Unit -1

1) Explain in detail about ISO-OSI or TCP/IP reference model in detail. (V.V Imp) any
one 5/10M
Ans: The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used
in the various layers. The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are
open for communication with other systems. ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
The OSI model has seven layers.
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer

The Physical Layer

 This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between
two machines that are communicating through a physical medium.
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits (raw bits) from one hop
(node) to the next.
 Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
 Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical
communication medium.
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the
other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are how many volts should be used to
represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission
may proceed simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is established and how
it is torn down when both sides are finished, and how many pins the network connector has and
what each pin is used for. The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and
timing interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
Functions: The physical layer is concerned with the following:
● Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
● Representation of the bits
● Data rate: the number of bits sent per second.
● Synchronization of bits
● Line configuration: Point to point or multipoint configuration.
● Physical topology
● Transmission Mode : Simplex, half duplex or full duplex
The Data Link Layer
● The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes this task by
having the sender break up the input data into data frames and transmits the frames sequentially.
If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgement frame.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer is how to keep a fast transmitter from
drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism is often needed to let
the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver has at the moment. Frequently, this
flow regulation and the error handling are integrated.
Functions: The Data Link layer is concerned with the following:
● Framing: Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring
about the frame boundaries and the size of each frame.
● Physical addressing, each node has its unique address.
● Flow Control: Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.
● Error control, normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.
● Access Control: Determine which device has right to send data in a multipoint
connection.
The Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how
packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are ''wired
into'' the network and rarely changed. They can also be determined at the start of each
conversation. Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet, to
reflect the current network load.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another's way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also belongs to the network
layer. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a
network layer issue.
When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from the first
one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may
differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.
Functions:
● Logical addressing (IP address)
● Routing, It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions,
priority of service, and other factors.
● Network congestion Control
● Fragmentation
The Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller
units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper
layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer,
and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were
sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service are the transporting of isolated messages,
with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to multiple
destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established.
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the destination.
In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar
program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. In
the lower layers, the protocols are between each machine and its immediate neighbors,
and not between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated
by many routers.
Functions:
● Port addressing, The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
● Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments, each
having a sequence number
● Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-
oriented.
● Flow control
● Error control
The Session Layer
 The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control, token management, and
synchronization.
Functions:
● Dialog control:
 ● It also makes sure the session is orderly, establishing which node transmits first,
how long it can transmit, and what to do in case of an error.
● It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed
to allow two applications to communicate over the network.
● Synchronization
● The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data
stream.
The Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption of data.
Unlike lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around, the presentation layer
is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to make it
possible for computers with different data representations to communicate, the data structures to
be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used ''on
the wire.'' The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level
data structures to be defined and exchanged.
Functions:
● Translation: The sending and receiving devices may run on different platforms
(hardware, software and operating system). Hence it is important that they understand
the messages that are used for communicating. Hence a translation service may be
requiredwhich is provided by the Presentation layers
● Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bitscontained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such
as text, audio, and video. Compression ensures faster data transfer. The data compressed
at sender has to be decompressed at the receiving end, both performed by the Presentation
layer.
● Encryption: It is the process of transforming the original messageto change its meaning
before sending it. The reverse process called decryption has to be performed at the
receiving end to recover the original message from the encrypted message.
The Application Layer
 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One
widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for
the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants
to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application protocols are
used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
Functions:
● Network virtual terminal
● File transfer, access, and management
● Mail services
● Directory services
Advantages of the ISO OSI Model
 If a network conforms broadly to agreed standards, users are insulated against some of
the adverse effects of technological change - equipment does not become obsolete
quickly
 It promotes modularization of network support software
  Each module takes the form of a layer in the model and is responsible for providing
selected services to the layer above
 In theory any layer can be replaced by a new layer that provides the same services but in
a different way, without affecting the user's view of the framework
Disadvantages of the ISO OSI Model
 Due to the complexity of the system poor performance is obtained, especially in some
real time applications
 Direct substitution of layers is not always possible e.g. if a LAN with broadcast capability
is inserted below a network protocol that did not support this facility, then this service
would be lost to the upper layers
 Although protecting equipment from becoming obsolete it simultaneously hinders
technological advancement.

(or) TCP/IP
Ans: TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is also called as the
TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a collection of protocols.
● Most widely used interoperable network protocol architecture
● The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
● TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily interdependent. The layers of the
TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and matched
depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical means that each upper-level
protocol is supported by one or more lower- level protocols.

TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the
internet and how data should be transmitted between them. It helps you to create a virtual
network when multiple computer networks are connected together. The purpose of TCP/IP
model is to allow communication over large distances.
It has 4 layers.
Host-to-Network layer: It is the lowest-layer of TCP/IP model. This layer is also called a
network access layer. It helps to define details of how data should be sent using the network.
It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly
interface with a network medium, like coaxial, optical fiber, or twisted-pair cables.
It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A well-known example is Ethernet.
Internet Layer: An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP model. It is also known as a
network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any
computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.
The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable length
data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network layer
protocol.
● It holds the IP protocol which is a network layer protocol and is responsible for source to
destination transmission of data.
● The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is a connection-less & unreliable protocol.
● It is a best effort delivery service. i.e. there is no error checking in IP, it simply sends the data
and relies on its underlying layers to get the data transmitted to the destination.
● IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated. IP
does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive at
their destination.
Handles communication between machines
● The path of a message is determined (routing)
● The destination of a message is determined (addressing)
IP is a combination of four protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP &IGMP
Transport Layer: Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport
from a process on a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted
using single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service functions.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control,
and segmentation or de-segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends
the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.
● Handles end-to-end communication
● Divides the data into manageable chunks of information (packets)
● Provides reliable communication
● Ensures that all packets are received
● Provides error-free communication
● Uses a checksum to verify data integrity
● Transport Layer here can use TCP, UDP or SCTP
Application Layer: Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the
highest level of OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-
user. It means the OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software application.
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.
● Many protocols are defined at this layer like File Transfer (FTP), Electronic Mail (SMTP),
Virtual Terminal (TELNET), Domain Name Service (DNS), HTTP etc.
2) Discuss the differences between ISO-OSI and TCP/IP reference models.(or) Explain
similarities and differences between ISO-OSI and TCP/IP architecture.(or) Summarize
the differences between ISO-OSI and TCP/IP reference model. (V.V. IMP)5 M
Ans: The main similarities between the two models include the following:
They share similar architecture. - Both of the models share a similar architecture. This can be
illustrated by the fact that both of them are constructed with layers.
They share a common application layer.- Both of the models share a common "application
layer". However in practice this layer includes different services depending upon each model.
Both models have comparable transport and network layers.- This can be illustrated by the fact
that whatever functions are performed between the presentation and network layer of the OSI
model similar functions are performed at the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model.
Knowledge of both models is required by networking professionals.- According to article
obtained from the internet networking professionals "need to know both models". (Source:
Both models assume that packets are switched.- Basically this means that individual packets may
take differing paths in order to reach the same destination.
The main differences between the two models are as follows:
TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has developed. The
OSI model however is a "generic, protocol- independent standard."
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers.
TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP
protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains
creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually built around the
OSI model as it is merely used as a guidance tool.
The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers.
Advantages of the ISO OSI Model
 If a network conforms broadly to agreed standards, users are insulated against some of
the adverse effects of technological change - equipment does not become obsolete
quickly
 It promotes modularisation of network support software
 Each module takes the form of a layer in the model and is responsible for providing
selected services to the layer above
 In theory any layer can be replaced by a new layer that provides the same services but in
a different way, without affecting the user's view of the framework
Disadvantages of the ISO OSI Model
 Due to the complexity of the system poor performance is obtained, especially in some
real time applications
 Direct substitution of layers is not always possible e.g. if a LAN with broadcast capability
is inserted below a network protocol that did not support this facility, then this service
would be lost to the upper layers
  Although protecting equipment from becoming obsolete it simultaneously hinders
technological advancement
The primary advantages of using TCP/IP are summarized below:
TCP/IP can be used to establish connections between different types of computers and servers.
Providing this type of interoperability is one of the main advantages of TCP/IP.
 TCP/IP is an industry standard, open protocol. This means that it is not controlled by one
institute.
 TCP/IP operates independently of the operating system.
 TCP/IP includes support for a number of routing protocols.
 Enables internetworking between organizations.
 TCP/IP has a scalable, client/server architecture.
 TCP/IP includes support for name and address resolution services, including Domain Name
Service Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol and Windows Internet Name Service.
Disadvantages:
 Slower
 Difficult to administer
OSI TCP/IP
OSI model has been developed by It was developed by ARPANET
ISO (InternationalOrganization for (Advanced Research ProjectAgency
Standardization). Network).
It is an independent standard and It consists of standard protocols that
generic protocol used as a lead to the developmentof an internet.
communication gateway between the It is a communication protocol that
network andthe end user. provides the connection among the
hosts.
In the OSI model, the transport The transport layer does not provide
layer provides aguarantee for the the surety for the delivery of
delivery of the packets. packets. But still, we can say that it
is a reliablemodel.
This model is based on a vertical This model is based on a horizontal
approach. approach.
OSI model has a separate Presentation TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer and Sessionlayer. Presentation layer orSession layer.
Transport Layer is Connection Transport Layer is both Connection
Oriented. Oriented and Connectionless.
 Network Layer is both Connection Network Layer is Connection less.
Oriented and
Connection less.
Protocols are hidden in OSI In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy
model and are easilyreplaced
as the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
interfaces and protocols very clearly protocols are not clearlyseparated. It
and makes clear distinction between is protocol dependent.
them.It is protocol independent.
The usage of this model is very low. This model is
107
highly used.
It comprises of seven layers: It comprises of four layers:

