.P. Verma. Other  A vernacular newspaper could get an
main newspapers included Tribune exemption from the operation of the
and Akbar-i-am in Punjab, Gujarati, Act by submitting proofs to a
Indu Prakash, Dhyan Prakash and government censor.
Kal in Bombay and Som Prakash,  The Act came to be nicknamed 'the
Banganivasi and Sadharani in gagging Act”. The worst features of
Bengal. this Act were—(i) discrimination
 The national movement, from its between English and vernacular
very beginning, stood for the press, (ii) no right of appeal
freedom of the press. The Indian  In 1883, Surendranath Banerjea
newspapers became highly critical of became the first Indian journalist to
Lord Lytton’s administration be imprisoned.
especially regarding its inhuman
treatment of victims of the famine
 ➢ Newspaper (Incitement to …………………………………………
Offences) Act, 1908 ……….

 Aimed against Extremist nationalist Development of Education

activity, the Act empowered the Table of contents
magistrates to confiscate press property
that published objectionable material
likely to cause incitement to murder/ Under Company Rule
acts of violence.
Humble beginning by the Charter Act of 1813
➢ Indian Press Act, 1910

 This Act revived the worst features of Developments

the VPA—local government was
empowered to demand security at Saddler University Commission (1917-19)
registration from the printer/publisher
and forfeit/deregister if it was an Education Under Dyarchy
offending newspaper, and the printer of a
newspaper was required to submit two
copies of each issue to local government Development of Technical Education
free of charge.
Under Company Rule
➢ During and After the First World For the first 60 years of its dominion in
War India, the East India Company, a trading
and profit-making concern, took no
 In 1921, on the recommendations of interest in the promotion of education.
a Press Committee chaired by Tej Some minor exceptions were efforts by
Bahadur Sapru, the Press Acts individuals—
of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.
 Indian Press (Emergency  Calcutta Madrasah was established
Powers) Act, 1931 This Act gave by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the
sweeping powers to provincial study of Muslim law and related
governments to suppress propaganda subjects.
for the Civil Disobedience  Sanskrit College was established by
Movement. Jonathan Duncan, the resident, at
Benaras in 1791 for the study of
➢ During the Second World War Hindu law and philosophy.
 Fort William College was set up by
 Under the Defence of India Rules, pre- Wellesley in 1800 for the training of
censorship was imposed and civil servants of the Company in
amendments made in the Press languages and customs of Indians
Emergency Act and Official Secrets (closed in 1802).
Act.
 Humble beginning by the Charter as far as physical and social sciences
Act of 1813 in the contemporary stage were
Efforts of enlightened Indians such concerned.
as Raja Rammohan Roy bore fruit and  The government soon made English
a grant was sanctioned for Calcutta as the medium of instruction in its
College set up in 1817 by educated schools and colleges and opened a
Bengalis, imparting English education in few English schools and colleges
Western humanities and sciences. The instead of a large number of
government also set up three Sanskrit elementary schools, thus neglecting
colleges at Calcutta, Delhi and Agra. mass education.
➢ Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
➢ Efforts of Thomson
 Within the General Committee on
Public Instruction, the Anglicists  James Thomson, lieutenant-governor
argued that the government spending of NW Provinces (1843- 53),
on education should be exclusively developed a comprehensive scheme
for modern studies. of village education through the
 The Orientalists said while Western medium of vernacular languages.
sciences and literature should be
taught to prepare students to take up ➢ Wood’s Despatch (1854)
jobs, emphasis should be placed on
the expansion of traditional Indian  It asked the government of India to
learning. assume responsibility for the
 Even the Anglicists were divided education of the masses, thus
over the question of medium of repudiating the ‘downward filtration
instruction—one faction was for the theory’, at least on paper.
English language as the medium,  It systematized the hierarchy from
while the other faction was for vernacular primary schools in
Indian languages (vernaculars) for villages at the bottom, followed by
the purpose. Anglo-Vernacular High Schools and
an affiliated college at the district
➢ Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) level, and affiliating universities in
the presidency towns of Calcutta,
 The famous Lord Bombay and Madras.
Macaulay's Minute settled the row  It recommended English as the
in favour of Anglicists—the limited medium of instruction for higher
government resources were to be studies and vernaculars at the school
devoted to the teaching of Western level.
sciences and literature through the  It laid stress on female and
medium of English language alone. vocational education, and on
 Lord Macaulay held the view that teachers' training.
"Indian learning was inferior to
European learning"—which was true
 It laid down that the education ➢ Indian Universities Act, 1904
imparted in government institutions
should be secular.  In 1902, Raleigh Commission was
 It recommended a system of grants- set up to go into conditions and
in-aid to encourage private prospects of universities in India and
enterprise. to suggest measures for improvement
in their constitution and working.
Developments  Based on its recommendations,
In 1857, universities at Calcutta, the Indian Universities Act was
Bombay and Madras were set up and passed in 1904. As per the Act,
later, departments of education were set Universities were to give more
up in all provinces. The Bethune School attention to study and research; the
founded by J.E.D. Bethune at number of fellows of a university
Calcutta (1849) was the first fruit of a and their period in the office was
powerful movement for the education of reduced and most fellows were to be
women which arose in the 1840s and nominated by the Government;
1850s.  The government was to have powers
➢ Hunter Education Commission to veto universities' senate
(1882-83)-The commission regulations and could amend these
regulations or pass regulations on its
 Emphasized that state’s special care own;
is required for extension and  Conditions were to be made stricter
improvement of primary education for affiliation of private colleges;
and that primary education should be and
imparted through vernacular.  Five lakh rupees were to be
 Recommended transfer of control of sanctioned per annum for five years
primary education to newly set up for improvement of higher education
district and municipal boards. and universities.
 Recommended that secondary (High
School) education should have two ➢ Government Resolution on
divisions— a. Literary—leading up Education Policy
to university. b. Vocational—for
commercial careers.  1913-In 1906, the progressive state
 Drew attention to inadequate of Baroda introduced compulsory
facilities for female education, primary education throughout its
especially outside presidency towns territories.
and made recommendations for its  In its 1913 Resolution on Education
spread. Policy, the government refused to
 More teaching-cum-examining take up the responsibility of
universities were set up like compulsory education, but accepted
the Punjab University (1882) and the policy of removal of illiteracy
the Allahabad University (1887). and urged provincial governments to
take early steps to provide free
 elementary education to the poorer taking a direct interest in educational
and more backward sections. matters
➢ Hartog Committee (1929)
Saddler University Commission
(1917-19)  Its main recommendations were as
The commission was set up to study and follows.
report on problems of Calcutta  Emphasis should be given to primary
University but its recommendations were education but there need be no hasty
applicable more or less to other expansion or compulsion in
universities also. education.
Its observations were as follows:  Only deserving students should go in
for high school and intermediate
 School course should cover 12 stage, while
years. Students should enter  Average students should be diverted
university after an intermediate stage to vocational courses after VIII
(rather than matric) for a three-year standard.
degree course in university. This was  For improvements in standards of
done to university education, admissions
(i) Prepare students for university should be restricted.
stage;
(ii) relieve universities of a large ➢ Sergeant Plan of Education
number of below university standard
students; and  The Sergeant Plan (Sergeant was the
(iii) Provide collegiate education to educational advisor to the
those not planning to go through the Government) was worked out by the
university stage. Central Advisory Board of Education
 There should be less rigidity in in 1944. It recommended—
framing university regulations.  Pre-primary education for 3-6
 A university should function as a years age group; free, universal and
centralised, unitary residential- compulsory elementary education
teaching autonomous body, rather for 6-11 years age group; high
than as scattered, affiliated colleges. school education for 11-17 years age
 Female education applied scientific group for selected children, and a
and technological education, university course of 3 years after
teachers’ training including those for higher secondary; high schools to be
professional and vocational colleges of two types: (i) academic and (ii)
should be extended. technical and vocational.
 Adequate technical, commercial and
Education Under Dyarchy arts education.
Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms  Abolition of intermediate course.
education was shifted to provincial  Liquidation of adult illiteracy in 20
ministries and the government stopped years.
 Stress on teachers' training, physical  1904: Education policy put special
education, education for the emphasis on vernacular education
physically and mentally and increased grants for it.
handicapped.  1929: Hartog Committee presented a
gloomy picture of primary education.
➢ Development of Vernacular  1937: These schools received
Education encouragement from Congress
ministries.
 1835,1836,1838: William Adam’s
reports on vernacular education in Development of Technical Education
Bengal and Bihar pointed out defects Engineering College at Roorkee was set
in the system of vernacular up in 1847, Calcutta College of
education. Engineering came up in 1856.
 1843-53: James Jonathan’s ➢ Evaluation of British Policy on
experiments in North-West Education
Provinces (UP), included opening
one government school as a model  Even the inadequate measures the
school in each tehsildar and a normal government took for the expansion
school for teachers’ training for of modern education were guided by
vernacular schools. concerns other than philanthropic.
 1853: In a famous minute, Lord The government measures for
Dalhousie expressed a strong opinion promotion of education were
in favour of vernacular education. influenced by—
 1854: Wood’s Despatch made the (i) Agitation in favour of modern
following provisions for vernacular education by enlightened Indians,
education: Christian missionaries and
(i) Improvement of standards humanitarian officials;
(ii) Supervision by a government (ii) Need to ensure a cheap supply of
agency educated Indians to man an
(iii) Normal schools to train teachers increasing number of subordinate
 1854-71: The government paid some posts in the administration and in
attention to secondary and British business concerns
vernacular education. The number of (iii) Hope that educated Indians
vernacular schools increased by would help expand the market for
more than five-fold. British manufactures in India;
 1882: The Hunter Commission held (iv) An expectation that Western
that the State should make special education would reconcile Indians to
efforts for extension and British rule, particularly as it
improvement of vernacular glorified British conquerors and their
education. Mass education was to be administration.
seen as instructing masses through  The traditional system of Indian
vernaculars. learning gradually declined for want
of support
 Mass education was neglected  The ruin of the handicrafts leading to
leading to widespread illiteracy overcrowding of land,
(1911—84 per cent and in 1921—  The new land revenue system,
92 per cent) which created a wide  Colonial administrative and judicial
linguistic and cultural gulf between system.
the educated few and the masses.
 Since education was to be paid for, it A Survey of Early Peasant
became a monopoly of upper and Movements
richer classes and city dwellers. ➢ Indigo Revolt (1859-60)
 There was almost total neglect of
women’s education because (i) the  In Bengal, the indigo planters, nearly
Government did not want to arouse all Europeans, exploited the local
the wrath of orthodox sections; and peasants by forcing them to grow
(ii) it had no immediate utility for indigo on their lands instead of the
the colonial rule. more paying crops like rice.
 Scientific and technical education  The planters forced the peasants to
was by and large neglected. take advance sums and enter into
fraudulent contracts which were then
………………………………………… used against the peasants. The
………. planters intimidated the peasants
through kidnappings, illegal
Peasant Movements 1857-1947 - confinements, flogging, attacks on
Table of contents women and children, seizure of
cattle, burning, and demolition of
houses, and destruction of crops.
Peasant Movements 1857-1947  The anger of the peasants exploded
in 1859 when led by Digambar
A Survey of Early Peasant Movements Biswas and Bishnu Biswas of Nadia
district, they decided not to grow
indigo under duress and resisted the
Deccan Riots
physical pressure of the planters and
their lathiyals ( retainers) backed by
Later Movements police and the courts.
 They also organized a counterforce
Post-War Phase against the planters' attacks. The
planters also tried methods like
Peasant Movements 1857-1947 evictions and enhanced rents. The
The impoverishment of the Indian ryots replied by going on a rent
peasantry was a direct result of the strike by refusing to pay the
transformation of the agrarian structure enhanced rents and by physically
due to resisting the attempts to evict them.
Gradually, they learned to use the
 Colonial economic policies,
 legal machinery and initiated legal  Struggles were directed towards
action supported by fund collection. specific and limited objectives and
redressal of particular grievances.
➢ Pabna Agrarian Leagues  Colonialism was not the target of
these movements.
 During the 1870s and 1880s, large  It was not the objective of these
parts of Eastern Bengal witnessed movements to end the system of
agrarian unrest caused by oppressive subordination or exploitation of the
practices of the zamindars. The peasants.
zamindars resorted to enhanced rents  Territorial reach was limited.
beyond legal limits and prevented  There was no continuity of struggle
the tenants from acquiring or long-term organization.
occupancy rights under Act X of  Peasants developed a strong
1859. To achieve their ends, the awareness of their legal rights and
zamindars resorted to forcible asserted them in and outside the
evictions, seizure of cattle and crops, courts.
and prolonged, costly litigation in
courts where the poor peasant found ➢ Weaknesses
himself at a disadvantage
 A lack of an adequate understanding
Deccan Riots of colonialism.
Ryots of the Deccan region of western  19th-century peasants did not
India suffered heavy taxation under the possess a new ideology and a new
Ryotwari system. The conditions had social, economic, and political
worsened due to a crash in cotton prices program.
after the end of the American Civil War  These struggles, however militant,
in 1864, the Government's decision to occurred within the framework of the
raise the land revenue by 50% in 1867, old societal order lacking a positive
and a succession of bad harvests. conception of an alternative society
➢ Changed Nature of Peasant
Movements after 1857 Later Movements
➢ The Kisan Sabha Movement
 Peasants emerged as the main force
in agrarian movements, fighting  Was set up in 1918 by Gauri
directly for their own demands. Shankar Mishra and Indra
 Demands were centered almost Narayan Dwivedi. districts of Rai
wholly on economic issues. Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur.
 Movements were directed against the  The movement declined soon, partly
immediate enemies of the peasant due to government repression and
foreign planters and indigenous partly because of the passing of
zamindars and moneylenders. the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.

