LYCEUM OF WESTERN LUZON ZAMBALES INC.

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

(CCJE)
Batonlapoc, Botolan Zambales

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION (CRIM 2)

COMPILED AND EDITED BY: MARK P. CIANO, MSCJSC
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
BASED ON THE NEW TABLES OF SPECIFICATION (TOS) FOR THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION (CRIM 2)
Percentage Number of (30 %) (50%) (20%)
Weight and Items and REMEMBERING Understanding APPLYING ANALYZING EVALUATING CREATING
THE REGISTERED Distribution Distribution Recall informa- Explain, Inter- Using the in- Understanding hypothesizing Generating
CRIMINOLOGIST tion Recogniz- pret, summa- formation in Comparing, critiquing, Designing
CAN PERFORM THE 20 % 100
ing, listing, rize, examine, another famil- organizing, experimenting, constructing,
COMPETENCIES
UNDER THE FOLLOWING
describing, paraphrase, iar situation deconstructing judging planning,
SUB-TOPICS retrieving, classify Implementing interrogating, producing,
3% 15 naming, finding. Carrying out, finding inventing
using,
executing
1. Recall and explain the
Fundamentals of crime .40% 2 1 - 1 - - -
Causation with emphasis on
Biological or medical,
physiological, psychiatric, and
sociological determinism.
2. Enumerate and distinguish
.40% 2
biological and psychological - 1 1 - - -
theories of crime causation.
3. Apply and illustrate
sociological and economic 1.0% 5 - 1 2 1 1 -
theories in understanding the
causes of crimes.
4. Explain and correlate bio-
psychosocial theories of the .80% 4 2 - - 1 1 -
causes of crimes.
5. Understanding theories on .40% 2 - - 1 - - 1
female offenders.

I: INTRODUCTION
There is a growing body of evidence about the factors that place individuals at risk of criminal
offending. The theoretical approaches discussed below attempt to explain the relationship between those
risk factors and criminal behavior. There is no consensus on the relative merit of these theories and it
may be the causal mechanisms proposed below are more or less significant for different individuals.
Most crime prevention programs are based, sometimes implicitly, on more of the theoretical
understandings of crime. Therefore, even when focusing on practical response, there is value
Correspondingly, this endeavor focuses on the information about theories and causation crimes.
Different theories about the criminology are described. Main focus will be on the criminology and its
two theories. Criminology is the study of factors about the crimes that lead to its phenomena. This crime
may be of individual or social nature. It includes making laws, breaking laws and attempts to break the
laws. Criminology focuses on the social, cultural and individual causes of the illegal behavior.
Criminology is directly related to sociology and psychology in all disciplines that deal with a group or
individual behavior. However, an act that is immoral or indecent can be criminal act unless it is not
outlawed by the state. Criminology consists of our organized ways of thinking and talking about crime,
criminals and crime control (Garland and Sparks, 2000, 192). Personal and neighborhood income are the
strongest predictors of violent crime” (cited in “Wasting America’s Future (Arloc Sherman, 1994, p88).
Demonstrates that glaring social and economic inequalities in our society impose correspondingly high
costs in the form of street crime. (John Hagan & Ruth D. Peterson, Crime and Inequality, 1995, Stanford
U, p4)
One common definition of CRIMINOLOGY - Is – the study of crimes, criminals and their
treatment. This is understanding the provisions of law regarding acts or behavior which are defined by
law as crime. The criminal justice system declares who the criminal is, and provides him/her with
treatment commensurate to the gravity of the illegal act committed. Furthermore, CRIMINOLOGY - Is
interdisciplinary which means, it upon either academic discipline including political science, economics,
psychology, law, biology, and sociology (Fulter, 2012). Moreover, CRIMINOLOGY - Can also be
defined as the scientific study of causes of crime in relation to man and society who set and define rules
and regulations for himself and others to govern. The study of criminology involves man and social

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forces through the passage and enactment of laws, maintenance of peace and order, and the imposition
of the punishment by government whose law has been violated.
Thus, in most complete definition of criminology is – “A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
REGARDING CRIME AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON. IT INCLUDES WITHIN ITS SCOPE,
THE PROCESS OF MAKING OF LAWS, THE BREAKING OF LAWS AND THE REACTION
TOWARDS THE BREAKING OF LAWS” (Sutherland, 19_).

II: BODY
THEORIES AND CAUSATION OF CRIME
CAUSES OF CRIMES
Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological. Environmental causes are
ruled out as independent causes of crimes. But psychological conditions are said to be determinant of an
individual’s reaction to persuasive environmental influence. Criminologist says that certain offenders are
born to create crimes in the environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to low condition of their
living, they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination against minorities may become the cause of
crimes. Emotional disorders are also cause of crimes.

CRIME PREVENTION
Ultimate aim of crime prevention is to reduce the risk of victims. Here we find the ways to
prevent crimes. Do not provide the opportunity to the thief to take advantages of your property. Fewer
opportunities may become the cause of reduction in the crime rates. States should enhance the way of
living of poor of that country. Poverty alleviation programs on sound basis can reduce the crime rates.
Law and enforcement agencies are key role player in prevention of crimes. Delay in justice must be
avoided.

ISSUES IN CRIMINOLOGY
Several issues arise which are serious causes to put the crimes rate not reducing. These issues
vary from the level of crime. Due to difference in the legal and criminal justice system the crime rate is
not reducing. Contrast in the police reporting and actual crime report is another issue. Proper
prosecution is not observed when a crime is committed. Due to differences in data quality a crime rate
cannot be feasible work to reduce the rate of crime.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES

Differences between micro and macro level theories exist. To identify a theory whether it is
macro or micro level is to check what the theory predicts. Focus of the MICRO-LEVEL THEORY is
on the individual interaction. Individual characteristics can be explained by the interactions of people
within an environment. These are described as EPIDEMIOLOGY. EPIDEMIOLOGY here is
concerned with the overall crime rates. Example of this kind of theory is the relationship between adult
children and their parents. MACRO-LEVEL THEORY is most extended and focuses on the social
problems, social conditions and social processes. For example; how the old people’s status is affected by
industrialization. MICRO LEVEL THEORIES are called role theories while macro level theories
include age stratification theory. MACRO THEORY shows the criminal behavior of the crimes across
the world.

DEFINITION OF THEORY
WHAT IS A “THEORY?”
A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how phenomena are
related and from which a number of hypotheses can be derived and tested. Theories should provide
coherent explanations of the phenomena they address, they should correspond with the RELEVANT
EMPIRICAL FACTS, and they should provide practical guidance for researchers looking for further
facts. This guidance takes the form of a series of statements that can be logically deduced from the
assertions of the theory. We called these STATEMENTS HYPOTHESES, which are statements about
relationships between and among factors we expect to find based on the logic of our theories.
HYPOTHESES AND THEORIES support one another in the sense that theories provided the raw
material (the ideas) for generating hypotheses, and hypotheses support or fail to support theories by
exposing them to empirical testing. Theories are devised to explain how a number of different correlates
may actually be causally related to crime and criminality rather than simply associated with them. We
emphasize that when we talk of causes, we do not mean that when X is present Y will occur in a
completely prescribed way. We mean that when X is present Y has a certain probability of occurring,
and perhaps only then if X is present along with factors A, B, and C. In many ways, crime is like illness

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because there may be as many routes to becoming criminal as there are to becoming ill. In other words,
criminologists have never uncovered a necessary cause (a factor that must be present for criminal
behavior to occur and in the absence of which criminal behavior has never occurred) or a sufficient
cause (a factor that is able to produce criminal behavior without being augmented by some other factor).
There is a lot of confusion among laypersons about the term theory.
We often hear statements such as, “THAT’S JUST THEORY” OR HEAR IT NEGATIVELY
CONTRASTED WITH PRACTICE: “That’s all right in theory, but it won’t work in the real world.”
Such statements imply that a theory is a poor relative of a fact, something impractical we grasp at in the
absence of solid, practical evidence. Nothing could be further from the truth. Theories help us to make
sense of a diversity of seemingly unrelated facts and propositions, and they even tell us where to look
for more facts, which make theories very practical things indeed. We all use theory every day to fit facts
together. A detective confronted with a number of facts about a mysterious murder must fit them
together, even though their meaning and relationship to one another is ambiguous and perhaps even
contradictory. Using years of experience, training, and good common sense, and the detective constructs
a theory linking those facts together so that they begin to make some sense and begin to tell their story.
An initial theory derived from the available facts then guides the detective in the search for additional
facts in a series of “if this is true, then this should be true” statements. There may be many false starts as
our detective misinterprets some facts, fails to uncover others, and considers some to be relevant when
they are not. Good detectives, like good scientists, will adjust their theory as new facts warrant; poor
detectives and poor scientists will stand by their favored theory by not looking for more facts or by
ignoring, downplaying, or hiding contrary facts that come to their attention. When detectives do this,
innocent people suffer and guilty people remain undiscovered; when scientists do this, the progress of
science suffers. The physical and natural sciences enjoy a great deal of agreement about what constitutes
the core body of knowledge within their disciplines; thus, they have few competing theories. Within
criminology there is little agreement about the nature of the phenomena we study, and so we suffer an
embarrassment of theoretical riches. Given the number of criminological theories, students may be
forgiven for asking which one is true. Scientists never use the term “truth “in scientific discourse; rather,
they tend to ask which theory is most useful. CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE MERITS OF A
THEORY ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:
1. PREDICTIVE ACCURACY - A theory has merit and is useful to the extent that it accurately
predicts what is observed. That is, the theory has generated a large number of research hypotheses that
have supported it. This is the most important criterion.
2. PREDICTIVE SCOPE - Predictive scope is the scope or range of the theory and thus the scope or
range of the hypotheses that can be derived from it. That is, how much of the empirical world falls under
the explanatory umbrella of theory A compared to how much falls under theory
3. SIMPLICITY - If two competing theories are essentially equal in terms of the first two criteria, then
the less complicated one is considered more “elegant.”
4. FALSIFIABILITY - A theory is never proven true, but it must have the quality of being falsifiable
or disprovable. If a theory is formulated in such a way that no amount of evidence could possibly falsify
it, then the theory is of little use (Ellis, 1994, pp.202–205).
THEORY – Also define the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual apprehension,
insight or body of generalizations and principles developed in association with the practice in a certain
field of activity.
A statement of set of statements about the relationships between 2 or more events
Are sets of propositions that explain phenomena.
In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
IN THE SCIENCE OF CRIMINOLOGY
A. Theories of crime
B. Theories of how the criminal justice system operates
C. A theory predicts what will happen, not how the world should be

KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES

1. Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and explain the world around us. In criminology,
they help us to understand the workings of the criminal justice system and the actors in the system.
2. Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things ought to be. They are not inherently good or
bad; however, they can be used for good or bad purposes.

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3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area (macro), or it can attempt to explain
crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro).
4. Because we are dealing with human behavior, the social sciences will never be like the hard sciences.
In the hard sciences, the theory of relativity will not change. In the social sciences, however, we deal
with probabilities. The social scientist will say things such as, “A severely neglected child will probably
commit, or tend to commit, delinquent acts.”
5. To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories must make sense (logical consistency), explain as
much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as possible (parsimony). Most important, the theory
must be true or correct (validity). Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real-
world applications and policy implications.
6. Many theories have common traits, but differences among them still exist. Understanding these
differences is keys to understanding the often-contradictory views of crime and deviance they purport to
explain. THEORY - Means different things to different contemporary criminologists, depending on
their philosophies about the nature of criminology, what it is attempting to accomplish, and how they
think criminology ought to be done. Diversity is evident from the presence of at least seven differing
“philosophies of the enterprise,” expressed in distinct “models” for doing criminology. THE SEVEN
(7) APPROACHES INCLUDE:
1. Theoretical science;
2. Problem solving;
3. Verstehen” analysis;
4. Descriptive approaches;
5. Critical work;
6. Nihilistic thinking; and
7. Amelioration. Yet, there does appear to be a dominant paradigm.

1. THEORETICAL SCIENCE
Theoretical accounts within a scientific model are intellectual structures designed to help explain
things within given domains of interest (for more detailed descriptions of theoretical science see
Reynolds, 1971; Tittle, 1995; Turner, 2003: Chapter 1). That is, scientific theories, and explanations try
to provide answers to questions of “why” and “how” that are deemed satisfactory by critical audiences
made up of s scientists who expect such a theory to provide intellectual satisfaction as well as the means
for predicting aspects of the phenomena of interest.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING
A substantial number of criminologists, perhaps even a majority (though theoretical science
seems to be the dominant approach, there are no hard data to establish that judgment), aim their work
toward finding solutions to crime or crime‐related p roblems (for examples, see any issue of journal
Criminology and Public Policy, or Kleiman, 2009). Such problems range all the way from international
threats of terrorism to very focused concerns with how best to prevent littering on public streets in
particular towns or cities, and may even involve efforts to assess all manner of collateral damage for
crime‐linked activities. Problem‐solving criminology includes ad hoc explanatory efforts as well as
evaluations of existing programs designed to achieve specific purposes.