3) Explain the functionality of ____ layer? (V.V.IMP 3 m) (prepare for all layers)
Ans: Physical Layer: The physical layer defines the means of transmitting raw bits rather than
logical data packets over a physical link connecting network nodes. The bit stream may be
grouped into code words or symbols and converted to a physical signal that is transmitted over a
hardware transmission medium. The physical layer provides an electrical, mechanical, and
procedural interface to the transmission medium.
The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
 Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
 Providing a standardized interface to physical transmission media, including
o Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example
maximum cable length
o Electrical specification of transmission line signal level and impedance
o Radio interface, including electromagnetic spectrum frequency allocation and
specification of signal strength, analog bandwidth, etc.
o Specifications for IR over optical fiber or a wireless IR communication link
 Modulation, Line coding, Bit synchronization in synchronous serial communication
 Start-stop signalling and flow control in asynchronous serial communication
 Circuit switching, Multiplexing, Carrier sense and collision detection utilized by some
level 2 multiple access protocols
 Equalization filtering, training sequences, pulse shaping and other signal processing of
physical signals
 Forward error correction for example bitwise convolution coding
 Bit-interleaving and other channel coding
Data Link Layer: In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the data link
layer is layer 2. The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to
 transfer data between network entities and might provide the means to detect and possibly
correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. It‘s important functions are
• To Provide service interface to the network layer
• local delivery of frames between devices on the same LAN
• Error control. i.e. Dealing with transmission errors
• Flow Control. i.e. Regulating data flow
• Slow receivers not swamped by fast senders

Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet.
● Implements routing of packets through the network.
● Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination
● Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
● Handles congestion in the network.
● Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).
● The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
Transport layer: It provides end-to-end or host-to-host communication services for applications
within a layered architecture of network components and protocols. The transport layer provides
services such as connection-oriented, in-order delivery, reliability, flow control, congestion
avoidance and multiplexing.
4) Define the five components of Data Communication. (V.IMP) 2m
Ans: Data Communication System Components: There are mainly five components of a data
communication system: 1. Message 2. Sender 3. Receiver 4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)
Five components of data communication
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Japanese.
5) State the difference between Protocol and Service. (V.IMP) 2m
Ans: A protocol is a set of rules for communication within a layer. A service is what the
layer provides to the layer above it through an interface. Protocols at one layer are unaware
of issues at another layer.
Services describe the resulting effects of the operation of a protocol without requiring
knowledge of the detailed specifications of the protocol itself. A protocol specifies a
horizontal dialogue between two computing systems across a network, while a service
describes a vertical relationship within a system.

6) Compare the different topologies for interconnecting devices. (or) Explain the different
network topologies in detail. (V.V.IMP) 5m
Ans: The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh Topology: Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct communication takes place between the
nodes in the network.
• Advantages
• Carries own data. (No Sharing)
• Robust
• Security and Privacy
• Point to point links make fault identification easy.
• Disadvantages
• Cable length , cost n complexity
• More number of Input ports required.
Star Topology: Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
connected to a centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware between the nodes. Any
node requesting for service or providing service, first contact the hub for communication.
The central device (hub or switch) has point to point communication link with the devices. The
hub broadcasts the message, while the switch unicasts the messages by maintaining a switch
table.
In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected devices act as clients.
Only one input-output port and one cable are required to connect a node to the central device.
For Example: High-Speed LAN, etc.
• Advantages
● Cheaper then mesh
● Easier to Install ,maintain and reconfigure
● Robust
● Requires less cable
● Easy fault identification
• Disadvantages
● If hub goes down, the entire NW becomes dead.