➢ Eka Movement
 High rents—50 percent higher than ➢ The All India Kisan
the recorded rates; oppression of Congress/Sabha
thikadars in charge of revenue
collection; and practice of share-  This sabha was founded in Lucknow
rents. in April 1936 with Swami Sahjanand
 Meetings of the Eka or the Unity Saraswati as the president and N.G.
Movement involved a symbolic Ranga as the general secretary.
religious ritual in which the
assembled peasants vowed that they ➢ Under Congress Ministries
would
pay only the recorded rent but would  The period 1937-39 was the high
pay it on time; not leave when watermark of the peasant movements
evicted; refuse to do forced labor; and activity under the Congress
Give no help to criminals; abide by provincial rule.
panchayat decisions.
➢ Peasant Activity in Provinces
➢ Mappila Revolt
 Kerala: One significant campaign
 Mappilas were the Muslim tenants by the peasants was in 1938 for the
inhabiting the Malabar region. The amendment of the Malabar
communication of the rebellion Tenancy Act, 1929.
completed the isolation of the  Andhra: This region had already
Mappilas from the Khilafat-Non- witnessed a decline in the prestige of
Cooperation Movement. zamindars after their defeat by
 By December 1921, all resistance Congressmen in elections. Anti-
had come to a stop. zamindar movements were going on
in some.
➢ Bardoli Satyagraha  Bihar: Provincial Kisan Sabha
developed a rift with the Congress
 Bardoli taluka in Surat district had over the 'bakashl land' issue because
witnessed intense politicization after of an unfavorable government
the coming of Gandhi on the national resolution which was not acceptable
political scene. to the sabha. The movement died out
 The movement sparked off by August 1939.
in January 1926 when the  Punjab: A new direction to the
authorities decided to increase the movement was given by the Punjab
land revenue by 30 percent. Kisan Committee in 1937. The main
 Women of Bardoli gave Vallabhbhai targets of the movement were the
Patel the title of “Sardar” landlords of western Punjab who
In February 1926, Vallabhbhai dominated the unionist ministry.
Patel was called to lead the  Peasant activity was also organized
movement. in Bengal (Burdwan and 24
Parganas), Assam (Surma Valley),
 Orissa, Central Provinces, and  These movements created an
NWFP. atmosphere for post-independence
 During the War: Because of a pro- agrarian reforms, for instance, the
War line adopted by the communists, abolition of zamindari.
the AIKS was split on communist  They eroded the power of the landed
and non-communist lines class, thus adding to the
transformation of the agrarian
Post-War Phase structure.
➢ Tebhaga Movement  These movements were based on the
ideology of nationalism.
 The storm center of the movement  The nature of these movements was
was north Bengal, principally among similar in diverse areas.
Rajbanshis - a low caste of tribal
origin. Muslims also participated in …………………………………………
large numbers. ……….