3. VERSTEHEN” ANALYSIS
This approach to criminology features efforts to “understand” the actions and thoughts of
participants. (Verstehen is the German word for “to understand”; its use as the name for this process
became popularized in sociology and criminology by the writings of Max Weber.) The verstehen
researcher usually tries to put himself psychically in the positions of the research subjects in order to see
and interpret the world as the subjects see it and interpret it. This emphatic process is often assisted by
careful ethnographic research and sometimes it is aided by comparative analyses designed to isolate
differences between subjects exhibiting different outcomes or exposures. In recent times there has been
a strong emphasis in criminology on exploring the active part that individuals play in their crime‐
relevant behavior or in escaping from criminal pasts (sometimes called human agency), and the
verstehen approach is especially useful in pursuing that theme (see for example: Giordano, Cernkovich,
& Rudolph, 2002; Maruna, 2001).

4. DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES
A fourth style of work in contemporary criminology attempts to describe crime relevant phenomena,
situations, and relationships among variables, or to offer conceptual distinctions with which to classify,
think about, or analyze crime relevant aspects of social life. The objective is to identify the relevant
variables empirically, and show how they actually mesh together in various circumstances. Once
accurate description has been achieved, many descriptive criminologists are ready to move on to other

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research issues. In other words, the bulk of descriptive work is a theoretical – neither inspired by nor
answerable to theory (see, for example: Farrington, 1997; Loeber, Slot, & Stouthamer‐Loeber, 2006).

5. CRITICAL WORK
A substantial number of criminologists define their work roughly as spelling out social
conditions that they believe are responsible for human suffering, injustice, or inequality, which, in turn,
are thought by many to be linked with criminal behavior and crime‐relevant phenomena (cf. Bonger,
1916 (1969); Daly & Chesney‐Lind, 1988; Gove, 1980; Quinney, 1970, 1974). Within this camp, any
argument that l ogically or meaningfully connects a social situation or condition with a negative
outcome that is assumed to be associated with crime or crime‐relevant outcomes is called “theory.”
Often the identified culprits are capitalism, mal‐distribution of economic resources, patriarchy, racism,
or other large structural arrangements. Scholars working in this vein share with theoretical science the
goals of showing why and how the particular problem‐generators operate. However, critical work differs
from theoretical science in several crucial ways.

6. NIHILISTIC THINKING
A relatively small, yet vocal, segment of criminologists embraces the notion that it is impossible to build
theories or explanations, and they are highly critical of science as a model for crime studies (cf. Arrigo,
2003; Einstadter & Henry, 1995; Taylor, Walton, & Young, 1973). Such scholars essentially contend
that nothing can be known except that nothing can be known. For them, theory is simply the collection
of arguments, many of which are based on obvious biases evident in mainstream criminology,
purportedly showing that humans are incapable of general understanding of human behavior or social
structure and are utterly unable to study social life objectively. So, the idea of theory as a set of
explanatory principles setting out the causes of things relevant to crime is far‐fetched. To the nihilist,
one can only d document human attempts to understand each other or situations through n narratives, or
stories, shared and reacted to by members of local communities.

7. AMELIORATION
A final style of criminology bears much in common with critical work in that it attempts to
identify sources of human suffering or injustice, but it goes a step further and offers a prescription for
overcoming those forces (cf. Pepinsky & Quinney, 1991). Theory for such criminologists, then, consists
of the arguments specifying or asserting particular forces leading to human distress, which are thought to
be connected with the probability of criminal behavior or the construction of legal rules artificially
constraining various segments of the population, along with the remedies to be f followed in overcoming
those forces. Such scholars often reject legal notions of crime, redefining it in terms of behaviors or
social structures producing suffering or injustice. Such theory differs from that central to theoretical
science in that it is not subject to test except through practical application and its aim is action not
explanation.

HOW DO YOU KNOW A “GOOD THEORY” WHEN YOU SEE ONE?

AKERS’ SIX (6) CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING A THEORY
1. Logical Consistency 4. Testability
2. Scope 5. Fit with Empirical Evidence
3. Parsimony 6. Usefulness of Policy Implications
1. LOGICAL CONSISTENCY
A. Clearly Defined Concepts
A. Concept = symbol/label that we apply to an abstract image
B. Examples?
B. Concepts must fit in a logical manner
A. BAD LOGIC: All crime is caused by imprisonment
2. SCOPE (NOT THE MOUTHWASH)
A. DEPENDENT variable
B. How “general” is your explanation?
A. Specific forms of crime/deviance?
B. All crime?
C. All crime, deviance, sin, and recklessness?
C. All else being equal, “Wider is better”
3. PARSIMONY
A. INDEPENDENT (predictor) variables
B. How complex is your explanation?
A. Parsimony: Low self-control is single cause of crime
B. Not: Crime caused by a combination of poverty, inequality, average daily temperature,
intelligence, hair color, weight, daily stress…
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 C. All else being equal, more parsimony is better!
4. TESTABILITY
A. A valid theory can be falsified
B. Non-falsifiable theories?
A. Tautological arguments (crime causes crime)
B. Vague and open-ended statements (Freud)
C. Must be observe/measure concepts (little green men)
5. IS THE THEORY CORRECT?
A. Survive empirical scrutiny
B. Few theories are entirely correct or false
A. To what degree is the theory supported?
B. Preponderance of evidence support?
C. Incorrect theories must be modified or discarded

6. POLICY IMPLICATION
A. All crime theories attempt to identify the “causes” of crime.
A. Can the causes be reversed?
B. Does the theory translate into practice?
C. Example: Marxist theory of crime

THE 10 MOST WIDELY ACCEPTED CONCLUSIONS THAT EACH THEORY NEEDS TO BE

ABLE TO EXPLAIN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (Farrrington):
1. The prevalence of offending peaks in the late teenage years (between ages 15 and 19).
2. The peak age of onset of offending is between 8 and 14, and the peak age of desistance is between 20
and 29.
3. An early age of onset predicts relatively long criminal career duration and the commitment of
multiple offenses.
4. A marked continuity is seen in offending and antisocial behavior from childhood to adolescence to
adulthood.
5. A small fraction of the population commits a large fraction of all crimes.
6. Offending is versatile rather than specialized.
7. The types of acts defined as offenses are elements of a larger syndrome of antisocial behaviors (e.g.,
heavy drinking, reckless driving, sexual promiscuity, bullying, and/or truancy).
8. Most offenses up to the late teenage years are committed with others, whereas most offenses from age
20 onward are committed alone.
9. The reasons given for offending up to the late teenage years are quite variable (e.g., excitement,
enjoyment, or anger).
10. Different types of first-time offenses tend to be committed at distinctively different ages.

SUMMARY OF THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY

Theory takes many forms in contemporary criminology because criminological scholars endorse
and follow various philosophies of the enterprise, each involving specific notions about the value of
theory and/or the form it should take. The dominant philosophy appears to be that of theoretical science
in which theory to explain (answer questions of why and how about phenomena within its domain) is the
ultimate goal. Desirable theory within that philosophical camp follows a deductive framework, is subject
to empirical test, admits the possibility of negative evidence, and reflects demanding characteristics.
Problem‐solving criminology, probably the second‐most popular style of criminology may or may not
draw on theory and usually produces at best ad hoc causal explanations applying to specific problems or
situations. Verstehen analysis aims to permit scholars and consumers of verstehen work to see the world
through the eyes of the subjects of investigation, to vicariously experience the things the subject’s
experience, and to appreciate, from the point of view of the subjects, why they did or do various things
linked to crime or crime‐related phenomena. Descriptive scholars frequently eschew theory altogether,
focusing instead on accurate portrayal of patterns of behavior, though sometimes they produce
conceptual schemes that organize recurrent patterns of crime‐relevant factors. Critical scholars try to
identify the social conditions producing human injustice or suffering, often asserting favorite villains
and attempting to persuade audiences of the validity of their arguments rather than testing their ideas.
Accounts of how those structures or forces seem to operate is the essence of critical theory. Nihilistic
criminologists question the whole project of other styles of work, claiming that nothing can be known,
particularly scientifically, except that nothing can be known. To them, “theory” consists of such
arguments, often complicated and insightful, along with admonitions to key into folk narratives to
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appreciate how people interpret their own worlds. Finally, amelioration usually combines critical
analysis with prescriptions for remedying structures or situations that produce injustice or destructive
criminal behavior.

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIME CAUSATION

When an FBI agent asked the depression-era bank robber Willie Sutton why he robbed banks,
Sutton replied, “Because that’s where the money is.” In his own way, Sutton was offering a theory
explaining the behavior of bank robbers. Behind his witty answer is a model of a kind of person who has
learned how to take advantage of opportunities provided by convenient targets flush with a valued
commodity. Thus, if we put a certain kind of personality and learning together with opportunity and
coveted resources, we get bank robbery. This is what theory making is all about: trying to grasp how all
the known correlates of a phenomenon are linked together in no coincidental ways to produce an effect.
Just as medical scientists want to find out what cause’s disease, criminologists are interested in
finding factors that cause crime and criminality. As is the case with disease, there are a variety of risk
factors to be considered when searching for causes of criminal behavior. The first step in detected causes
is to discover correlates, which are factors that are related to the phenomenon of interest. To discover
whether two factors are related, we must see whether they vary together; that is, if one variable goes up
or down, the other goes up or down as well. Establishing causality requires much more than simply
establishing a correlation. Take gender, the most thoroughly documented correlate of criminal behavior
ever identified. Literally thousands of studies throughout the world, including European studies going
back five or six centuries, have consistently reported strong gender differences in all sorts of antisocial
behavior, including crime, and the more serious the crime the stronger that difference is. All studies are
unanimous in indicating that males are more criminal than females. Establishing why gender is such a
strong correlate of crime is the real challenge, as it is with any other correlate. Trying to establish causes
is the business of theory.

PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crime.

2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under

which penal or criminal laws develop as a process of formal social
controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is concerned with the controls and prevention of crime and the
treatment of youthful offenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – Is a discipline/study which deals of the nature, causes of victimization, as
well as the programs for aiding and preventing victimization.

ANATOMY OF CRIME

1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately functioning to reach a goal-
that is, to perpetrate a crime. EXAMPLES ARE:
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 7 OF 38
A. Intent to rob a bank E. Intent to sabotage
B. Intent to commit murder F. Intent to commit homicide
C. Intent to carnap G. Intent to hi-jack a plane
D. Intent to kidnap H. Intent to rape
INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often synchronized
or harmonized with MOTIVATION. MOTIVATION – Shall mean the reason, ground or cause why a
person perpetrates a crime, thus, creating on his/her mind the INTENT to perform it. DESIRE is a
WHISHFUL thinking differentiated from INTENT because intent is willingness to do.
MOTIVATION is also differentiated from DESIRE because MOTIVATION is giving or reason to do
the act. Crime is more identified with INTENT rather than MOTIVATION OR DESIRE. His/her
motivation could be:
A. Economic gain D. Thrill
B. Jealousy E. Political gain,
C. Revenge F. Etc.

2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the commission of the

crime. It could be a: (Coronel, 1996).
A. Bolo F. Battery-operated hand drill for carnapping
B. Fan knife G. Motor vehicle
C. An icepick H. Gun,
D. Poison or obnoxious substance I. Etc.
E. Crow bar
Both the INTENT and INSTRUMENTALITY are harbored and wielded by the perpetrator.
The OPPORTUNITY consists of the acts of omission and/or commission by a person (the victim)
which enables another person’s or groups of persons (the criminal/s) to perpetrate the crime.
EXAMPLE FOR THIS ARE:
A. Leaving one’s home or car unattended for a long time
B. Walking alone in a well-known crime prone alley
C. Wearing expensive jewelries in a slum area, and
D. Readily admitting a stranger into one’s residence

3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of indiscretion and lack of

crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the victim. (Coronel, 1996).
Whether a crime incident would happen or not, it will depend on the presence and merging of
INTENT, INTRUMENTALITY and OPPORTUNITY at the same time and in the same place. The
absence of any one ingredient will mean that there shall be no crime.
The most that could happen is an accident arising out of reckless imprudence, where there is no
intent. A freak crime incident occurs with all the three elements present and simultaneously occurring at
the same time and place, though the victim is not the intended one.