Bus Topology: Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or
channel is used for communication in the network. The bus is connected to various taps and drop
lines. In other words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.
When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the receiver accepts it
and others reject it. In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, this joins every
computer and peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared channel have line terminators.
The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end, the terminator removes
the data from the communication line. For Example: Ethernet cable, etc.
• Advantages
• Easy to install
• Uses less cable than mesh and star.
• Disadvantages
• If a portion of bus breakdown whole bus cannot function.
• Inflexible because we cannot add new nodes to bus, addition of nodes
changes the no of taps and average distance between them

Ring Topology: Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to exactly
two other computers to form the ring. The message passing is unidirectional and circular in
nature.
All the nodes are connected in a closed-loop. This topology mainly works on a token-based
system and the token travels in a loop in one specific direction.In a ring topology, if a token is
free then the node can capture the token and attach the data and destination address to the token,
and then leaves the token for communication. When this token reaches the destination node, the
data is removed by the receiver and the token is made free to carry the next data. For Example:
Token Ring, etc.
 • Advantages
• Easy to reconfigure & install
• Signal circulate all the time
• If a node not receiving signal for a long time it
can issue an alarm
• Fault isolation is easy
• Disadvantages
• Traffic is only in one direction
• If a node in ring fail, the whole ring cannot function
Hybrid Topology: A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two or
more topologies. In practical use, they are the most widely used.

7) State the difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission. (V.IMP)

2m
Ans: There are two types of Transmission Techniques:
In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames. This transmission is the
full duplex type. Between sender and receiver the synchronization is compulsory. In
Synchronous transmission, There is no gap present between data. It is more efficient and more
reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer the large amount of data.
Advantages
1. There are no start bits, stop bits or gaps between data units
2. Since the above are absent data transmission is faster.
3. Due to synchronization there are no timing errors.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive and complex transmitter/receiver circuitry
2. Needs precisely synchronized clocks.
Application
Data Transfer b/w computers
In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character. This transmission is the
half duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with data. It
does not require synchronization.
Advantages
1. Simple and Inexpensive.
2. Effective implementation
3. Can be used for low speed communication
Disadvantages
● Insertion of start bits, stop bits and gaps make asynchronous
transmission slow.
Application
● Keyboard
S.NO Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In Synchronous transmission, Data In asynchronous transmission, Data is sent in

1.
is sent in form of blocks or frames. form of byte or character.

2. Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

3. Synchronous transmission is costly. Asynchronous transmission is economical.

In Synchronous transmission, time In asynchronous transmission, time interval of

4.
interval of transmission is constant. transmission is not constant, it is random.

In Synchronous transmission, There In asynchronous transmission, There is present

5.
is no gap present between data. gap between data.

While in asynchronous transmission,

Efficient use of transmission line is
6. transmission line remains empty during gap in
done in synchronous transmission.
character transmission.

Synchronous transmission needs Asynchronous transmission has no need of

7. precisely synchronized clocks for synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in this
the information of new bytes. transmission for information of new bytes.

8) Explain about the different transmission media. (or) Explain about the classes of
Transmission media (V.V.IMP) 5m
Ans: Transmission media is a means by which a communication signal is carried from one
system to another.

Guided media: Those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
● Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
● Types: 1. Twisted-Pair Cable 2. Coaxial Cable 3. Fiber-Optic Cable
1. Twisted-Pair Cable: A Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically 1mm
thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form the purpose of twisting is to reduce cross
talk interference between several pairs. Twisted Pair is much cheaper then coaxial cable but it is
susceptible to noise and electromagnetic interference and attenuation is large.

Twisted Pair can be further classified in two categories: Unshielded twisted pair: In this no
insulation is provided, hence they are susceptible to interference. Shielded twisted pair: In this a
protective thick insulation is provided but shielded twisted pair is expensive and not commonly
used. The most common application of twisted pair is the telephone system. Nearly all
telephones are connected to the telephone company office by a twisted pair. Twisted pair can run
several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distances repeaters are needed. Twisted
pairs can be used for both analog and digital transmission. The bandwidth depends on the
thickness of wire and the distance travelled. Twisted pairs are generally limited in distance,
bandwidth and data rate.