➢ Telangana Movement The movement of the working class -

Introduction
 This was the biggest peasant
guerrilla war of modern Indian  The beginning of the second half of the
history affecting 3000 villages and 3 nineteenth century heralded the entry
million population. The Telangana of modern industry into India. The
movement had many positive thousands of hands employed in the
achievements to its credit. construction of railways were
 In the villages controlled by harbingers of the modern Indian
guerrillas, this and forced labor working class. Further
disappeared. industrialisation came with the
 Agricultural wages were raised. development of ancillary industries
 Illegally seized lands were restored. along with the railways. The coal
 Steps were taken to fix ceilings and industry developed fast and employed
redistribute lands. a large working force. Then came the
 Measures were taken to improve cotton and the jute industries.
irrigation and fight cholera.  The Indian working class suffered from
 An improvement in the condition of the same kind of exploitation witnessed
women was witnessed. during the industrialisation of Europe
 The autocratic-feudal regime of and the rest of the West, such as low
India's biggest princely state was wages, long working hours, unhygienic
shaken up, clearing the way for the and hazardous working conditions,
formation of Andhra Pradesh on employment of child labour and the
linguistic lines. absence of basic amenities.
 The presence of colonialism in India
➢ Balance-Sheet of Peasant gave a distinctive touch to the Indian
Movements working-class movement. The Indian
 working class had to face two basic (iv) 1899 The first strike by the Great
antagonistic forces—an imperialist Indian Peninsular Railways took
political rule and economic place, and it got widespread support.
exploitation at the hands of both Tilak’s Kesari and Mahratta had been
foreign and native capitalist classes. campaigning for the strike for months.
Under the circumstances, inevitably,
the Indian working-class movement ➢ During Swadeshi Upsurge
became intertwined with the political
struggle for national emancipation.  Workers participated in wider
political issues. Strikes were
➢ Early efforts organised by Ashwini Coomar
Banerjea, Prabhat Kumar Roy
 The early nationalists, especially the Chaudhuri, Premtosh Bose and
Moderates, Apurba Kumar Ghosh. These strikes
 Were indifferent to the labour’s cause; were organised in government press,
 Differentiated between the labour in railways and the jute industry.
the Indian-owned factories and those in  There were attempts to form trade
the British-owned factories; unions but these were not very
 Believed that labour legislation would successful.
affect the competitive edge enjoyed by  Subramaniya Siva and Chidambaram
the Indian-owned industries; Pillai led strikes in Tuticorin and
 Did not want a division in the Tirunelvelli and were arrested.
movement on the basis of classes;  The biggest strike of the period was
 Did not support the Factory Acts of organised after Tilak’s arrest and
1881 and 1891 for these reasons. trial.
 Thus, earlier attempts to improve
the economic conditions of the ➢ During the First World War and
workers were in the nature of the After
philanthropic efforts which were
isolated, sporadic and aimed at specific  The War and its aftermath brought a
local grievances. rise in exports, soaring prices,
(i) 1870 Sasipada Banerjea started a massive profiteering opportunities
workingmen’s club and newspaper for the industrialists but very low
Bharat Shramjeevi. wages for the workers. This led to
(ii) 1878 Sorabjee Shapoorji discontent among workers.
Bengalee tried to get a bill, providing  A need was felt for the organisation
better working conditions to labour, of the workers in trade unions.
passed in the Bombay Legislative  International events like the
Council. establishment of a socialist republic
(iii) 1880 Narain Meghajee in the Soviet Union, the formation of
Lokhanday started the newspaper the Comintern and setting up of
Deenbandhu and set up the Bombay International Labour Organisation
Mill and Millhands Association. (ILO) lent a new dimension to the
 movement of the working class in Ahmed, P.C. Joshi, Sohan Singh
India. Joshi etc.
 It passed the Public Safety
➢ The AITUC Ordinance (1929) and the Trade
Disputes Act (TDA), 1929. The
 The All India Trade Union Congress TDA, 1929
was founded on October 31, 1920. (i) made compulsory the
The Indian National Congress appointment of Courts of Inquiry and
president for the year, Lala Lajpat Consultation Boards for settling
Rai, was elected as the first president industrial disputes;
of AITUC and Dewan Chaman Lai (ii) made illegal the strikes in public
as the first general secretary. Lajpat utility services like posts, railways,
Rai was the first to link capitalism water and electricity, unless each
with imperialism— ' imperialism and individual worker planning to go on
militarism are the twin children of strike gave advance notice of one
capitalism”. month to the administration;
(iii) Forbade trade union activity of
➢ The Trade Union Act, 1926 coercive or purely political nature
and even sympathetic strikes.
 Recognised trade unions as legal
associations; ➢ Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929)
 Laid down conditions for registration
and regulation of trade union  In March 1929, the Government
activities; arrested 31 labour leaders, and the
 Secured immunity, both civil and three-and-a-half-year trial resulted in
criminal, for trade unions from the conviction of Muzaffar Ahmed,
prosecution for legitimate activities, S.A. Dange, Joglekar, Philip Spratt,
but put some restrictions on their Ben Bradley, Shaukat Usmani and
political activities. others. The trial got worldwide
publicity but weakened the working-
➢ The late 1920s class movement.

 A strong communist influence on the ➢ Under Congress Ministries

movement lent a militant and
revolutionary content to it.  During the 1937 elections, the
In 1928 there was a six-month-long AITUC had supported the Congress
strike in Bombay Textile Mills led candidates. The Congress
by the Girni Kamgar Union. The governments in provinces gave a
whole of 1928 witnessed fillip to the trade union activity.
unprecedented industrial unrest. This  The Congress ministries were
period also saw the crystallisation of generally sympathetic to the
various communist groups, with workers’ demands. Many legislation
leaders like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar
 favourable to the workers was hoisted the Indian national flag above the
passed. Lahori Gate of Red Fort in Delhi.
First Cabinet After Independence
➢ During and After the Second
World War  The governor-general and the
ministers were sworn in. Jawaharlal
 Initially, the workers opposed the War Nehru took charge as the first Prime
but after 1941 when Russia joined the Minister of India on August 15,
war on behalf of the Allies, the 1947, and was assisted by 15 other
communists described the war as a members. Sardar Patel served as the
''peoples’ war" and supported it. The deputy prime minister till his death
communists dissociated themselves in December 1950.
from the Quit India Movement. A  Lord Mountbatten, and later C.
policy of industrial peace was Rajagopalachari served as Governor-
advocated by the communists. General till January 26, 1950, when
 In the period 1945 to 1947, workers India became a republic and elected
participated actively in the post-War Rajendra Prasad as its first president.
national upsurges. In 1945, the
dockworkers of Bombay and Calcutta Independent India, however, had to
refused to load ships taking supplies to face several challenges.
the warring troops in Indonesia. ➢ Immediate Challenges
During 1946, the workers went on a
strike in support of the Naval Ratings.  Territorial and administrative integration
During the last year of foreign rule, of princely states, communal riots,
there were strikes by workers of ports, rehabilitation of nearly 60 lakh
railways and many other refugees migrated from Pakistan,
establishments. protection of Muslims living in India as
well as those going to Pakistan from
➢ After Independence communal gangs, need to avoid war with
Pakistan, Communist insurgency, etc.
 The working-class movement got
polarised on the basis of political ➢ Medium-Term Challenges
ideologies.
 Framing of the Constitution for India,
………………………………………… the building of a representative,
…….. democratic and civil libertarian
political order, elections, and the
Challenges before The New-Born
abolition of feudal set up in
Nation -
agriculture, etc.
First Day of Independent India
➢ Long Term Challenges
On August 15, 1947, Jawaharlal
Nehru, as Prime Minister of India,
 National integration, economic Challenges Associated with Division
development, poverty alleviation, etc. of Resources
➢ Division of Civil Government
Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the
Communal Riots  To resolve the division of civil
government amicably, a partition
 West Punjab which went council, presided over by the governor-
to Pakistan received 62,000 general and consisting of two
square miles of territory and 15.7 representatives each of India and
million people (census 1941), of Pakistan, was set up. All civil servants
whom 11.85 million were Muslims. were offered to give their option about
(Numbers not important, just analyze the Dominion they wanted to serve.
number yourself only)
 East Punjab (India's share) received ➢ Division of Finances
37,000 square miles of land area,
with a population of 12.6 million, of  Pakistan wanted a one-fourth share of
whom 4.37 million were Muslims. the total cash balances, but India had to
 West Bengal became part of India point out that only a small portion of
with a territory of 28,000 square the cash balances represented the real
miles, and a population of 21.2 cash needs of undivided India and the
million, of whom 5.3 million were rest was maintained only as an anti-
Muslims inflationary mechanism.
 East Bengal, which constituted East
Pakistan, got 49,400 square miles of ➢ Division of Defence Personnel and
territory and 39.10 million people Equipment