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

There are various methods of classifying crimes. According to LUIS B. REYES, (1998), in his
book CRIMINAL LAW, crimes are CLASSIFIED AS:
1. Crimes against persons 6. Crimes against honor
2. Crimes against property 7. Crimes committed by public officers
3. Crimes against personal liberty and security 8. Crimes against public morals
4. Crimes against chastity 9. Crimes against public interest
5. Crimes against the civil status of persons 10. Crimes against public order and crimes against the
fundamental laws of the state

Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classified in respect to gravity
of the act, motives of the offender, for statistical purposes and for theoretical purpose.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES:
1. ATROCITY OR GRAVITY – Crimes are committed at different degrees of seriousness. It can be
observed on the harm or damage that resulted from a criminal act.
Atrocity or gravity of the offense may be categorized as felony or misdemeanor. The more
serious are called FELONIES and are punishable by death or by confinement in a state prison;
the less serious are MISDEMEANORS and are usually punishable by confinement in a local jail or by
paying fines.
The classification of crimes as FELONIES and MISDEMEANORS is also used as a
classification of criminals. The individual who commits a felony is a FELON, and the individual who
commits a misdemeanor is a MISDEMEANANT.

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2. MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the offender for doing
something or behaving in a specific way is his/her motive in committing the act and it can be
categorized INTO:
I. ECONOMIC MOTIVE – The reason for the act is for economic gain. FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Kidnap for ransom (KFR) (which can be sometimes be political in motive); E. Corruption
B. Illegal importation; F. Robbery
C. Sabotage; G. Burglary;
D. Counterfeiting H. Smuggling.
II. SEXUAL MOTIVE – A direction towards sexual gratification. Or, monetary gain in exchange of
sexual gratification on the part of the client. FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Rape
B. Prostitution;
C. Acts of lasciviousness
III. POLITICAL MOTIVE – (Encarta, 2009) – Defines political motive as “motive carried for
reasons that best serve a desired outcome rather than for other reasons such as being morally justifiable.”
FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Graft and corruption C. Rebellion
B. Tyranny – Powerful/harsh in used of power and authority D. Sedition

3. STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics of crime incidence

and this is one purpose why there is a need to classify crimes. Classifying crimes for statistical purpose
would enable us to be aware of the FREQUENCY of the commission of such CRIMES AS:
A. How many crimes against person were committed in a quarter of a year?
B. How many crimes against property were committed annually?
C. How many crimes against dishonesty were committed semi-annually? And
D. How many crimes against public decency, public order or public morality are committed in a certain
period of time?

4. THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a sociological

entity, differentiated from the other classes by variations in social processes, SUCH AS:
A. PROFESSIONAL CRIMES – Differentiated from other crimes by the regularity of behavior,
development of skills and techniques, association among offender, consequent development of a group
culture. Usually, crimes committed by organized/syndicated criminals. FOR EXAMPLE: A.
Drug trafficking
B. Racketeering
C. Syndicated crimes

B. HABITUAL CRIMES – Offenses that are either habits in the literal sense of the word, which have
been made illegal or these are crimes in the common acceptance of the term, REPEATEDLY BUT
NOT SKILLFULLY PERFORMED. FOR EXAMPLE:
-Those that are committed by disorderly drunkards; drug addicts, vagrants, petty thieves, dope
peddlers, and prostitutes.

C. RECIDIVISM – It refers to the act of committing the same type of crime at a certain period of time.
FOR EXAMPLE:
- A person was arrested, convicted and served imprisonment for a crime of robbery. After being
freed from imprisonment for not more than two years, he again committed robbery. This person is
considered a recidivist.

D. OCCASIONAL – Commits crime perhaps only once, perhaps separated by long intervals of time.
The offender commits a crime only when occasion paves opportunity.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the appearance of X cause
effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X would always cause the effect Y. each and every
time the relationship is seen.
2. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a theory, and means that
the theory has been supported by research evidence.
3. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure sense, an ideology
states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains how things actually are.
4. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a logical manner and
to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not contradict one another. Restated, does the
theory make logical and consistent sense?
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5. MACRO - Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime—crime across the
world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there are variations in group rates of crime.
Other authors have used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
6. MICRO - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders or on an individual
crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more likely than others to commit crime.
Other authors have used the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
7. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to produce effect Y. If X is not
present, Y will not occur.
8. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are involved. How
simple is the theory?
9. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are suggested.
10. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY -A concept more applicable to the social sciences. X is more or
less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
11. SCOPE -Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the theory covers.
12. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused, determined, or
predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological forces but that these interact with
exercise of choice and will by individuals. Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is
difficult.
13. SUFFICIENT CONDITION. Each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.
14. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people to commit crime,
and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject
the theory to the scientific process. In this case, you would find that greed has been defined as someone
who commits criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
15. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be subjected to
scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are tautological, propose causes that are not
measurable, or are so open-ended that empirical findings can always be re-interpreted to support the
theory.
16. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
17. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this category attempt to
explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.
18. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category attempt to explain
how laws are made, and how the criminal justice system operates as a whole.
19. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real world applications that the theory proposes or suggests, and
the ability to implement those applications.
20. THEORY - Is the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual apprehension, insight or
body of generalizations and principles developed in association with the practice in a certain field of
activity.

II. BODY: THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIME AND CRIME PREVENTION –

UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLANATION OF SOME MAJOR THEORIES AND CAUSATION
OF CRIME AND ITS INSIGHTS

1. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body, such as inherited genes, evolutionary
factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones in influencing behavior. Biological theories about the
causes of crime on the idea that the physical body, through inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain
structures, or the role of hormones, has influence on an individual’s involvement in criminal behavior.

Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain biological factors, such as particular
genes, neurological deficits, low serotonin activity, malnutrition and environmental pollutants may all
affect a person’s biological propensity of criminal or antisocial behavior. The challenge for biological
theories of crime is to adequately represent the complex interplay between inherited characteristics and
environment.

RESPONSES OFFERED BY BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE INCLUDE MEASURES SUCH

AS:
A. Maternal health initiatives to reduce the incidence of smoking and drinking amongst pregnant
women, thereby reducing neurological damage to the developing fetus; and
B. Public health initiatives and policy responses to reduce alcohol consumption and binge drinking by
teenager, as heavy alcohol use in adolescence is associated with serious neurological damage and long-
term cognitive deficits.

2. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE-COURSE THEORY

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 10 OF 38
 Developmental life-course theories focus on human development and how individual and social
factors interact in different ways and at different developmental stages to influence individual propensity
for criminal behavior. Developmental life-course explanations see crime as the result of a development
process that starts before birth and continues throughout a person’s life. It seeks to understand the
interaction between individual factors such as genetics and personality, and social factors such as family
and community wellbeing. The theory argues that while biological factors tend to be more significant
early in the individual’s life, the relative effect of social influences grows over time. A key aspect of the
development-life course approach is the identification of key developmental junctures that can be used
as points to intervene to promote positive development.

RESPONSES FROM THE DEVELOPMENTAL-LIFE COURSE THEORY INCLUDE:

A. A focus on pre- and post-natal care to ensure that babies are well cared for during this
developmentally important period; and
B. Analyzing data about the change in offending over offenders’ loves to plan government responses

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychological theories focus on human cognition and its development, and how this relates to
criminal behavior. Psychology presents a number of perspectives on the causes of crime. Of particular
importance are theories exploring the relationship between crime and individual personality, social
factors, cognition and developmental factors. These psychological theories have different degrees of
focus on individual, family, group and societal psychology.
Psychological literature shows that a key variable identified in the development of individual
characteristics, and any criminal propensities, is the role played by parents, in terms of factors such as
child-rearing practices, attachment, neglected, abuse, supervision, and the parents own anti-social or
criminal behavior.

RESPONSES BASED BROADLY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY SPAN A WIDE RANGE

BUT INCLUDE:
1. Early intervention programmes in health and education that support the healthy development of
children; and
2. Supporting positive parenting practices, which research shows have a correlation with reductions in
risk-taking, anti-social behavior, and alcohol and other drug abuse by adolescents.

4. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological theories focus on the influence of the organization of society and social conditions.
Sociology encompasses a very wide range of theoretical perspective, but generally regards crime as a
social phenomenon, and emphasizes the cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some
sociological theories emphasize the relationship between social structures, such as language, ethnicity
and class, and criminal behavior. Other theories emphasize the effect of social conditions on an
individual’s propensity to become involved in crime. Theories of this type often focus on the
relationship between crime and factors such as social inequality; the influence of peers; social
disorganization in a community; the consequences for an individual of being unable to achieve social
success; and the role of criminal sub-cultures, including gangs. Sociological theories are often criticized
for not being able to provide strong evidence for the causal relationships they posit. Nevertheless, they
are important because they complement the more individually focused biological and psychological
theories.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES RESPONSES INCLUDE:

1. Programs to address multi-generational unemployment for particular group or in a particular area;
2. Programs that build cultural identity and positive community values to lift self-esteem, and strengthen
social connectedness; and
3. Anti-family violence programs that try to change norms and behaviors in relation to family violence.

5. GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES
Geographic theories focus on the location of crime and how physical environments promote or
discourage criminal behavior. Geographical theories of crime focus on analyzing data about the
geographic distribution of crime, modifying the physical environment to reduce the likelihood of crime
and targeting initiatives to geographic areas with high rates of offending. Using data about the
geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to find patterns that can be used to inform crime
prevention projects. Geographic theories of crime prevention that focus on the physical environment
tend to focus on such things as how urban planning, building design and the design of public spaces
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 11 OF 38
affect crime, and also on how physical environments can be modified to make businesses and residences
more resistant to crime (sometimes called “situational crime prevention”).

RESPONSES OF GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES TO CRIME INCLUDE:

1. Using lighting and better design of pedestrian flow to minimizes crime in an area at night or planning
licensed premises so that patrons do not come in conflict as they leave; and
2. Using information about the distribution of crime in a neighborhood to develop a area-specific crime
prevention plan with the local community.

6. ECONOMIC THEORIES
Economic theories focus on how offending is influenced by incentives. The economic theory is
based on the notion that individuals respond rationally to the costs and benefits of criminal
opportunities. Thus, factors that increase the expected costs of crime (such as increasing the likelihood
of apprehension or severity of punishment) or reduce the expected benefits (such as improved
educational or job opportunities) can reduce the incidence of crime. The economic framework can also
encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer understanding of rationality and decision-
making (such as the biological basis of impulsivity), the costs of crime (such the social capital in anti-
social peer networks) and the benefits of crime (such as local economic conditions).

ECONOMIC RESPONSE TO CRIME INCLUDES:

1. Improving engagement in education or employment so that the relative benefits of crime are reduced
vi-a-vis legitimate economic activities; and
2. Increasing or decreasing criminal sanctions to change the relative disincentive associated with
particular criminal activities.

III: THE THEORIES COVERED CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO TWO (2) MAIN
APPROACHES:
1) Biological theories
2) Sociological theories

LOMBROSO AND BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso drew on the ideas of Charles
Darwin and suggested that criminals were atavistic: essentially ‘evolutionary throwbacks. He suggested
that their brains were mal-developed or not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that
they shared a number of common physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding chins. In so
doing, Lombroso suggested that involvement in crime was a product of biology and biological
characteristics: criminals were born that way. Lombroso’s theory is essentially a theory of biological
positivism.
POSITIVISM -Influenced by the scientific discoveries of the 18th and 19th centuries, positivism is a
research tradition that seeks to establish objective causes of individual behavior.
Lombroso’s work has long since fallen out of favor. However, biological theories have continued to
develop. Rather than measuring physical features of the body, contemporary approaches FOCUS ON:
1. Biochemical conditions (e.g., linked to poor diet or hormone imbalance)
2. Neurophysiological conditions (e.g., learning disabilities caused by brain damage)
3. Genetic inheritance and/or abnormality
4. Intelligence
These attempts, to locate the causes of crime within the individual, suggest that there are
identifiable differences between offenders and non-offenders. In other words, the criminal is ‘other’: in
some way different or abnormal to everyone else.

2) SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological approaches suggest that crime is shaped by factors external to the individual: their
experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the family.

THE CHICAGO SCHOOL/SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

Social disorganization theory grew out of research conducted by sociologists at the University of
Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. It key proponents were Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942),
who used spatial mapping to examine the residential locations of juveniles referred to court. Shaw and
McKay found that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor housing, poor
health, socio-economic disadvantage and transient populations. This led them to suggest that crime was
a function of neighborhood dynamics and not due to individual actors and their actions. Shaw and
McKay explained these patterns by reference to the problems that accompanied immigration to Chicago
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 12 OF 38
at this time. They claimed that areas settled by newly arrived immigrants experienced a breakdown of
social norms due to ethnic diversity and competing cultural traditions. Conventional institutions of social
control were therefore weakened and unable to regulate the behavior of local youths.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF CRIME, PLACE AND SPACE INCLUDE:
1. Defensible space theory, which examines how the design of physical space is related to crime;
2. Broken windows theory, which looks the relationship between low level disorder and crime; and
3. Routine activities theory, which considers how opportunities to commit crime are shaped by between
people’s everyday movements through space and time.

ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
Anomie is a concept developed by one of the founding fathers of sociology, EMILE
DURKHEIM, to explain the breakdown of social norms that often accompanies rapid social change.
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGIST ROBERT MERTON (1957) drew on this idea to explain criminality
and deviance in the USA. His theory argues that crime occurs when there is a gap between the cultural
goals of a society (e.g., material wealth, status) and the structural means to achieve these (e.g.,
education, employment). This strain between means and goals results in frustration and resentment, and
encourages some people to use illegitimate or illegal means to secure success. In short, strain theory
posits that the cultural values and social structures of society put pressure on individual citizens to
commit crime.
JOCK YOUNG DRAWS ON MERTON’S ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY IN HIS RECENT
BOOK, THE EXCLUSIVE SOCIETY (1999) - was locating crime in relation to both structural and
cultural processes. Structurally speaking, Young argues that the dismantling of the welfare state,
alongside increasing disparities between the rich and the poor, have served to further exclude
disadvantaged groups. This has occurred alongside high levels of cultural inclusion. Contemporary
consumer capitalism places greater emphasis on conspicuous consumption and material success,
intensifying feelings of deprivation experienced by the less successful.

SUBCULTURAL THEORY
Linked to anomie and strain are concepts of status frustration and differential opportunity, which
North American subcultural theorists used to explain the delinquent activities of disadvantaged groups
in the 1950s and 60s.
STATUS FRUSTRATION - Is associated with the work of Albert Cohen (1955), who conducted
research into group offending by young, lower-class men. Cohen argued that lower-class youths could
not aspire to middle-class cultural goals and so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own
subcultural system of values. In school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the
expectations of peers not teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting, and
acting up in class.

RICHARD CLOWARD AND LLOYD OHLIN (1960) - Built on these ideas, pointing to the
differential opportunity structures available to lower-class young people in different neighborhoods:
criminal (making a living from crime), conflict (territorial violence and gang fighting) and retreatist
(drugs and alcohol).

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

Strictly speaking control theory does not address the causes of crime, but rather focuses on why
people obey the law. In other words, it explains conformity rather than deviance. It is primarily
associated with the work of TRAVIS HIRSCHI (1969), an America social scientist who proposed that
people general conform to social norms due to strong social bonds. Conversely, they engage in
delinquent acts when these bonds are broken or weak. THE KEY COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL
BONDS ARE:
1. ATTACHMENT: How strong or weak is an individual’s relationship with others? Do these others
expect certain kinds of behavior (such as obeying the law) from this individual? The stronger the
attachment and the stronger the expectations, the more likely it is that the individual will conform.
2. COMMITMENT: The more an individual commits his/herself to a particular lifestyle (for example,
being married, being a parent, having a job), the more he/she has to lose if he/she becomes involved in
crime (and so deviate from the lifestyle).
3. INVOLVEMENT: This component comes down to time – the more time the individual spends
engaging in law abiding behavior, the less time he/she has to engage in law breaking behavior.
4. BELIEF: this relates to upbringing. If an individual has been brought up to be law abiding, they are
less likely to become involved in crime. Control theory is one of the most frequently used and tested
criminological theories.

RIGHT REALISM/RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

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 This branch of criminology sees individuals as rational actors: individuals are capable of making
their own choices, which includes choosing to commit crime. In any course of action, individuals weigh
up the likely benefits and disadvantages of each action.
Right realism emerged in the USA and the UK around the 1980s, in response to rising crime rates and a
perceived failure of sociological approaches to adequately address the real causes of crime. Prominent
right realists such as James Q. Wilson (1975) and Charles Murray (1990) come from political
backgrounds and claim that criminological theory should inform criminal justice policy.
One of the key theories to emerge from this branch of criminology is rational choice theory, associated
with the work of Cornish and Clarke (1986). According to this theory, individuals not only decide to
commit crime, but decide when and where to commit crime.
As Walklate observes, this theory lends itself to the range of policy initiatives known as situational
crime prevention, sometimes referred to as designing out crime. This is the umbrella term for a range of
strategies that are used to reduce the opportunities to commit crime.

REALISM - Realist criminology tends to be written from a particular ideological position, i.e., it is
politically right or left. Both approaches attempt to get ‘real’ about the problem of crime: treating it as a
serious social issue.
EXAMPLES OF THIS STRATEGY INCLUDE:
1. Increasing formal surveillance measures such as CCTV and alarms, and the Neighborhood Watch
scheme
2. Increasing natural surveillance such as improving street lighting
3. Concealing or removing ‘targets’ e.g. ‘High value’ goods such as mobile phones, cash and jewelry

LEFT REALISM/RELATIVE DEPRIVATION

Left realism is a branch of critical criminology (see SCCJR what is crime?) that developed in the
UK and the USA in the 1980s. It suggests that crime disproportionately affects the lives of the poor and
disadvantaged. Key proponents include Lea and Young (1984) and Elliot Currie (1985).
One of the key concepts of left realism is relative deprivation. Closely associated with anomie
theory, relative deprivation suggests that crime happens when individuals or groups see themselves as
being unfairly disadvantaged compared to other individuals or groups who they see as being similar to
themselves. Since the disadvantage is perceived and determined by an individual, it is a subjective
assessment.

LEFT REALISTS ALSO SUPPORT TWO (2) OTHER KEY THEORIES TO EXPLAIN
CRIME:
1. MARGINALIZATION - Some groups experience marginalization and at different levels (social, political and
economic). These groups are on the periphery of society. Lacking political representation, these groups represent
themselves and their ways of taking political action include the commission of crime and violence.
2. SUB-CULTURES: Marginalized individuals and groups may come into contact with others who share these
experiences, and who then may form their own sub cultures in which crime and violence may feature.

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES/GENDER
Feminist perspectives share a concern with gender inequality, pointing to the fact that crime is
disproportionately committed by men. Feminist criminologists such as ELIZABETH STANKO (1985)
have paid particular attention to male violence against women, explaining its occurrence by reference to
wider structures of oppression – as well as gendered norms regarding ‘appropriate’ masculine and
feminine behavior.
One concept used by feminist perspectives to explain the maleness of crime is hegemonic
masculinity: the set of ideas, values, representations and practices associated with ‘being male’ which is
commonly accepted as the dominant position in gender relations in a society at a particular historical
moment (JEFFERSON, 2006, SAGE DICTIONARY OF CRIMINOLOGY). In contemporary
Western society, the dominant or hegemonic masculinity is expressed through paid employment
(perhaps being the ‘bread winner’ in the household); being heterosexual; and subordinating women.
Criminologist JAMES W. MESSERSCHMIDT (1993) argues that for some men, in certain groups,
men do masculinity (that is, express their masculinity) through the engagement and commission of
crime.

DETERRENCE AND RATIONAL CHOICE THEORIES (TERMINOLOGY)

1. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and rational choice theories, this
theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of punishments that combine the proper
degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity. Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 14 OF 38

A. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has been prevented simply
due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an individual could be legally punished for
committing a criminal act.
B. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a community or a society of
people can be deterred from committing a criminal act after having witnessed the punishment of an
individual or individuals for having committed that act.
C. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specific offender in mind. The
belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal act, then that individual will be less likely to
violate the law in the future.
D. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies to an individual offender, and refers to
what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how severe he or she believes the punishment
for a crime will be if caught. The perceptions of the individual are often very different from the actual
reality experienced.
E. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment fit the crime. It also referred to as “an eye for an eye.”

THREE (3) ELEMENTS OF DETTERENCE THEORY

A. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how quickly an individual is
punished after committing a crime.
B. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an
individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she has committed. Certainty is the most
important of the three elements.
C. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how harsh the punishment
for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must fit the
crime. If a punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and
can lead to more crime.
2. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian notions of free will and
the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core, classical criminology refers to a belief that a
crime is committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a
rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
3. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This refers to a
set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less attractive. The belief that crime is a
rational act is used to make a potential target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
4. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people will act in a
manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties in closely with classical
criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory, where people seek to increase their pleasure and
reduce their pain.

5. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to make decisions according
to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under this perspective, people can understand the
difference between right and wrong, and can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law.
6. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should fit the crime without regard to individual differences.

7. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY -This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology. While
the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare
Beccaria, this version adds a new dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in
criminological thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and
other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.
8. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be committed, three
elements must be present: an available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians.

9. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that taking young offenders
or potential offenders to a prison environment, and exposing them to the realities of prison life, could
prove beneficial in reducing delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce
the expected results.

10. SHOCK INCARCERATION. This approach generally uses a combination of a brief prison
sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief exposure to the realities of incarceration will
deter the offender from further criminality.
11. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a military model of
discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a deterrent effect on young offenders, but
they have generally failed to yield long-term reductions in recidivism.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 15 OF 38

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE STUDY OF
CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 01)
1. BECCARIA, CESARE: (1738-1794) - Italian nobleman, prominent in the eighteenth century, wrote
On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
2. BENTHAM, JEREMY: (1748-1832) - Jurist and philosopher, prominent in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the death penalty.
3. COHEN, LAWRENCE E.: - Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing the routine activities
theory.
4. FELSON, MARCUS: - Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the routine activities
theory.
5. LOMBROSO, CESARE: (1836-1909) - first to use scientific method in criminology, wrote the
criminal man (1876).
6. EYSENCK, HANS J.: - Proposed the biosocial “arousal” theory.
7. FERRERO, WILLIAM: - Co-authored Female Offender (1958 [1897]) with Lombroso.
8. GORING, CHARLES: (1870-1919) - BRITISH criminologist, proposed the idea that criminals are
shorter, weigh less, and “mentally defective,” wrote The English Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).
9. FREUD, SIGMUND: (1856-1939) - Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis and psychological
theory; theorized the Oedipus complex, and the Electra complex; and coined the terms id, superego, ego,
sex drive, and libido.
10. FRIEDLANDER, KATE: - Wrote the Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile Delinquency (1947).
11. HOOTEN, E.A.: (1887-1954) - Anthropologist and neo-Lombrosian, proposed the idea that crime
is caused by physical inferiority, wrote Crime and the Man (1939).
12. MEDNICK, SARNOFF: - Developed the best-known and most systematically stated and tested
modern biosocial theory.

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE STUDY OF

CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 02)
1. AKERS, RONALD: - Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with Robert Burgess, developed the
differential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
2. BANDURA, ALBERT: - Psychologist and child development expert, examined stages of
development and concluded conduct develop at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli are
present.
3. BURGESS, ROBERT L.: - Behavior sociologist collaborated with Ronald Akers to develop a
“differential association-reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
4. ELLIOT, DELBERT: - Developed an integrated theory, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug
Use (1985).
5. SUTHERLAND, EDWIN: (1883-1950) - Developed the differential association theory, wrote The
Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology (1947).
6. GOTTFREDSON, MICHAEL: - Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990) with Travis
Hirschi.
7. HIRSCHI, TRAVIS: - Criminologist, developed the social bond theory, wrote The Causes of
Delinquency (1969) and co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990) with Travis Hirschi.
8. MATZA, DAVID: - Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and proposed “techniques of
neutralization,” developed drift theory of delinquency in 1964, wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
9. NYE, F. IVAN: - Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (1958), expanding on Reiss’
definitions of social controls.
10. RECKLESS, WALTER: - Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and crime.
11. REISS, ALBERT J.: - In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from the failure of “personal”
and “social” controls.
12. SYKES, GRESHAM: - Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed “techniques of
neutralization.”
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE STUDY OF
CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 03)
1. BECKER, HOWARD -Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist in labeling, wrote
Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).
2. BRAITHWAITE, JOHN - Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (2002). His
concept of reintegrative shamming remains at the core of restorative justice.
3. COOLEY, CHARLES HORTON - (1875-1940) Sociologist who developed the concept of
“looking- glass self.”
4. LEMERT, EDWIN M. - Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to extend the labeling theory
to include both primary and secondary deviance, wrote Social Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance,
Social Problems, and Social Control (1967).