Twisted Pair – Applications

● Most common medium
● Telephone network
o Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop)
● Within buildings
o To private branch exchange (PBX)
● For local area networks (LAN)
o 10Mbps or 100Mbps
● Advantages
● Less expensive
● Easy to work with
● Disadvantages
● Low data rate
● Short range
● Susceptible to interference and noise
2. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor and an outer conductor which are
separated by an insulator. The inner conductor is usually copper. The outer conductor is covered
by a plastic jacket. It is named coaxial because the two conductors are coaxial. Typical diameter
of coaxial cable lies between 0.4 inch to 1 inch.
● Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable.
 ● Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
● The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
● This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.

Applications
● Television (TV) signals distribution
● Ariel to TV
● Cable TV
● Long distance telephone transmission
● Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
● Being replaced by fiber optic
● Short distance computer systems links
● Local area networks (LAN)
● Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Fiber-Optic cable: In optical fiber light is used to send data. In general terms presence of
light is taken as bit 1 and its absence as bit 0. Optical fiber consists of inner core of either
glass or plastic. Core is surrounded by cladding of the same material but of different
refractive index. This cladding is surrounded by a plastic jacket which prevents optical fiber
from electromagnetic interference and harshly environments. It uses the principle of total
internal reflection to transfer data over optical fibers. Optical fiber is much better in
bandwidth as compared to copper wire, since there is hardly any attenuation or
electromagnetic interference in optical wires. Hence there is fewer requirements to improve
quality of signal, in long distance transmission. Disadvantage of optical fiber is that end
points are fairly expensive. (eg. switches)
● A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
● Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at frequencies in the
visible light spectrum.
● Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
● A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
● The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Applications
● Backbone networks
● Cable TV – backbone
● LAN
● 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
● 100Base-X
● Advantages:
● Higher bandwidth
● Less signal attenuation
● Immunity to electromagnetic interference
● Resistance to corrosive materials
● Light weight
● Greater immunity to tapping
● Disadvantages:
● Installation and maintenance.
● Unidirectional light propagation.
● Cost.
Unguided Media: Wireless
● Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

● There are three types of Unguided Media

(i) Radio waves
(ii) Micro waves
(iii)Infrared.
i) Radio Waves: Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are
normally called radio waves.
● Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they are
propagated in all directions. This means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to be
aligned. A sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
● Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as
AM radio.
● Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage . It is an advantage because; an
AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage because we cannot
isolate a communication to first inside or outside a building.
● The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave
band.
Applications:
● Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television.
 ii) Micro Waves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
● Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
● Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
needs to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall, the
curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication
● Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
● Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
● Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this means of transmission
Applications:
● Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks, and wireless LANs.
iii) Infrared: Infrared signals frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 THz which can be
used for short range communication.
● Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This helps to prevent
interference between one system and another. Infrared Transmission in one room cannot be
affected by the infrared transmission in another room.
● Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth
can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
● Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.

9) List the different addresses defined in TCP/IP protocol and the layers they correspond
to. (Or) Explain different types of addresses in TCP/IP (V.IMP). 2m
Ans:

TCP/IP Layer Addressing Used

Application layer Specific address
Transport layer Port address
Network or Internet Layer Logical address
Data link layer/Physical layer Physical address
1. Physical Addresses (MAC Address): It is also known as the ‗Link address‗. It is basically
the address of any particular node that has been described by the LAN or WAN.
2. Logical Address (IP Addresses): The logical address is also called the IP (Internet Protocol)
address. Logical address is required to facilitate universal communication in which different
types of the physical networks can be involved.
3. Port Address: The main objective of the internet is the process to process communications.
For this purpose, it is necessary to label or name a specific process. Thus the process needs
addresses. The label that is allocated to a process is known as the port address. It is a 16 bit
address field.
4. Specific Addresses: A few of the applications generally have simple (easy to use) address.
Examples of specific addresses are the e-mail addresses of the University Resource Locators
(URL). These kinds of addresses are designed for a specific address.