➢ Challenges before the Boundary  For a smooth division of the armed

Commission forces and their plants, machinery,
equipment, and stores, a joint defense
 Boundary Commission consisted of two council, headed by Auchinleck as its
Muslims and two non-Muslim judges in Supreme Commander, was set up. the
each case and worked under serious British troops started to leave India on
constraints. August 17, 1947, and the process was
completed by February 1948.
➢ Regions Most Affected by Riots
➢ The Assassination of Gandhi
 Regions through which the Radcliffe line
was drawn became the most violent and  On the evening of January 30, 1948, as
the maximum number of murders, rapes, he carried on his usual prayer meeting
and abduction of women and children at Birla mansion (New Delhi),
took place. Mahatma Gandhi was shot dead by
Nathuram Godse. Communalism and
misinterpretation of nationalism were
 two fundamental factors under whose ➢ Delhi Pact on Minorities
influence Godse killed Gandhi.
 To resolve the problems of refugees
➢ Rehabilitation and Resettlement of and restore communal peace in the two
Refugees countries, especially in Bengal (East
Pakistan as well as West Bengal), the
 The people displaced by partition were Indian prime minister, Jawaharlal
'refugees' in the sense that they had not Nehru, and the Pakistani prime
left their homes voluntarily. The Indian minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, signed an
government established an emergency agreement on April 8, 1950.
committee of the cabinet to deal with  The agreement, known as the Delhi
the crisis in Delhi, and a Ministry of Pact on Minorities or Liaquat- Nehru
Relief and Rehabilitation to look after Pact, envisaged the appointment of
the refugees. ministers from minority communities
in both Pakistan and India at both
➢ East Punjab central and provincial levels.
 Under the pact, minority commissions
 For urban refugees, the government were to be set up, together with the
started industrial and vocational Commissions of Inquiry to look into
training schemes, and even grants were the probable causes behind the
given to start small businesses or communal riots on both sides of the
industries. Rural refugees were given border
land, agricultural loans, and housing
subsidies. ➢ Centers of Refugee Settlements in
India-
➢ Bengal
 In Delhi, Lajpat Nagar, Rajinder
 The problem was much more Nagar, Punjabi Bagh, Nizamuddin
prolonged and complicated in Bengal. East, and Kingsway Camp were some
By 1948, only a small group of high- areas developed into housing
caste, landed or middle-class Hindus complexes to settle the refugees
migrated to West Bengal by arranging permanently.
the exchange of property or jobs on  People who came from West Pakistan
individual levels. settled in states like Punjab (which at
 But during December 1949 and the time included the present-day
January 1950, due to a fresh outbreak Haryana) and Himachal Pradesh. The
of violence in Khulna, a large number Sindhi Hindus settled in Gujarat,
of peasants started to leave East Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Madhya
Pakistan. In revenge, anti-Muslim riots Pradesh. Ulhasnagar (city of joy), in
started in February 1950 and forced Maharashtra, was specially developed
about one million Muslims to leave to settle refugees from Sindh areas.
West Bengal.
➢ Communists and Independence
 In December 1947, the Communist government also decided to take
Party of India (CPI) had denounced the stern action; while in the Hyderabad
Indian independence as 'fake' The region the Indian armed forces
Communist insurgency spread to other continued its police action’, in West
parts of India especially in West Bengal the CPI was banned in March
Bengal which saw the revival of the 1948, and in January, a security act
Tebhaga Movement and an urban was passed to imprison the
insurgency in Calcutta. communist leaders without trial
 In September 1950, prominent
Why Communists were Skeptical communist leaders like Ajoy Ghosh,
about Independence? S.A. Dange, and S.V. Ghate
criticized the organization for its
 They believed that a policy of class faulty strategies and its failure to
struggle and armed insurgency take notice of the true picture of
against the State-run by the independent India. Consequently, in
Congress, alleged as collaborationist October 1951, at the Third Party
bourgeoisie, was necessary to shift Congress of the CPI, held in
the attention of the masses from the Calcutta, a significant shift in its
politics of communal hatred that policy was endorsed.
shrouded the country after partition.
 The late 1940s and the early 1950s …………………………………………
witnessed communist successes in ……..
Asian countries like China, Malaya,
Indonesia, the Philippines, and First General Election - History for
Burma (Myanmar). UPSC
 According to Ramachandra Guha, Introduction
the CPI leadership, encouraged by
the initial successes of the Telangana The provisions of the Constitution
movement, misconceived the relating to citizenship and Article 324
scattered disillusionment with the (the Election Commission) were brought
Congress as revolutionary potential, into force on November 26, 1949, while
and thought this as the 'beginning of the rest of the Constitution came into
Red India'. force on January 26, 1950. The next
year, the government wanted to go in for
The shift from Antagonistic Strategy general elections to constitute the House
to Constitutional Democracy of the People—the Lok Sabha—as
provided for in the Constitution.
 The communist movement remained The founding fathers of the Indian
localized in Hyderabad and West Constitution incorporated certain aspects
Bengal. The mass support was of the electoral procedure in the
sporadic and conditional as people Constitution itself (Part XV, Articles 324
were not ready to reject the Congress to 329).
so soon after Independence. The
 Groundwork for the Elections
Independent India Goes to the Polls
➢ The Election Commission for the First Time