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5. TANNENBAUM, FRANK - Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization of evil,” wrote Crime
and the Community (1938).
Notable Individuals
6. AGNEW, ROBERT. - Sociologist who proposed the general strain theory to account for criminal
behavior.
7. BURGESS, ERNEST - (1886-1966) Helped form the “Chicago School,” collaborated with
Sutherland and Park.
8. CLOWARD, RICHARD - Collaborated with Lloyd Ohlin to form a theory of differential
opportunity, co-authored Delinquency and Opportunity (1960) with Ohlin.
9. COHEN, ALBERT K. - Criminologist who developed the perspective of delinquent subculture.
10. DURKHEIM, EMILE - (1858-1917) French sociologist, wrote Suicide (1893).
11. MCKAY, HENRY D. - Sociologist who collaborated with Shaw on the social disorganization
theory.
12. MERTON, ROBERT K. - Focused on anomie and strain theory, wrote Social Theory and Social
Structure (1957).
13. MESSNER, STEVEN F. - Collaborated with Rosenfeld on the ideology of the “American Dream”
and institutional anomie theory.
14. MILLER, WALTER. - Criminologist who focused on gang delinquency as a result of lower-class
values.
15. OHLIN, LLOYD. - Collaborated with Cloward to form a theory of opportunity and co-authored
Delinquency and Opportunity (1960) with Cloward.
16. PARK, ROBERT EZRA - (1864-1944) Associated with the “Chicago School,” collaborated with
Sutherland and Burgess.
17. ROSENFELD, RICHARD. - Collaborated with Messner on the ideology of the “American Dream”
and institutional anomie theory.
18. SHAW, CLIFFORD R. - Sociologist who collaborated with McKay on the social disorganization
theory.
Notable Individuals
19. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological and sociological theorist, co-authored Law, Order,
and Power (1971) with Robert Seidman.
20. DURKHEIM, EMILE: - (1858-1917) French sociologist wrote Suicide (1893).
21. MARX, KARL: - European theorist whose view of the history of society as class struggle and
capitalism as a two-class system of the ruling elite and the proletariat inspired many scholars and
revolutionaries (see Chapter 10).
22. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist known early on as a conflict theorist and later as a Marxist
theorist. More recently he has been known for viewing criminology for its peacemaking potential, wrote
The Social Reality of Crime (1970) and Class, State, and Crime (1980)
23. SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM: - Pioneering sociologist who proposed the classic statement of
consensus theory. Developed the terms “folkways” and “mores,” wrote Folkways (1906).
24. TURK, AUSTIN T. - Sociologist and criminologist who has written extensively on the conflict
perspective, wrote Criminality and the Legal Order (1969).
25. VOLD, GEORGE B. - Conflict theorist, wrote Theoretical Criminology (1958).
26. WEBER, MAX: - German sociologist who pioneered work on bureaucracy, law, and economy.

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE STUDY OF

CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 04)
1. BONGER, WILLEM: - (1876-1940) Dutch theorist, who endorsed the Marxist view of class
conflict, wrote Criminality and Economic Conditions (1916).
2. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological theorist, wrote Law, Order, and Power (1982).
3. KIRCHHEIMER, OTTO: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and Social Structure (1968)
with Rusche.
4. MARX, KARL: - (1818-1883) European theorist, wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848).
5. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist, wrote The Social Reality of Crime (1970) and Class, State,
and Crime (1980).
6. RUSCHE, GEORG: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and Social Structure (1968) with
Kirchheimer.
7. ADLER, FREDA: - Wrote Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal (1975).
8. CHESNEY-LIND, MEDA: - Feminist criminologist who attempt to balance coverage of both males
and females in criminological research, wrote The Female Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).
9. MESSERSCHMIDT, JAMES W. - Wrote Crime as Structured Action: Gender, Race, Class, and
Crime in the Making (1997).
10. SIMON, RITA: - Wrote Women and Crime (1975).

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 17 OF 38

 NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE STUDY OF
CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 05)
1. AKERS, RONALD L. - Proposed the absorption of concepts from other theories by social learning
concepts, wrote Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (1994; 1997; 2000;
and with Christine S. Sellers, 2004).
2. BERNARD, THOMAS: - Proposed an integration of conflict and social learning theories to account
for both criminal behavior and criminal law.
3. COLVIN, MARK: - Proposed that coercion may be a unifying concept in criminology.
4. CULLEN, FRANCIS T. - Proposed that social support can be used as a central concept around
which all of criminology can be unified.
5. ELLIOTT, DELBERT S. - One of the first to integrate strain, control, and social learning theories,
wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
6. KAPLAN, HOWARD B. - Proposed a self-esteem/derogation theory of adolescent deviance.
7. KROHN, MARVIN D. - Proposed the social network theory.
8. LAUB, JOHN H. - Collaborated with Robert Sampson to propose and test life-course perspectives.
Wrote Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life (1993).
9. SAMPSON, ROBERT. - Collaborated with John Laub to propose and test life-course perspectives
coauthored Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life (1993) with Sampson.
10. THORNBERRY, TERENCE P. - Proposed an interactional theory of delinquency. Tittle, Charles
R.: Proposed the control balance theory, wrote Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance
(1995).

MAJOR THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION AND DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES

A. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

THREE (3) PSYCHES OF PERSONALITY

A. ID - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic
instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.
B. EGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as
the executive or rational part of the personality and it acts to keep the id in check.
C. SUPEREGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. This part of the
personality contains the conscience of the individual.

1. ELECTRA COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in
which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother.
2. FREUDIAN - This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal
activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a
conflict in early childhood.
3. OEDIPUS COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in
which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father.
4. PERSONALITY THEORY - This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective,
deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility,
impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-seeking.
5. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal
behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING - The process by which an underlying mental issue can be
addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as
someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the
criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only
way in which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately.
7. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY - A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning,
development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this
approach, the criminal act itself is only important in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.

PSYCHOPATHIC THEORY
PSYCHOPATHIC - A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders.

PSYCHOPATHY CHECKLIST (PCL-R) - Developed by HARE, this is a tool comprised of a check

list that is designed to measure the feeling and relationships of an individual, along with the social
deviance of an individual. This tool is the main one used in the measurement of a psychopathic
personality.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 18 OF 38

KEY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOPHIC THEORY
1. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of a mental disturbance. From a
Freudian perspective, this may have been caused by a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, or it
may be the result of an improper fixation during a stage of emotional development.
2. Personality theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of an improper or defective
personality or personality traits. Instead of developing a conforming appropriate-social personality, the
criminal has developed a personality based upon conflict, impulsiveness, and aggression. The criminal
does not have the ability to feel empathy, remorse, or guilt for his or her actions, and has not developed
a sense of right and wrong.
3. Under both of these approaches, the criminal act is not important, in that it is only one of many
symptoms of the underlying psychological or personality disorder. Both approaches recommend various
forms of therapy and treatment to fix the disorder. When the underlying psychological or personality
disorder is addressed, the criminal and deviant acts should cease.
4. Psychological theories are difficult if not impossible to test. One cannot see, identify, or measure the
id, ego, or superego. As a result, testing these theories becomes virtually impossible. Similar
difficulties are faced when trying to test personality theories, and tautological issues remain a problem.
5. Programs that offer therapy and counseling in attempts to reduce delinquency have not been shown to
be particularly effective. While the role of psychology in criminal justice and criminology is indeed
important, we have not yet reached a place where the key concepts of psychological and personality
theories, along with their recommended treatments, have had a measured impact on criminal activity.

B. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
DEFINITION OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

1. ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by biological parents
compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic
link to criminal behavior. Results have been mixed.

2. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born criminal.”
Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit
crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so.
3. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - Mednick’s theory that individuals who inherit a
slower than normal autonomic nervous system learns to control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly
or not at all. This leads to increased violence and criminal activity.
4. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a combination of genetics
and the environment influence behavior.
5. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL - A view of crime also referred to as biological positivism that claims that
criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly
conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a
biological perspective, deterrence is of little value.
6. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and
the environment on criminal behavior.
7. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level of arousal works
in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn
appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
8. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This type of criminal is
the most dangerous, and can be identified through their stigmata or identifying characteristics.
9. CONCORDANCE - This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding behavior of siblings,
identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
10. CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The criminaloid is
motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper circumstances.
11. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an
individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological
predisposition. Soft determinism, as explained by Matza, examines the role of determinism, but also
acknowledges that other factors, from environmental to choose, may be part of the equation. This
assumes that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological
makeup.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 19 OF 38

12. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are
genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural
selection and survival.
13. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A general approach that suggests that the process
of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to
generation.
14. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The insane criminal
type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the mentally unstable. These criminals are
unable to control their actions; however, they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics
of the born criminal.
15. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born
criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin
wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.

KEY CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. The fundamental concept behind the early biological theories was the belief that individual difference
could be scientifically measured.
2. Early biological theories view criminal behavior as the result of a defect in the individual. This defect
can be biological or genetic in nature, and serves to separate the criminal from the law-abiding citizen.
Contemporary biological theories concentrate more on variations in genetic and other biological factors
in interaction with the environment, and are less likely to refer to biological defects or abnormalities.
3. Punishment serves a different goal in biological theories. While punishment may be appropriate to
protect society, it will not have a deterrent effect. Because there is an inherent defect or abnormality
within the individual, deterrence or the threat of punishment will not affect behavior.
4. Although early biological theories lacked validity, they were among the first to use the scientific
method. The process of measuring body parts, shapes, and sizes, (although flawed) represented a
dramatic shift from the philosophical approach offered by the classical school.
5. Biological theories trace back to Lombroso, and vary in the amount of determinism built in. Atavistic
man or the “born criminal” was always going to be at odds with civilized society. More modern
biological theories seek to establish a link between things like IQ, testosterone, and criminality. While
they share a biological link, modern theories understand that the influences of choice and the larger
society also play a role in the crime dynamic.
6. If traditional biological theories are correct, then society is limited in its responses to offenders. There
are five basic responses. First, we could try to fix the offender. This may be accomplished through
medication, treatment, or therapy. Second, we could lock the offender up and keep him or her
physically separated from larger society. Third, we could sterilize the offender. This would keep
individuals from passing along defective genes to future generations. Fourth, we could deport or banish
the offender. Finally, we could choose to kill the offender. If crime is truly biologically determined,
these options, or close derivatives of these options, would prove more useful than any punishment
designed to remove the pleasure from a criminal act.
7. More recent biological or biosocial theories believe that even if some biological traits are passed
down that would make an individual more pre-disposed to commit criminal acts; these traits can be dealt
with through effective social programs. Having a biological trait then, is not the end of the story. It
does not doom one to a life of crime, and can in fact be dealt with and managed.

C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - In general, social learning theory proposes that both
criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of
interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the
social influences such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.
One of the four main concepts OF AKERS’ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - The process
through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right and wrong. Definitions of the law
may be general or specific. One may have the general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 20 OF 38

specific view that a 20-year-old who can fight in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person
may follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law.

1. BEHAVIOR THEORY - Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included
elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This expansion allowed them to identify the
learning process, and included elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning,
discriminative stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement.
2. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION - A theory of crime and delinquency developed by Sutherland.
This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in
inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts
of Akers’ social learning theory. Akers retains the process of differential association, and expands upon
it in his theory.
3. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION - A modification of differential association theory. In this
view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and
approval of these important people in their lives.

4. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning
theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or not committing a
criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have
been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments.
5. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI - Internal or external factors or cues that aid an individual in
determining an appropriate response to a given situation.
6. IMITATION - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. Behavior modeled by
others for an individual may be copied by that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the
modeling, along with perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
7. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual receiving something of value for
committing a certain act. This may include things such as money, food, or approval.
8. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as
a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act.
9. NEUTRALIZING DEFINITIONS - This type of definition helps a person justify committing a
crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong, under certain conditions it is all
right.
10. OPERANT CONDITIONING - The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an
individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world.
11. RETROFLEXIVE REFORMATION - This process is based upon differential association and
often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders and non-offenders. This concept
suggests that the offenders in such groups, who join on the side of the non-offenders in attempting to get
the other offenders to change their definitions favorable to law violation, actually wind up reducing their
own definitions favorable to crime.
12. SELF-REINFORCEMENT - The exercise of self-control used by an individual to reinforce his or
her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the eyes of another.
13. SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT - This refers to the actual, perceived, expected, tangible, or
intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by society or a subset of society.
14. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL LEARNING MODEL - A model proposed by Akers in
which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual’s actions through the social
learning process.
15. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM - The process by which two or more individuals share a
commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the ability to incorporate other
people’s reactions into their own behavior, and use those reactions as part of their own understanding of
themselves. Example: You want to know how you look in a new outfit. Part of your understanding of
how you look is going to be based upon how others respond to you. You have the ability to understand
other people’s facial reactions, body language, and language in understanding how they view you. You
then use this information when deciding if you look good in the outfit.

KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 21 OF 38

1. As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the fields of sociology, psychology,
criminal justice, and criminology in an attempt to explain how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and
expressions are transmitted from one individual to another.
2. Differential association theory, developed by Sutherland, is a learning theory that concentrates on
one’s associates and the normative definitions one learns from them.
3. Akers identified four dimensions of the social structure that can possibly be integrated with social
learning. The four dimensions are: differential social organization, differential location in the social
structure, theoretically defined structural variables, and differential social location.
4. Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or modified by taking away the
reward of the behavior, increasing the negative consequences of the behavior, or changing the balance of
reward/punishment for the behavior.
5. Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors; deviant behaviors also reinforce deviant
behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce one another’s behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship.
The effects of such a relationship subject all of the individuals involved to higher rates of future
substance abuse and criminal activity.

D. SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES
SOCIAL BONDING THEORY - A control theory that states that individuals will commit
criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are
four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an
individual will refrain from criminal activity.
A. SOCIAL CONTROL - Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements
that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act. Examples include the family, church,
and school.
B. SELF-CONCEPT - An element of containment theory thought to be responsible for insulating an
individual from criminal activity. This is Similar to self-esteem.
C. SELF-CONTROL THEORY - A specific type of control theory developed by GOTTFREDSON
and HIRSCHI in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts.

1. CONTAINMENT THEORY - A control theory in which the inner and outer pushes and pulls on an
individual will produce delinquency unless they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer
containment measures.
2. CONTROL THEORIES - A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit
criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire
to commit criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.
3. DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE - A group of delinquent peers which may influence an individual
to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction
with control theory and may pull an individual towards delinquency.
4. DRIFT THEORY - This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and forth between obeying
and breaking the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when
other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float
back to law-abiding behavior.
5. EXTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the
individual are responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts. These
agents include parents, teachers, or law enforcement.
6. INTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory which explains why a person will not commit
a criminal act by reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior.
This includes such things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.
7. NATURAL MOTIVATION - This refers to the belief in control theories that the desire to commit
criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society.

KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES to THE EXPLANATION

OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. Social bonding and control theories are nontraditional criminological perspectives because they seek
to explain why individuals conform to societal norms, and not why they commit crime.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 22 OF 38

2. TRAVIS HIRSCHI’S theory has many policy implications and can be used to reduce delinquency.
His theory can be seen in policies such as curfew laws, after-school programs, parenting classes, and job
placement programs.
3. HIRSCHI utilized theory construction, conceptualization, operationalization, and empirical testing to
develop a perspective that still stands as a criminological model today.
4. The Social Development Model (SDM) has supported bonding and learning theories and has
demonstrated success in areas of commitment and attachment.

E. LABELING THEORY
DEFINITION OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION
OF CRIMINALITY
LABELING THEORY - The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing
and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future
deviant or criminal acts.

RESTORATIVE JUSTICE - This refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take
responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as
they existed before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and
attempt to financially compensate the victims for their losses.

1. DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION - The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and

institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor
offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion.
2. DISINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and
made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual.
This occurs without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore
them to the larger community.
3. DIVERSION MOVEMENT - This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth
but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal
process of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or
criminal labels on the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime.
4. FAITH-BASED PROGRAMS - These are religiously based programs which can be operated within
the institution or the larger community. They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use
spiritual beliefs and values to change offenders’ attitudes and behaviors.
5. NET WIDENING - A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the
system are placed in a program simply because a program exists. This often occurs in diversion
programs. Boot camps may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes net
widening when kids, who otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot camps.
6. PRIMARY DEVIANCE - Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or preceding the
application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not be the first crime a person has
committed, it is not based on a response to being labeled as a deviant (see Secondary Deviance).
7. SECONDARY DEVIANCE - Criminal or deviant acts those are committed in response to, or
because of, a label that has been applied to an individual.
8. REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and
made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is
brought back into the larger community and restored to a position of respectability.

KEY CONCEPTS OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. Labeling theory focuses on formal and informal applications of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” by
society on some of its members. Many have argued however, that these labels are often the result of the
statues of the individual, i.e., race, social class, and socioeconomics, as opposed to any act committed.
2. Labeling theory treats such labels as both cause and effect, as independent and dependent variables.
3. Lemert focused on two stages of deviance: Primary deviance is the commission of criminal acts
before the individual is caught and punished for them; and secondary deviance refers to crimes
committed due to the label society has placed upon an offender.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 23 OF 38

4. A major concept in symbolic interactionism is the “looking-glass self,” in which our self-concepts are
reflections of other people’s conceptions of us, as revealed in their interactions with us.
5. Labeling theory mirrors conflict theory in that the individuals with power create and enforce rules at
the expense of the less powerful.

F. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN THEORIES

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN THEORIES TO

THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
ANOMIE - A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term was coined
by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other forms
of deviance and crime in American society.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION - Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social
control and organization in the society, community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and
criminal activity results. It is most often applied to urban crime.

INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE - This theory was created by MESSNER AND ROSENFELD. The
premise of the theory is that American society is set up in such a way so as to give prestige and priority
to economic institutions. This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual success are
people’s highest priorities. Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social
institutions (family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access
to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of the
setup of American society.
MERTON’S ANOMIE THEORY - This version of anomie theory looks at American society, and
what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream of equal
opportunity for economic success. When this happens, one of five adaptations will occur. The
conformist accepts the goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the college student. The
innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the drug dealer. The
mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and means of society, and wants to replace
them with new goals and means: the militia member. The retreatist gives up on both the goals and
means, and withdraws from society: the alcoholic. Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the
means: this person has given up on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to
keep what they have.

1. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY - A theory which draws from anomie and the work of
MERTON AND COHEN; the SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY of SHAW and MCKAY;
and the DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY of SUTHERLAND. This view says that
although one may be denied legitimate opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate
opportunity. Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad response
to that strain depending on the available opportunities and role models, legitimate or illegitimate.

THREE (3) GROUPS EXIST UNDER THIS PERSPECTIVE OF DIFFERENTIAL

OPPORTUNITY THEORY
1. THE FIRST IS CRIMINAL - In criminal groups, juveniles are organized, and the primary goal of
the activity is to make money. A lack of legitimate means has been replaced by illegitimate ones, such
as theft or extortion.
2. THE SECOND GROUP IS THE CONFLICT GROUP - In this group, there are few legitimate or
illegitimate opportunities. These groups are found primarily in poor socially disorganized
neighborhoods. As a result, toughness and fighting are the primary goals.
3. THE FINAL GROUP IS THE RETREATIST - This group cannot fight well, or profit from their
crimes. They are the double-losers.

2. FOCAL CONCERNS OF THE LOWER-CLASS CULTURE - The list of focal concerns or

values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was developed by MILLER to describe the
behavior of street corner groups or gangs. According to MILLER, the behavior of these juveniles was
an adaptation to lower-class culture. This culture valued THINGS SUCH AS:
A. Trouble, D. Excitement
B. Toughness, E. Fatalism
C. Smartness F. and autonomy.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 24 OF 38

3. GENERAL STRAIN THEORY OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY - A micro-level social
psychological revision of Agnew’s strain theory. According to this theory, criminal and deviant acts are
one possible adaptation to stress.
THE THREE (3) MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIANCE-PRODUCING STRAIN ARE:
1. Failure to achieve positively valued goals
2. Removal of positively valued stimuli, and
3. Confrontation with negative stimuli.
Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any of these stressors is
anger. Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and attributions of causes, self-control, and self-
efficacy will affect each individual’s reaction to stress.

COHEN is in agreement with MERTON that blocked goals produce STRAIN; his theory looks
at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are measured against the
standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids, who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress,
talk, and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This ‘status deprivation’ leads to ‘status frustration,’ which
in turn causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes, Cohen sees only
one group—a conflict group which values toughness, fighting, and respect.

4. URBAN ECOLOGY THEORY - A theory that views a city as analogous to the natural ecological
community of plants and animals. This relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones
that spread from the center to the outer regions of a city. This work done by PARK and BURGESS
influenced the social disorganization theory developed by SHAW and MCKAY.
5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY - This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the residents of a given
neighborhood to maintain informal social control over the criminal or deviant behavior of other
residents. This would have the effect of keeping crime rates lower.

6. CHICAGO AREA PROJECTS - This was the first large-scale urban delinquency prevention
program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core.
Cohen’s Anomie Strain. This version of anomie theory examines juveniles.

KEY CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN THEORIES

TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. Anomie was coined by the French sociologist Durkheim, and first applied to French society to
examine rates of suicide. The concept of anomie was first used in this country by Merton, in an effort to
describe adaptations in behavior, and the interaction between legitimate and illegitimate means.

2. Anomie may apply when there are not enough legitimate means to reach legitimate societal goals.
This can occur when society is in a state of disorder and disintegration, as opposed to stability and
integration.
3. Depending on the theorist, anomie has been applied to the acquisition of wealth, the attainment of
status, or the expression of cultural or class values.
4. Agnew’s revision of anomie strain theory examines several possible sources of strain that may result
in criminal activity. These sources include: failure to achieve positively valued goals, removal of
positively valued stimuli, and confrontation with negative stimuli.
5. With mixed support, anomie strain theories have been used to develop projects designed to bring
stability and order to disorganized communities. The hope has been that increasing the stability of the
community, the schools, and the family would reduce criminal and delinquent acts.

G. CONFLICT THEORY
DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION
OF CRIMINALITY
CONFLICT THEORY - The view that society is divided into two or more groups with
competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes the laws and controls society.
Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in
their behavior which is now viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law
and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant
behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined as criminal).

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 25 OF 38

1. CONSENSUS THEORY - In general, this theory states that laws are a result of, and a reflection of,
general agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and
mores, influence the laws and rules which govern a society.
2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY - Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also looks at how the
law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful.
The law also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior.
3. INTEREST GROUPS - These groups form and act in such a manner so as to influence the political
system in ways that will provide the greatest benefits to members of the group. They are also referred to
as pressure groups.
4. LAW - Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state. Depending upon one’s
view, law is either formed with the agreement of the majority of society and designed to promote order,
or formed by the powerful in society to keep control of the masses. 5. PLURALISTIC CONFLICT -
A type of conflict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful group
making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and informal and often with overlapping
interests, which wrestle for control and power.
6. POLITICAL CRIMES - Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a government or
overturn a government action; or crimes committed by government officials to control groups seen as a
threat. Which side in any given conflict is labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and
which side wins the dispute.
7. RACIAL PROFILING - Actions taken by the police based solely on the race of an individual.
8. SOCIAL CONTROL - A normative system with rules concerning the way people should and should
not behave. This is combined with a formal and informal system to encourage and promote conformity,
while at the same time discouraging and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the
family, church, and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts.
9. SOCIAL THREAT HYPOTHESIS - This hypothesis states that criminal and deviant acts will
increase as the number of people opposed to the interests of the powerful increases.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIME
1. Conflict theory proposes that the law and the criminal justice system primarily embody the interests
and norms of the most powerful groups in society, rather than those of society as a whole.
2. Consensus theory explains the content and operation of the law by referring to a broad-based
agreement in society on social and moral norms within the society, and the common interests of all
elements of society.
3. Conflict and consensus theories imply support for fair representation of differing interests and values
and non-discrimination in the law and criminal justice system.
4. There are two forms of social control. Informal social control exists in families, peer groups,
churches, and in communities. When there is a breakdown of informal social control, formal social
control increases. Law is formal social control.
5. Empirical evidence on consensus and conflict theory is based on studies of the enactment of laws and
studies of public opinion; on crime; and on disparities in arrests, convictions, and penalties based on
race, sex, and socioeconomic status.

H. MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

MARXIST THEORY - This theory explains both law and criminal justice, and focuses upon
the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a capitalist society, the ruling-class elite
(bourgeoisie) control the means of production which allows them to control the political state as well.
They use this control to manipulate the laborers (proletariat) and keep them in a position of
powerlessness. The masses are thus controlled both economically and legally.
STRUCTURALIST MARXISM - While close to the view of Instrumental Marxism, this
perspective states that the political state is not under the total control of the ruling elite; that from time to
time, laws may be passed that harm the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may be subject
to state control.

1. BOURGEOIS - The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those with the power.
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 26 OF 38
2. PROLETARIAT - The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those with no power.
3. CAPITALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held
privately in the hands of a few.
4. SOCIALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held by the
state for the benefit of all.
5. CONSTITUTIVE CRIMINOLOGY - A variation of critical criminology, which recommends that
we the search for the cause of criminal activity. Instead, it examines how the relationships between
criminals, victims, and agents of control act and react to form our understanding of crime.
6. CRIMES OF ACCOMMODATION AND RESISTANCE - Crimes committed by the lower class
against the upper class, or the capitalist system.
7. CRIMES OF DOMINATION AND REPRESSION - Crimes committed by the ruling class against
the lower class.
8. CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY - An extension of Marxist theory that goes beyond the examination
of the effects of capitalism on crime. It takes a critical stance against mainstream criminology.
9. LEFT REALISM - A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective examines the role
capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact, damage, and fear caused by traditional street
crime. It proposes reforms to the system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce the
use of prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This perspective rejects both the conservative and choice
perspective of the right, and the tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by
crime.
10. INSTRUMENTAL MARXISM - The political state (including the law and the criminal justice
system) is always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress the working class.
11. PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY - This perspective is often viewed as a philosophy as opposed
to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to
get all players in society (victims, offenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the
violence that is at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then be replaced with non-
violent solutions.
12. POSTMODERNISM - Closely related to critical criminology, his perspective seeks to discover and
eliminate the power of language and text which is used to give power and privilege to specific groups,
while denying it to others. This perspective also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientific
explanations of criminology, and replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and
advances the cause of disadvantaged individuals.