10) Compare the different XDSL types.(or) Explain in detail about XDSL. (V.V.IMP) 5m
Ans: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology provides high-speed, broadband network
connections to homes and small businesses.
● DSL utilizes the same cabling used for normal telephones, but it can offer higher data rates
through use of the digital modem technology.
● DSL technology is a set of technologies, each differing in the first letter (ADSL, VDSL,
HDSL, and SDSL). The set is often referred to as xDSL, where x can be replaced by A, V, H,
or S.
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL): ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for
residential users; it is not suitable for businesses.
● ADSL provides higher speed (bit rate) in the downstream direction than in the upstream
direction. That is the reason it is called asymmetric.
● Designers of ADSL divided available bandwidth of the local loop
unevenly for the residential customer.
● It is not suitable for businesses who need a large bandwidth in both direction.
● But how does ADSL reach a data rate that was never achieved with traditional modems?
● The existing local loops (twisted-pair) can handle bandwidths up to
1.1 MHz. Filter installed at the end office of the telephone company where each local loop
terminates limits the bandwidth to 4 KHz (voice communication).If filter is removed, the
entire 1.1 MHz is available for voice and data communication.
● ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate based on the condition of
the local loop line.
● The modulation technique that has become standard for ADSL is called the discrete
multitone technique (DMT) which combines QAM and FDM.

HDSL (high-bit-rate digital subscriber line):

● Alternative for T-1 line (1.544 Mbps)
● The T-1 uses alternate mark inversion (AMI) encoding which is very susceptible to
attenuation at high frequencies.
● This limits the length of T-1 to 1 km (3200 ft) (repeater is needed for longer distance)
● Increase the cost.
● HDSL uses 2B1Q encoding which is less susceptible to attenuation.
● A data rate of 1.544 Mbps (up to 2 Mbps) can be achieved without repeaters up to a
distance of 3.86 km (12000 ft).
● HDSL uses two twisted pairs to achieve full-duplex transmission.
 SDSL (symmetric digital subscriber line):
● The symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) is a one twisted-pair version of HDSL.
● It provides full-duplex symmetric communication upto 768 kbps in each direction.
● Could be considered an alternative to ADSL.
● Although this feature meets the need of most residential subscribers, is not suitable for
business because send and receive data in large volumes in both direction.

VDSL (Very high-bit-rate digital subscriber line):

● Similar to ADSL, uses coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-pair cable for short distances.
● The modulating technique is DMT:
● 25 to 55 Mbps for downstream at distance of 3000 to 10,000 ft.
● 3.2 Mbps for upstream
Types Full form Data rate Mode Application

High data rate T1/E1 serves WAN,

digital 1.5Mbps- LAN access and server
HDSL subscriber line 2Mbps Symmetry access

Same as HDSL
Single-pair application, providing
digital 1.5Mbps- location access for
SDSL subscriber line 2Mbps Symmetry symmetric services

Internet access, video

Upstream: up on demand, single
to 640Kbps video,
Asymmetric Downstream: Process LAN access,
ADSL user digital line up to 6Mbps Asymmetric interactive multimedia

Upstream: up Standard ADSL, no

to 512Kbps need to install splitter
No high digital Downstream: (separator) in the
G.Lite subscriber line up to 1.5Mbps Asymmetric user‘s premises

Uplink:
1.5Mbps-
A very high data 2.3Mbps
rate Downstream: Same as ADSL, can
Digital 13Mbps- also transmit HDTV
VDSL subscriber line 52Mbps Asymmetric programs

11) Compare the two TDM multiplexing techniques with example. (V.V.IMP) 5m
Ans: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital multiplexing technique for combining
several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
● Channel/Link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of time.
● Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
● Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or slice.
 ● In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data
rate required by sending and receiving devices.
1) Synchronous TDM and 2) Asynchronous TDM
1) Synchronous TDM: Each device is given some Time Slot to transmit the data over the
link, irrespective of whether the device has any data to transmit or not.
● Each device places its data onto the link when its Time Slot arrives, each device is given
the possession of line turn by turn.
● If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
● Time slots are organized into Frames and each frame consists of one or more time slots.
● If there are n sending devices there will be n slots in frame.
● The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.

● In synchronous TDM(STDM), the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the
unit duration is n times shorter.
● In STDM every device is given opportunity to transmit a specific amount of data
onto the link.
● Each device gets its turn in fixed order and for fixed amount of time. This process is
known as interleaving.
● The operation of STDM is similar to that of a fast interleaved switch. The switch
opens in front of a device; the device gets a chance to place the data onto the link.
● Interleaving may be done on the basis of a bit, a byte or by any other data unit.

Disadvantages of STDM:
● The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the slots go empty in certain
frames.
● The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input
lines.
2) Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing (ASTDM):
● Also known as Statistical Time Division multiplexing.
● ASTDM is called so because in this type of multiplexing, time slots are not fixed
i.e. the slots are flexible.
● Total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the path.
● In ASTDM we have n input lines and m slots i.e. m less than n (m<n).
● Slots are not predefined rather slots are allocated to any of the device that has data to
send.
● The number of time slots in a frame is based on a statistical analysis of number of
input lines.