 The office of the Election Commission

had been set up in a small way on  The elections were held based on
January 25, 1950. The first Chief universal adult franchise, with all those
Election Commissioner of India was twenty-one years of age or older
Sukumar Sen, an ICS officer, who having the right to vote. The total
assumed office on March 21, 1950. number of voters enrolled in the whole
 Under Article 324, the Election of India (excluding Jammu and
Commission of India has been vested Kashmir) was 17, 32,13,635 (roughly
with the power of the superintendence, more than 173 million). Of these,
direction and control of the entire approximately 45 per cent were women
process for conduct of elections to voters. As much as 49 per cent of the
Parliament and legislature of every total population was thus enrolled as
state and to the offices of President and voters.
Vice President of India. The Election
Commission had to do a lot of ground ➢ Challenges
work before the first polls were held.
 Most of the voters were poor, illiterate,
➢ Legislation for Polls and came from rural areas, and had no
experience of elections. There was
 It was only after these laws were much scepticism about such an
passed that the electoral machinery electorate being able to exercise its
could be put in place. So, though the right to vote in a politically mature and
government was in a hurry to hold the responsible manner.
elections as early as 1950 and then by  The Election Commission faced many
the spring of 1951, the first phase of challenges. There was a house-to-
the elections could be held only from house survey to register the voters.
October 15, 1951. Many eligible voters could not be
 Of the 489 seats in the House of the included in the electoral rolls despite
People to be filled by election, 72 seats much effort on the part of the Election
were reserved for candidates belonging Commission because of
to the Scheduled Castes, and 26 for (i) Ignorance and apathy of the
candidates belonging to the Scheduled common voter,
Tribes. (ii) Lack of adequate organisation and
 The total number of seats in the experience on the part of the political
Legislative Assemblies of the states parties, and
was 3,283. Out of these, 477 seats were (iii) Inexperience and poor
reserved for the Scheduled Castes, and organisation of the governmental
192 for the Scheduled Tribes. machinery in some of the states.
 ➢ Parties in the Fray for the Lok  The Indian National Congress
Sabha contested 472 seats and won 364, a
stupendous majority of the seats to the
 There were 53 political parties Lok Sabha. The CPI won 16 and the
participating in the first general Socialist Party won 12 - the only other
elections for the Lok Sabha seats. parties to get two-digit number of
These included the 14 national parties, seats. The KMPP won 9 seats. The BJS
according to the report by the Election won 3 seats. The independents got the
Commission of India. Besides, there highest number of seats after the
were the independents. There were a Congress.
total number of 1,874 candidates,  The Congress polled close to 45 per
including 533 independents. cent of the total vote. The CPI got
about 3.29 per cent votes. The Socialist
➢ Conduct of Elections Party got 10.59 per cent votes.