KEY CONCEPTS MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

1. Marxist theorists believe that capitalism is the cause of crime and delinquency.
2. The instrumental Marxist theorist believes that the entire system of capitalism serves to benefit the
ruling elite; while the structural Marxist believes that, at least in the short term, the political state
maintains some degree of independence from the ruling elite.
3. The Marxist view states that crime is either committed by the ruling class to keep the working class in
place, or by the working class to strike out against the ruling class.
4. Marxist theory is unable to explain the level of power and control held by an elite few in the former
Soviet Union, as well as the rise and popularity of groups like the Taliban in Afghanistan. The collapse
of the government and the use of the law as a weapon against the oppressed have been more evident in
those societies than in the United States.
5. Constitutive criminology recommends that we abandon traditional searches for the cause of criminal
activity. It examines how all the actors in the system collectively influence our understanding of crime.
6. Critical criminology is similar to Marxist theory in the belief that crime and delinquency are defined
by those who have the power in society. The law and criminal justice system are then used to keep the
powerless under control. After this has been acknowledged, critical criminology works to find ways to
empower the powerless.

I. FEMINIST THEORIES
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO FEMINIST THEORIES
FEMINIST THEORY - This theory attempts to define criminology and criminal justice based
upon the experiences, understanding, and view of the world as perceived by women. It tries to counter

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 27 OF 38

most theories of criminology that have been developed, tested, and applied by men to men, which have
only incorporated women as an afterthought.

MASCULINITIES - A trait shared by all men, but one that changes and evolves depending
upon the race, economic status, and sexual orientation of any particular man. Crime may be viewed as
an attempt to claim, re-claim, or prove the very qualities that make one a man.
MASCULINITY THESIS - The view that as women become more equal in society with men,
their crime rates will increase.

1. EGALITARIAN FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. A family in which the mother
and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share power and control in the family.
2. PATRIARCHAL FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. In a patriarchal family, the
father is typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the family. Mothers are more likely
to supervise daughters more closely than sons and encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in daughters.
3. POWER-CONTROL THEORY - A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian
families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more likely than daughters to be delinquent
because sons receive less supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of
sons and daughters becomes more similar.
4. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION HYPOTHESIS - The belief that economic pressures put on
women to support themselves and their dependent children, along with the stepping back of men from
their roles of financial support of women and children has pushed women into criminal activity for
economic gain.
5. LIBERATION HYPOTHESIS - This view states that as men and women become more equal in
society in terms of family, politics, and education, their crime rates will begin to equalize as well.
6. OPPORTUNITY HYPOTHESIS - The view that as women increase their numbers in corporate
America, their rates of white collar and corporate crime will increase along with this increased
opportunity.
7. PATERNALISM - This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep women and girls in a
subservient position in society. While women and girls may be treated less severely as indicated under
the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them from
achieving equality with men.
8. SELECTIVITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie lenient
sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle class, privileged women.
9. TYPICALITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie lenient
sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes consistent with the stereotypical view
of women, and to women who can still be viewed as “feminine”
10. CHIVALRY HYPOTHESIS - The view that male police officers, prosecutors, and judges tend to
have traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the officials are more lenient on the females for
committing criminal acts than on their male counterparts.

KEY CONCEPTS OF FEMINIST THEORIES IN RELATION TO THE EXPLANATION OF

THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. While there is no one feminist theory, all variations focus on patriarchy and the role it plays in
society.
2. According to feminist theory, women can be treated less severely than men for committing a crime or
more severely than men in an attempt to keep them subservient to men. Feminist theory focuses on the
patriarchal system as the root division in society between the dominant and subordinate groups.
3. Feminist theory questions whether or not theories of crime developed by men and for men adequately
explain female crime. In addition, they seek to understand why men traditionally commit so many more
crimes than women.
4. Power-control theorists contend that traditional families encourage male delinquency, while they
inhibit female delinquency. In addition, many feminist scholars contend that as females achieve more
power and equality in society, female crime rates will rise.
5. In order to correct the inequities facing women, feminist theorists contend that major societal changes
must occur. In addition, many feminist theorists believe that when dealing with female offenders,
prevention and treatment are preferable to punishment.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 28 OF 38

6. Gendered Pathways and Gendered Contexts have offered news ways to examine feminist theories and
beliefs, while at the same time remaining connected to broader criminological concepts. Gendered
pathways focus on the courses women and girls have taken which led to criminal activity, while
gendered contexts examine how the opportunities, contexts, and meanings of criminal activity may vary
among the genders.

J. INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
THEORETICAL INTEGRATION - This occurs when two or more theories are combined in
such a manner so as to make the new theory explain criminal activity in a more comprehensive manner.
It can also be used to combine two competing theories which, upon reflection, were not as incompatible
as once thought.

THEORETICAL ELABORATION - A term coined by Thornberry in which he states that one begins
with a particular theory and extends it as far as one can.
THEORY COMPETITION - Logical, conceptual, or empirical comparison of two or more theories to
determine which offers the better or best explanation.

1. CONCEPTUAL ABSORPTION - Concepts from one theory are subsumed as special cases of the
phenomena defined by the concepts of another theory.
2. CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION - Concepts from one theory are shown to overlap in meaning
with concepts from another theory.
3. CONTROL BALANCE THEORY - The ratio of how much the individual is liable to control to
how much he or she is able to control. It operates in the context of four main variables: predisposition,
provocation, opportunity, and constraint.
4. LIFE-COURSE THEORIES - These theories attempt to explain better the stability and changes in
criminal and deviant behavior through time and at different life stages.
5. NETWORK ANALYSIS - An explanation of delinquency that draws on social learning and social
bond theories. It connects the structural characteristics of social networks and interactional processes.
6. PROPOSITIONAL INTEGRATION - This explains how two or more theories make the same
predictions about crime or make propositions that can be put together, even though each may begin with
different concepts and assumptions.
7. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY - A theory in which delinquency and drug use are explained
through the use of social learning theory, control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory. In this
perspective, delinquency is viewed as the result of the weakening of one’s self-esteem.
8. SOCIAL SUPPORT - Social integration in a group relationship in which emotional, material, and
social assistance is provided to each group member.

KEY CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES IN CONNECTION

TO THE CAUSES OF CRIMES
1. Theoretical integration is the process of combining similar theories. The goal is to produce a theory
that is superior to any theory individually. It also recognizes the fact that new theories are not created in
isolation; and that they are created with the knowledge gained from earlier theoretical exercises.
2. Theoretical integration has had minimal success. While theories may be recognized for a while as
integrative, over time they tend to be cited and tested as separate theories.
3. There are different types of theoretical integration such as conceptual and propositional integration.
4. Social learning theory, in one way or another, is a main component of integrative models in
criminology, along with social bonding and strain theories.
5. Theoretical development takes place through explicating, testing, and modifying a single theory;
through competition of rival theories; and through theoretical integration.

THEORIES OF CRIME: CLASSICAL, BIOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL, INTERACTIONIST

There are FOUR (4) BASIC THEORIES of crime and knowing and understanding each one is
imperative for one to succeed in any legal profession. Whether one desires to become a lawyer, crime
scene investigator, law enforcement officer, they will need to understand the different theories of crime.
Understanding these theories will help with dispute resolution, crime identification, and justice for all.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 29 OF 38

THEORY OF CHARACTERISTICS OR SOLUTIONS TO CRIME
CRIME BELIEFS OF THEORY
CLASSICAL  Crime is caused by the  Punishment is a necessary evil
THEORY individuals free will sometimes intended to deter criminals
 Human beings are rational and and serve as an example to those who
make decisions freely and with would violate the law
understanding of consequences  Crime prevention is possible through
 Crime is an immoral form of swift and certain punishment that
human behavior counters possible gains from criminal
 Such behavior weakens society behavior
 Punishment is a necessary evil More prisons and stiffer criminal laws with
sometimes intended to deter greater penalties for offenders are the best
criminals and serve as an solutions to crime
example to those who would
violate the law
 Crime prevention is possible
through swift and certain
punishment that counters
possible gains from criminal
behavior
 More prisons and stiffer criminal
laws with greater penalties for
offenders are the best solutions to
crime
BIOLOGICAL  The basic determinants of human  Historically, individuals with genetic
THEORY behavior are to a considerable defects have been sterilized (meaning
degree, determined by genetics there will be no offspring)
 These basic determinants of  Research to find genes that encourage
human behavior may be passed criminal behavior
from one generation to the next  Research into medicines (tranquilizers,
 Human DNA, environmental anti-psychotic drugs and other mood-
contaminants, nutrition, altering drugs to control behavior)
hormones, trauma to the brain,
exposure to drugs and alcohol
during pregnancy and body
chemistry can all contribute to
criminal behavior.
SOCIOLOGIC  Social Environment as the cause  Positive alternatives divert people’s
AL THEORY of criminal behavior actions away from criminal activity and
 Weak, broken bonds with family, create a sense of belonging, competence,
school, religion as catalyst to and empowerment
human behavior  Social programs that change the cultural
 People engage in criminal and social conditions that lead people to
behavior because they do not see crime
the benefits of adhering to Government programs with funding to
conventional social values and alleviate poverty
believe that crime is a way to
improve their social, financial
conditions
 Positive alternatives divert
people’s actions away from
criminal activity and create a
sense of belonging, competence,
and empowerment
 Social programs that change the
cultural and social conditions that
lead people to crime
 Government programs with
funding to alleviate poverty
INTERACTIO  Association with other criminals  Offenders have the responsibility and
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 30 OF 38
NIST is the factor most contributing to ability to change their own behaviors
THEORY criminal behavior among Opportunities for positive interaction with
individuals. society will enable the criminal to choose
 Failure of self-direction and productive and lawful behaviors to meet
inadequate social roles are the needs
root causes of behavior
 Individuals are looking for
acceptance, social standing and
power within that group
 Offenders have the responsibility
and ability to change their own
behaviors
 Opportunities for positive
interaction with society will
enable the criminal to choose
productive and lawful behaviors
to meet needs