Advantages:
● Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
● lntermodulation distortion is absent.
● The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
Disadvantages:
● Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
● Due to slow narrow band fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped out.
● Complex to implement.

S.
No. Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

In this, multiplexer allocates same In this, multiplexer does not allocates

time slots to each device without same time slots to each device without
considering fact that device contains considering fact that device contains data
1. data or not. or not.

Number of slots per frame are equal Number of slots per frame are less than
to number of input lines i.e., If it number of input lines i.e., If there are n
contains n input lines, then it must input lines, then there are m slots in one
2. have n slots in one frame. frame (m<n).

There is no guarantee that full There is guarantee that full capacity link
3. capacity link is used. is used.
S.
No. Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

Total speed of input lines cannot be Total speed of input lines can be greater
4. greater than capacity of path. than capacity of path.

5. Usage of devices is less. Usage of devices is more.

Number of time slots in a frame as

Number of time slots in a frame as always based on statistical analysis of
always based on number of input number of input lines that are likely to be
6. lines. transmitting at any given time.

7. Time slots are fixed and pre-defined. Time-slots are not pre-defined.

12) Define Computer Network? 2m(or) What are the applications of computer networks?
(3m)
Ans: It is a collection of a very large number of ―inter-connected NETWORKS‖ that connect
millions of ―devices‖ that can ―communicate‖ with each other.
Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as individuals. Some of its
main uses are as follows −
 Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow organizations having
units which are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very effective
manner.
 Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks, users can retrieve
remote information on a variety of topics. The information is stored in remote databases
to which the user gains access through information systems like the World Wide Web.
 Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks have increased the speed
and volume of communication like never before. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively
used for sending texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe. Online
communications have increased by manifold times through social networking services.
 E-Commerce − Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and
commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce.
 VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication
systems. Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead
of the regular analog phone lines.

13) Define Broadcasting, Multicasting and Unicasting. 3m

Ans: Multicasting is communication between a single sender and multiple receivers on a
network.
In computer networking, multicast (one-to-many) distribution is group communication where
information is addressed to a group of destination computers simultaneously.
 Unicasting: Unicasting is communication between a single sender and a single receiver over
a network.
Point-to-point transmission from one device to another. Most internet transmissions (where
one user connects with one source or other user at a time) is unicasting.
Broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be received by every device on the
network.

14) Explain in short about the types of Data Flow in Data Communication? 2m
Ans: The flow of information, or data, between nodes, can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex.
● Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
● Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (Citizens Band) radios are
both half-duplex systems.
● Full-Duplex: In full-duplex (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link: with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the
link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both
directions. Example: telephone network.

15) Explain about coaxial cable and its categories.2/3m

Ans: Coaxial cable is commonly used by cable operators, telephone companies, and internet
providers around the world to convey data, video, and voice communications to customers.
Coax has a central core of stiff copper conductor for transmitting signals. This is covered by
an insulating material. The insulator is encased by a closely woven braided metal outer
conductor that acts as a shield against noise. The outer conductor is again enclosed by a
plastic insulating cover. Various categories are RG-59,RG-58 and RG-11
16) Explain about Switched Ethernet /Fast Ethernet 2/3m
Ans:
In switched Ethernet, the hub connecting the stations of the classic Ethernet is replaced by a
switch. The switch connects the high-speed backplane bus to all the stations in the LAN. The
switch-box contains a number of ports, typically within the range of 4 – 48. A station can be
connected in the network by simply plugging a connector to any of the ports. Connections from a
backbone Ethernet switch can go to computers, peripherals or other Ethernet switches and
Ethernet hubs.
In switched Ethernet, collisions do not occur in the channel due to the presence of dedicated
connection to each station. However, collisions may still occur in a destination port if it receives
frames from more than one ports simultaneously.
Fast Ethernet:
 IEEE created Fast Ethernet ( 802.3u)
 Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet, it can transmit data at a
rate of 100 Mbps.
The goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48-bit address.
4. Keep the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
 It uses the MAC sublayer untouched.
 It uses the star topology with half duplex and full duplex.
 In the half-duplex approach, the stations are connected via a hub;
 In the full-duplex approach, the connection is made via a switch with buffers at each port.
 It uses the CSMA/CD for the half-duplex approach;
 For full-duplex Fast Ethernet, there is no need for CSMA/CD.
 Autonegotiation allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate of operation.