 In the first general elections of the ➢ State Leislatures

nation, there were three types of
constituencies: 314 with single seats,  In the state legislature elections, too,
86 with two seats and one with three the Indian National Congress swept the
seats. The total seats thus were 489 polls. The party won 2,248 seats on the
from 401 constituencies. whole. It formed the government in all
 There were over 224,000 polling the states, though it did not get the
booths, one for almost every 1000 majority on its own in four states,
voters, and these were equipped with namely, Madras, Travancore-Cochin,
over 2 million steel ballot-boxes, one Orissa and PEPSU.
box for every candidate. About a
million officials supervised the conduct …………………………………………
of the polls. ……….
 The voter turnout for the elections was
The Indian States - History for UPSC
45.7 per cent. The people demonstrated
CSE
their ability to vote with knowledge
even though the majority of them were Introduction
illiterate. The number of invalid votes
was as low as 3 to 4 per cent. The  The princely states, also called the
participation of women was significant Indian states, which covered a total
with some 40 per cent of the eligible area of 7,12,508 square miles and
women voters exercising their vote. numbered no fewer than 562,
included tiny states such as Bilbari
with a population of 27 persons only
Results and some big ones like Hyderabad
(as large as Italy) with a population
➢ Lok Sabha of 14 million.
 The making of Indian states was  British Residents were transformed
largely governed by the same from diplomatic agents of a foreign
circumstances which led to the power to executive and controlling
growth of East India Company 's officers of a superior government.
power in India. The evolution of  This policy of annexation culminated
relations between the British in usurpation of eight states by
authority and states can be traced Dalhousie.
under the following broad stages.
Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-
The Company’s Struggle for 1935)
Equality from a Position of
Subordination (1740-1765)  The year 1858 saw the assumption of
Starting with Anglo- French rivalry with direct responsibility by the Crown.
the coming of Dupleix in 1751, East  After 1858, the fiction of authority
India Company asserted political identity of the Mughal emperor ended;
with capture of Arcot (1751). sanction for all matters of succession
was required from the Crown since
 With Battle of Plassey in 1757, East the Crown stood forth as the
India Company acquired political unquestioned ruler and the
power next only to the Bengal paramount power.
nawabs.
 In 1765 with the acquisition of the ➢ Curzon’s Approach- Curzon
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, stretched the interpretation of old
the East India Company became a treaties to mean that the princes, in
significant political power. their capacity as servants of people,
were supposed to work side-by-side
Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813)- with the governor- general in the
This policy was reflected in Warren scheme of Indian government.
Hastings' wars against the Marathas and ➢ Post-1905- Cording to the
Mysore. recommendations of the Montford
Reforms (1921), a Chamber of
 Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary Princes (Narendra Mandal) was set
alliance was an extension of ring up as a consultative and advisory
fence—which sought to reduce states body having no say in the internal
to a position of dependence on affairs of individual states and
British Government in India. having no powers to discuss matters
For the purpose of the chamber the
Policy of Subordinate Isolation Indian states were divided into three
(1813-1857) categories—
States surrendered all forms of external (i) Directly represented— 109
sovereignty but retained sovereignty in (ii) Represented through
internal administration. representatives— 127
 (iii) Recognised as feudal holdings the Indian dominion in matters
or jagirs. of defence, communication and
➢ Butler Committee- Butler external affairs. By August 15,
Committee (1927) was set up to 1947, 136 states had joined the
examine the nature of relationship Indian Union but others
between the princely states and remained precariously outside
government. It gave the following  Plebiscite and Army Action
recommendations— (i) Junagarh- Muslim Nawab
(i) Paramountcy must remain wanted to join Pakistan but a
supreme and must fulfil its Hindu majority population
obligations, adopting and defining wanted to join the Indian Union.
itself according to the shifting (ii) Hyderabad- Hyderabad
necessities of time and progressive wanted a sovereign status. It
development of states. signed a Standstill Agreement
(ii) States should not be handed over with India in November 1947.
to an Indian Government in British (iii) Kashmir- state of Jammu
India, responsible to an Indian and Kashmir had a Hindu prince
legislature, without the consent of and a Muslim majority
states. population, prince envisaged a
Policy of Equal Federation (1935- sovereign status for the state and
1947) was reluctant to accede to either
A Non-Starter-The Government of India of the dominions, special status
Act, 1935 proposed a Federal Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir was
with 125 out of 375 seats for the princes recognised under Article 370 of
and the Council of States with 104 out of the Indian Constitution which
160 seats for the princes. implied a limited jurisdiction of
➢ Integration and Merger the Indian Union over the state
as compared to other states.
 After World War II began and a
position of non-cooperation was ➢ Gradual Integration- problem now
adopted by the Congress, the was two-fold
British government tried to
break the deadlock through the  Of transforming the states into viable
Cripps Mission (1942), Wavell administrative units.
Plan (1945), Cabinet Mission  Of absorbing them into the
(1946) and Attlee's statement constitutional units.
(February 1947).  This was sought to be solved by :
 Sardar Patel, who was in charge (i) Incorporating smaller states (216
of the states’ ministry in the such states) into contiguous
interim cabinet, helped by V.P. provinces and listed in Part A; for
Menon, the secretary in the instance, 39 states of Orissa and
ministry, appealed to the Chhattisgarh were incorporated into
patriotic feeling of rulers to join Central Provinces, Orissa. Gujarat
 states were incorporated into Young India, wrote that Swaraj would
Bombay; not be a free gift of the British
(ii) Making some states as centrally Parliament but a declaration of India’s
administered for strategic or special full self- expression—the Constitution
reasons, listed in Part-C (61 states) of India would be framed as per the
(iii) Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya wishes of the Indians.
Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Bhopal,  After the Non-Cooperation Movement,
etc.; Motilal Nehru in February 1924
(iv) Creating live unions introduced in the Central Legislative
(v) United States of Kathiawar, Assembly a resolution that gave due
United States of Matsya, Patiala and regard to minority rights and interests
East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, and came to be known as the National
and United States of Travancore- Demand.
Cochin (later Kerala).  Britain, in response to the National
Demand, appointed the all-white
Summary of Making of the Simon Commission in November 1927
Constitution for India - History for to recommend further constitutional
UPSC CSE changes. In response to Lord
Birkenhead’s challenge, the Nehru
Introduction
Report, submitted on August 1928, was
The Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on January 26,1950, has the an outline of a draft constitution for
India. Most of its features were later
distinction of being the longest in the
incorporated in the Constitution of
world in terms of its length, content and
independent India.
complexity owing to country’s size and
 In the aftermath of the Nehru Report,
diversity.
the Simon Commission was boycotted
At the time of framing of the
and in December 1929, the Congress
constitution, India was deeply divided
besides being large and diverse, and declared complete independence as its
ultimate goal. The idea that India’s
hence it was designed in a way to keep
Constitution should be framed via a
the country together.
Constituent Assembly elected for this
Background
very purpose and based on widest
 Although the Constitution of India was possible franchise gained support.
framed between December 1946 and Although, M.N. Roy had made such a
December 1949, its roots deep lie in suggestion earlier, Jawaharlal Nehru
the Indian national movement against was the first national leader to
the colonial rule as well as in the enunciate the idea in 1933.
 The Congress took up the demand for a
movements for responsible and
constitutional government in the constituent assembly as a part of its
princely states. official policy in 1934 after refusing
 In 1922, Mahatma Gandhi, in an article the Simon Commission’s
titled "Independence" published in recommendations of 1933 as not
expressive of the will of the people.
 Jawaharlal Nehru declared that the  Two Constituent Assemblies: India
Congress had proposed “the and Pakistan- On June 26, 1947,
Constitution of India must be framed, Lord Mountbatten, the Governor-
without outside interference, by a General, announced the setting up of
Constituent Assembly elected on the a separate Constituent Assembly for
basis of adult franchise”, and, the Pakistan.
Working Committee of the Congress (i) Indian Independence Act, 1947,
reiterated the stand. passed with surprising speed, came
 The Cripps Proposals of 1942, though into force on July 18,1947.
rejected by the Congress as (ii) Indian Independence Act, 1947
unacceptable, had one redeeming declared the Constituent Assembly
feature in that it conceded the request of India to be a fully sovereign body
of Indians to frame their own and on the midnight of August 14-
constitution through a constituent 15, 1947, the Assembly assumed full
assembly. powers of the governance of the
 In September 1945, the newly elected country.
Labour government in England  Evaluation of the Assembly for
announced that it planned to create a India- Constituent Assembly was
constituent assembly in India. On indirectly elected by the provincial
March 15, 1946, the Cabinet Mission assemblies which themselves were
came to India and, in the course of its elected on the basis of a limited
stay, recommended the forming of (a) franchise established by the
the Constituent Assembly, and (b) an Government of India Act of 1935.
interim government. (i) After Independence- Now the
work of Constituent Assembly was
Constituent Assembly organised into five stages: first—
committees were required to present
 Formation-It was decided that the reports on basic issues;
Constituent Assembly was to be (ii) Second- Benegal Narsing Rau
elected indirectly by the Provincial prepared an initial draft on the basis
Assemblies. They were to be elected of the reports of these committees
by the representatives of each and on his own research into the
community in their respective constitutions of other countries;
legislative assemblies by the method (iii) Third- The drafting committee,
of proportional representation with under the chairmanship of Dr B.R.
single transferable vote. Ambedkar, presented a detailed draft
(i) Constituent Assembly opened on constitution which was published for
December 9, 1946 in the public discussion and comments,
Constitution Hall- now the Central (iv) Fourth- Draft constitution was
Hall of Parliament House at New debated and amendments proposed;
Delhi. Jawaharlal Nehru moved the (v) Fifth- Constitution of India was
historic Objectives Resolution on 13 adopted.
December 1946.
 Work: Committees and Consensus In all, 284 members actually signed
the Constitution.
 When the Constituent Assembly first  Constituent Assembly, besides
met on December 9, 1946, J.B. drafting the Constitution of India,
Kripalani, the then Congress adopted the National Flag on July
president, proposed the name of Dr 22, 1947, and adopted the National
Sachhidanand Sinha, the oldest Anthem and National Song on
member of the Assembly, for the January 24, 1950- the last day of its
post of the provisional president. session.
Later, on December 11, Dr Rajendra  The Constituent Assembly elected
Prasad was elected as the President Dr Rajendra Prasad as the first
of the Constituent Assembly. President of India on January 24,
 In the light of their comments and 1950.
criticism, the Drafting Committee  Late in the evening of August 14,
prepared a second draft which 1947, the Assembly met in the
consisted of 315 Articles and 9 Constitution Hall and at the stroke of
Schedules. This second draft was midnight, took over as the
placed before the Constituent Legislative Assembly of an
Assembly on February 21, 1948. The Independent India.
draft was then considered clause by  The Assembly continued as the
clause by the Assembly. The third provisional Parliament of India from
reading commenced on November 14 January 26, 1950 till the new
and was finished on November 26, Parliament was installed after the
1949. first general elections.
 Preamble was adopted last. It had
taken 2 years, 11 months and 18 days Summary of the Evolution of
to complete the task. As many as Nationalist Foreign Policy - History
7000 odd amendments had been for UPSC CSE
proposed and nearly 2500 were
Introduction
actually discussed before the draft
constitution was accepted.
 At independence, India was a
 On November 26, 1949, the people
member of 51 international
of India in the Constituent Assembly
organisations and a signatory to 600
adopted, enacted and gave to
odd treaties. India had signed the
themselves the Constitution of the
Versailles Treaty after the First
Sovereign Democratic Republic of
World War, largely as a result of
India. Dr Rajendra Prasad as
having contributed more than a
president of the assembly signed the million soldiers to that war. In the
document. The members of the
1920s, it was a founding member of
Constituent Assembly appended
the League of Nations, the
their signatures to it on January 24,
International Labour Organisation,
1950- the last day of the Assembly.
and the International Court of
 Justice. It participated in the were Solidarity with other colonies
Washington Conference on Naval fighting for freedom, such as Russia,
Armaments in 1921-22. Ireland, Egypt, Turkey, Ethiopia,
 From 1920 there was an Indian high Sudan, Burma and Afghanistan
commissioner in London. Even
before the First World War, Indian ➢ Pan-Asian feeling reflected in
nationals were staffing a few
diplomatic posts. It was no accident  Condemnation of annexation of Burma
that Indians formed the largest and in 1885
most influential non-Western  Inspiration from Japan as an example
contingent in the United Nations and of industrial development
allied agencies very soon after  Condemnation of the participation of
independence. Japan in the international suppression
 The basic framework oi India's of the I-Ho-Tuan uprising (1895)
foreign policy was structured much  Condemnation of the imperialist
before 1947. efforts to divide China
 Defeat of the Czarist Russia by Japan
1880 to First World War: which exploded the myth of European
Anti-Imperialism and Pan-Asian superiority
Feeling  Congress support for Burma's freedom
After 1878, the British undertook a
number of expansionist expeditions ➢ World war 1
which were opposed by the nationalists.
These expeditions included-  The nationalists supported the British
Indian Government in the belief that
 The Second Afghan War (1878-80) Britain would apply the same
 The dispatch of troops by England in principles of democracy for which
1882, to suppress the nationalist they were supposed to be fighting.
uprising by Col. Arabi in Egypt After the conclusion of the War, the
 Annexation of Burma in 1885 Congress insisted on being represented
 Invasion of Tibet under Curzon in at the Peace Conference.
1903  In 1920, the Congress urged the people
 A number of annexations during the not to join the Army to fight in the
1890s in the north-west to stop the West. In 1925, the Congress
Russian advance. The nationalists condemned the dispatch of Indian
supported the tribal resistance to these Army to suppress the Chinese
adventures by the British nationalist army under SunYat-Sen.
 In place of an aggressive imperialism,
the nationalists advocated a policy of ➢ 1920s and 1930 - Identifying with
peace. C. Sankaran Nair, the Congress Socialists
president in 1897, said, “Our true
policy is a peaceful policy'' So, the  In 1926 and 1927, Nehru was in
emerging themes during 1880-1914 Europe where he came in contact with
 the socialists and other leftist leaders. compete on the world arena with the
Earlier, Dadabhai Naoroji attended the modern states, and for that, he realised,
Hague session of the International a drastic socioeconomic and
Socialist Congress. technological transformation of the
 He was a close friend of H.M. country was required.
Hyndman, the famous socialist. Lajpat  His objective was to transform India
Rai also made contacts with the without becoming dependent on any
American socialists during his visit to particular country or group of
the USA from 1914 to 1918. Gandhi countries to the extent of losing
had close relations with Tolstoy and independence of thought or policy.
Rolland Romain. In 1927, Nehru
attended the Congress of Oppressed ➢ Panchsheel and Non-Alignment -
Nationalists at Brussels on behalf of Panchsheel and Non-Alignment are the
the Indian National Congress. foundations of India's foreign policy.
➢ Panchsheel
➢ After 1936 - Anti-Fascism
 It was on April 29, 1954, that
 The 1930s saw the rise of Fascism in Panchsheel, or the Five Principles of
Europe and the struggle against it. The Peaceful Coexistence, were first
nationalists saw imperialism and formally enunciated in the
fascism as organs of capitalism. They Agreement on Trade and Intercourse
lend support to the struggle against between the Tibet region of China
fascism in other parts of the world in and India.
Ethiopia, Spain, China,  It was stated in the preamble to this
Czechoslovakia. In 1939, at the Tripuri agreement that the two governments
session, the Congress dissociated itself had resolved to enter into the
from the British policy which agreement on the basis of five
supported fascism in Europe. principles, namely,
 In 1939, the Japanese attack on China (i) Mutual respect for each other's
was condemned by the nationalists. territorial integrity and sovereignty
The Congress also sent a medical (ii) Mutual non-aggression
mission under Dr Atal to China. (iii) Mutual non-interference
(iv) Equality and mutual benefit
➢ After Independence (v) Peaceful co-existence.