17) What does BSS called with or without access point? 2/3m
Ans: A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network; a BSS with an AP is called an
infrastructure network.
Infrastructure mode is when the wireless network requires a physical structure to support it.
This essentially means there should be a medium handling the network functions, creating an
infrastructure around which the network sustains. There can be more than one access point on the
same network handling different wireless nodes.
 Ad-hoc wireless networks on the other hand, do not require a set infrastructure to work. In
ad-hoc networks, each node can communicate with other nodes, so no access point that
provides access control is required. Routing is to find the best possible path between the
source and destination nodes to transfer data.

18) Explain about Wired and Wireless LAN.

Ans:

LAN WLAN

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area

LAN stands for Local Area Network.
Network.

LAN connections include both wired and

WLAN connections are completely wireless.
wireless connections.

LAN network is a collection of computers or WLAN network is a collection of computers or

other such network devices in a particular other such network devices in a particular
location that are connected together by location that are connected together wirelessly
communication elements or network by communication elements or network
elements. elements.

LAN is free from external attacks like

Whereas, WLAN is vulnerable to external
interruption of signals, cyber criminal
attacks.
attacks and so on.

LAN is secure. WLAN is not secure.

Wired LAN needs physical access like

Work on connecting wires to the switches and
connecting the wires to the switches or
routers are neglected.
routers.

In LAN, devices are connected locally with

For WLAN Ethernet cable is not necessary.
Ethernet cable.

LAN is less expensive. WLAN is more expensive.

Example: Laptops, cellphones, tablets

Example: Computers connected in a college.
connected to a wireless router or hotspot.
19) Explain about unguided media(Wireless).5m
Ans: Refer Unguided media part of 8 ans
20) Explain in detail about TDM,FDM, WDM (any one 5m)
Ans: Frequency Division Multiplexing: FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that
combines analog signals.
● Signals of different frequencies are combined into a composite signal and is transmitted on
the single link.
● Bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths of the various
channels.
● Each signal will have different frequency.
● Channels are separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called Guard Bands (to prevent
overlapping).
In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its
signals in the allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2
adjacent signals to avoid over-lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted
frequencies so this decreases the probability of collision. The frequency spectrum is divided
into several logical channels, in which every user feels that they possess a particular
bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously at the same time allocating separate
frequency bands or channels to each signal. It is used in radio and TV transmission.
Therefore to avoid interference between two successive channels Guard bands are used.

FDM: Applications
● FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
● AM frequency = 530 to 1700 kHz.
● FM frequency = 88 to 108 MHz.
● FDM is used in television broadcasting.
● First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.
Advantages:
● FDM is used for analog signals.
● FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
● A large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
● It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages:
● FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
● It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
● A large number of modulators are required.
● It requires a high bandwidth channel.
 (ii) Time Division Multiplexing:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several
low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
● Channel/Link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of time.
● Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
● Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or slice.
● In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data rate
required by sending and receiving devices.

It is of the following types: 1. Synchronous TDM – The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed.
This slot is even given if the source is not ready with data at this time. In this case, the slot is
transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized voice streams. 2. Asynchronous (or
statistical) TDM – The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source
or their ready state. It dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input
channel‘s needs, thus saving the channel capacity.
Advantages:
● Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
● lntermodulation distortion is absent.
● The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
Disadvantages:
● Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
● Due to slow narrow band fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped out.
● Complex to implement.
(iii) Wavelength/Wave Division Multiplexing: WDM is an abbreviation for Wavelength-
Division Multiplexing, and is now one of the most widely used technology for high-capacity
optical communication systems.
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
● WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
● The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The
difference is that the frequencies are very high.
● Various light waves from different sources are combined to form a composite light signal that
is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
● At the receiver side, this composite light signal is broken into different light waves by
Demultiplexer.
● The Combining and the Splitting of light waves is done by using a PRISM.
● Prism bends beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency of
light wave.
● Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of
light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a
wider band of frequencies.
● A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

One primary advantage of using WDM technology is in reducing the number of fibres used in
the main transmission line.
Advantages:
 Easier to reconfigure
 Full duplex transmission is possible
 It provides higher bandwidth
 High security
 This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement
Disadvantages:
 Signals cannot be very close
 Cost of the system increases with the addition of optical components
 Scalability is a concern
 Difficulty in wavelength tuning
 Inefficiency in BW utilization