 Nehru is often called the architect of ➢ Non-Alignment

independent India's foreign policy. In
his address to the Constituent  The Cold War that began in the wake
Assembly on December 4, 1947, of the Second World War had no
Nehru laid the foundations of India's precedent in history. Almost the entire
foreign policy. developed world was divided into two
 Main challenge to Nehru was to opposing nuclear-armed blocs, with
evolve a policy that could help India the US and the USSR leading as
 “super powers’. The balance of power opinions (positive or negative) on
diplomacy of the pre-war years thus issues at all.
disappeared from the industrialised
countries.
 At this point of time, the Soviet Union
did not possess the economic or
military support capability to influence
the countries emerging from the
colonial yoke. It was the West, which
tried to incorporate the newly
independent countries into its strategic
grouping. Alignment with the West
was economically attractive, but it
would have created a dependent
relationship, which was seen by most
of the newly independent countries as
obstructive to a self-reliant
development. The idea of aligning
with the communist bloc was not
possible for India, in spite of its
socialist leanings; it could not
visualise a Chinese-type restructuring
of the society and economy, being
basically attuned to a liberal
democratic political vision. Political
non-alignment was, therefore, prudent
as well as pragmatic.
 Non-alignment is the characteristic
feature of India's foreign policy. India
was one of the founder-members of
NAM. In the Cold War era, India
refused to favour any super power and
remained non-aligned.
 Non-alignment, however, is not to be
confused with neutrality. A neutral
state remains inactive or passive
during hostilities between two blocs.
Neutrality is maintained basically in
times of war, whereas non-alignment
has relevance both in times of war and
peace. Neutrality is equivalent to
passivity, a neutral country has no