THREE (3) THEORIES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Historically, there are THREE (3) broad theoretical models of criminal behavior:
A) PSYCHOLOGICAL
B) SOCIOLOGICAL
C) BIOLOGICAL
All infer different methods of control, but it is difficult to completely separate the three
categories as it is generally accepted that all three of the factors play a role in the expression of behavior.
Moreover, psychological science consists of several disciplines including biological psychology and
social psychology, so psychological principles could be applied across all three domains.
However, there are some general principles associated with each of these paradigms that would be
associated with some specific crime control policies. This results in admittedly narrow definition for
each of the categories, but it does simplify the discussion herein.
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES
There a many different psychological models of criminal behavior ranging from early Freudian
notions to later cognitive and social psychological models. I cannot review them all here. Instead, I will
list the several fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of criminality (and human behavior
in general). THESE ARE:
1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.
2. Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior within individuals.
3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.
4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental processes within the
personality of the individual.
5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses certain felt needs.
6. Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes, i.e., a diseased mind,
inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, the emulation of inappropriate role models, and
adjustment to inner conflicts. (Mischel, 1968.)
The last assumption of the psychological model would suggest that a variety of different causes
or reasons exist for criminal behavior and that general principles targeted at the individual would be
effective for crime control. However, the model also assumes that there is a subset of a psychological
criminal type, defined currently as antisocial personality disorder in the DSM-IV and previously defined
as the sociopath or psychopath (APA, 2002). This type of criminal exhibits deviant behavior early in life
and is associated with self-centeredness, a lack of empathy, and a tendency to see others as tools for
their ends. Controls for these individuals would be more extreme and general public policies may not be
stringent enough to curb the behavior in this small subset of criminals.
Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal behavior, we can
suggest first that traditional imprisonment, fines, and other court sanctions are based on operant learning
models of behavior for crime control. Operant learning models are based on the utilitarian concepts that
all people wish to maximize pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort. Skinnerian based social
psychological theories of reinforcement and punishment are influential in this model of criminal control
although the idea of punishment for crime has a much longer history (Jeffery, 1990). Technically
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 31 OF 38
speaking, punishments are any sanctions designed to decrease a specific behavior; thus, fines, jail
sentences, etc., are all forms of punishment. However, Skinner himself recognized that punishment was
generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement worked better (e.g., Skinner,
1966).
A caveat should be applied here: Punishment is effective if applied properly, but unfortunately it
rarely is applied properly. Punishment needs to be immediate (or as close to the time the offense as
possible), inescapable, and sufficiently unpleasant (in fact, the more it is subjectively perceived as harsh,
the better). Given the judicial system in the U.S., it would be hard to apply punishment to its maximal
effectiveness, thus it is not an effective deterrent, as reflected in the stable homicide rates of states that
carry the death penalty. Nonetheless, punishments and sanctions for criminal behavior are based on
behavioral psychological principles.
Because harsh forms of punishment do not appear to significantly decrease recidivism rates,
other psychological principles have been applied. In terms of cognitive behavioral psychological
principles, rehabilitation and relearning, retraining, or educational programs for offenders are forms of
psychologically based methods to control crime. These methods are based on the cognitive behavioral
methods of teaching an alternative functional response in place of a formally dysfunctional one as
opposed to simple punishment. These programs can take place in prisons or outside of the prison and
have long been demonstrated to be successful (e.g., Mathias, 1995). So, any form of retraining,
reeducation, or reentry guidance is based on psychological principles of criminality and reform.
However, rehabilitation programs are often rarely implemented in jail or prison. Many of these programs
appear to be especially beneficial for drug and alcohol offenders. Likewise, any form education such as
the DARE program and recent efforts to curb bullying in schools are based on these methods. In line
with this, changing the environment of the offender such as providing more opportunities would be a
psychological behavioral principle designed to cut crime.
In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at maintaining a visible presence of
law enforcement and methods to maintain self-awareness in tempting situations. Such methods are
preventative. For instance, it has been a well-known social psychological principle that situations that
diminish self-consciousness and self-awareness lead individuals to being less restrained, less self-
regulated, and more likely to act without considering the consequences of their actions (e.g., Diener,
1979). The simple act of placing mirrors in stores can increase self-awareness and decrease shoplifting.
Likewise, the presence of visible law enforcement can cut down on crime. Making sanctions and the
consequences for crime well-publicized and available to the public is another psychological method to
control crime in this vein.
Various forms of criminal profiling are based heavily on psychological principles and represent
an effort to either apprehend existing criminals or to identify persons at risk for certain behavior
(Holmes & Holmes, 2008). More recently there have been efforts to develop methods to identify
individuals at risk for certain forms of deviant behavior including criminal activities based on
personality and social variables. These psychological variables can be identified in the school or at the
home at an early age and include such disorders as learning disabilities, ADHD, depression, and others.
Since many individuals with these problems often go on to demonstrate criminal behavior or have legal
problems later efforts to identify and treat these issues are forms of psychological crime control policies
(APA, 2002).
Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological principles target the individual
and attempt to reform or prevent criminal behavior from that perspective. Any policies requiring
therapeutic intervention, retraining, or education is psychological in nature. Any policy designed at
preventing crime by targeting individuals such as raising consciousness, promoting self-awareness, or
identifying individuals at risk are also psychological. Likewise, psychologists have long recognized that
the best predictor of future behavior is the individual’s past behavior (Mischel, 1968). So, policies that
are specifically designed to deal with repeat offenders are also based on psychological principles of
criminality.
B. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined and technically not
independent. As with psychological theories, there are numerous sociological formulations of the cause
and control of criminality. We will define sociological notions of CRIMINALITY AS:
A. Attempting to connect the issues of the individual’s criminality with the broader social structures and
cultural values of society, familial, or peer group.
B. How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to criminality.
C. The ways these structures cultures and contradictions have historically developed.
D. The current processes of change that these groups are undergoing.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 32 OF 38

E. Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of criminality and its social
causes.
Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes were a result of anomie, a term meaning
“normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social norms, a lack of being connected to society. The term was
made popular by Émile Durkheim (1897) who originally used the term to explain suicide. Later
sociologists used the term to describe the dissociation of the individual from the collective conscience or
the criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations or by the learning of criminal
values and behaviors. Therefore, criminality results from the failure to properly socialize individuals and
by unequal opportunities between groups. Durkheim believed that crime was an inescapable fact of
society and advocated maintaining crime within reasonable boundaries.
A feature of sociological theories is that society “constructs” criminality. Thus, certain types of
human activity are harmful and are judged so by society as a whole. But it is also true that there are
other behaviors recognized by society as “criminal” that do not result in harm to others and are therefore
criminalized without sufficient ground, these are the so-called “victimless” crimes. These include drug
use, prostitution, etc. Therefore, according to this view (if carried to its extreme), 100% of the members
of a society are lawbreakers at some point. One of the sociological policy methods of crime control
would be to advocate for decriminalization of these victimless crimes or at least a vast reduction in their
penalties (Schur, 1965).
An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate opportunities for advancement
and obtainment of goods and wealth in areas where these do not exist. Sociological controls targeted at
this goal could originate in higher State and Federal levels of government as well as local levels of
government and would include programs designed to guarantee equal opportunities to all individuals.
Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens, job training, educational funding, urban renewal
projects and so forth would be in line with sociological policies to control crime (Merton, 1968). Other
related sociological controls for crime would consist of organizing and empowering neighborhood
residents with projects like neighborhood crime watches, providing law-abiding role models for children
in schools and in other venues, providing parental support for working parents, and establishing
community centers in downtrodden areas to allow people to learn and engage in positive activities.
Social programs aimed at socializing children properly and providing support for single family homes
are also examples of sociological methods to control crime. There are a number of these programs
including career academies (small learning communities in low-income high schools, offering academic
and career/technical courses as well as workplace opportunities).
Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger and harsher penalties for
serious crimes such as murder, rape, are more effective law enforcement. Again, sociologists accept the
realities that crime is a social phenomenon that will not disappear no matter how many interventions are
enacted to control it. Sociologists note that of every 100 felonies committed within the United States,
only one is sent to prison. A vast number are unreported and of those that are reported only a small
portion goes to trial. If a justice system is to work properly it must be able to rely on its law enforcement
system and judicial system to bring to justice and prosecute serious offenders. The purposes of
imprisonment include punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence, and selective confinement. All of these
should be utilized where appropriate for the individual (Hester & Eglin, 1992).
C. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior is the result of some
flaw in the biological makeup of the individual. THIS PHYSICAL FLAW COULD BE DUE TO...
1. Heredity
2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction
3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper development, or trauma
(Raine, 2002)
Biological theorists would also endorse stricter penalties and better law enforcement techniques
for crime control, but there are several methods of crime control that are specific to the biological
theories of criminality. I will discuss these briefly here.
PSYCHOSURGERY - Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to criminal behavior.
Certainly, much more common between the 1930’s to the late 1970’s there were over 40,000 frontal
lobotomies performed. Lobotomies were used to treat a wide range of problems from depression, to
schizophrenia. However, while widely discussed as a potential treatment for criminal behavior a perusal
of the literature could not find a court ordered case for a lobotomy as a sentence for a convicted criminal
Lobotomies were also used for people who were considered an annoyance because the demonstrated
behaviors characterized as moody or they were children who were defiant with authority figures such as
teachers. The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain either
surgically or in the case of the transorbital lobotomy with a sharp icepick like instrument that was
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 33 OF 38
inserted in the eye socket between the upper eyelid and the eye. In this method the patient was not
anesthetized, not even children. The psychiatrists hit the end of the instrument with a hammer to
disconnect the nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain. Afterwards behaviors were changed, but at a high
price as you can imagine. Today the lobotomy has fallen out of favor due medications used to control
behavior, although some view the use of medications as equivalent to a lobotomy (e.g., see Breggin,
2008). Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not be put into use due to the stigma
associated with it.
CHEMICAL METHODS OF CONTROL - The use of pharmacological treatments to try to control
crime has been ongoing in two major areas: chemical castration for sex offenders and pharmacological
interventions for drug or alcohol addicts. However, addicts can stop the medication and return to use.
Sex offenders are closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.
Sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been ordered to take medications to treat
their mental illness. Other pharmacological interventions to control crime seem plausible and are being
investigated, but do not appear to have been widely used.
OTHERS - Deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, but has yet
been investigated for criminal behavior. Biological theorists have advocated changes in diet to deal with
criminality (Burton, 2002) and better relations between parents. There is also the famous genetic XYY
combination that was once thought to be a marker for a criminal type, but as it turned out these
individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have learning difficulties as opposed to
being criminal types. While there are many studies indicating a connection between antisocial
personality disorder or criminal behavioral and heredity, there are no policies being implemented to
advocate for selective breeding, genetic testing etc. for criminals. I do not yet envision a policy of
genetic testing for criminals as the variables are not stable enough in order to predict with set of gene
combinations are predictive of a biological criminal type (Rutter, 2006) although this is certainly a
possibility.
If the biological model of criminality has any significant effect on policy outside the use of
chemical castration for sex offenders, it would be the policy that certain forms of criminal behavior or
certain individuals may not be rehabilitated and the advocacy for harsher and stricter imprisonments or
even executions are viable methods of control in these instances. The issue for the community is how to
recognize a significant biological contribution to criminal behavior since genetic testing is unreliable
and there are no other physical markers of criminality. It seems that currently in the absence of very
harsh crimes like murder and rape one must be recognized as a repeat offender before we can
acknowledge a possible innate tendency towards criminality. By that time the damage, which is often
irreparable, is done. Perhaps the answer lies in stricter probation and parole practices for first-time
offenders. However, this policy is expensive and tax payers may not support it. The policy mandating
convicted sex offenders to be monitored over their lifetime and certain restrictions placed on them is a
result of the acknowledgment of a biological predisposition to engage in this crime and therefore
traditional forms of treatment or remediation do not appear to be effective. Similar policies might follow
with habitual criminal offenders based on the biological theories of criminality.
SOME THEORIES TO THE CAUSATION OF CRIME
OPPORTUNITY THEORY
Like COHEN, CLOWARD AND OHLIN was former students of MERTON AND
SUTHERLAND, respectively, and thus incorporated and expanded on both differential association
theory and strain theory. CLOWARD AND OHLIN (1960) built on the work of Merton and Cohen by
advancing the idea that youths in slum areas lacked the legitimate means and opportunities to be
successful and acquire status. They also expanded on Sutherland’s work on cultural transmission and
concluded that criminal behavior depended upon access to requisite illegitimate means. However, unlike
Cohen who stated that delinquent subcultures take on values that are oppositional to those of the main
culture, Cloward and Ohlin suggested that lower-class delinquents are proactive and goal-oriented by
seizing available opportunities even though most of them are illegitimate. According to Cloward and
Ohlin’s (1960) opportunity theory, delinquent subcultures emerge and persist in lower-class areas where
there are enough youths to band together and support one another against their remoteness and
estrangement from conventional values, in pursuit of illegitimate opportunities that exceed the number
of legitimate opportunities for success. As illegitimate opportunities for success are distributed through
society as unevenly as the legitimate opportunities for success, the types of delinquent subcultures are
determined by the type of neighborhood and illegitimate opportunities available (Shoemaker, 1996).
Shoemaker states that neighborhoods that are stable and share conventional and unconventional systems
are marked by criminal/theft gangs; neighborhoods characterized by transience, instability, and an
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 34 OF 38
absence of criminal organizations are marked by conflict/violent gangs; and neighborhoods that could be
either type but wherein members have not been successful in both the legitimate and illegitimate worlds
are marked by retreatist/drug-user gangs.

DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE COURSE THEORIES

Developmental life course theories are concerned with the development of offending and
antisocial behavior, risk factors at different ages, and the Sociological Theories of Crime and
Delinquency effects of life events on the course of development (Adler et al., 2001). As opposed to the
crime paradigms detailed earlier, developmental life course theories are especially concerned with
understanding individual changes in criminal behavior throughout the life span, especially the ways in
which risk factors and life events interact with one another to influence the onset, continuation, and
desistance of crime (Farrington, 2002). There are at least five prevailing developmental life course
theories: integrated cognitive antisocial potential theory (Farrington, 2002); social development model
(Hawkins, 1996); two qualitatively distinct categories of antisocial people (life course persistent and
adolescence-limited offenders; Moffitt, 1993); integrative control theory (LeBlanc, 1997); and
interactional theory (Thornberry & Krohns, 2001). Although each theory varies in relationship to
personal, environmental, and social constructs.

SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS REGARDING LAW AND CRIME

1. Every society is based on the coercion of some of its members by others.
2. Law is a function of political power. It is used by the more powerful to maintain control over the less
powerful. The more threatened a ruling group feels, the more rigorously it tends to enforce the law.
3. Laws are the codification of ruling class interests. Laws become legitimate simply because the ruling
class has the power to enforce them and the ability to create the ideology by which they are made to
appear justified.
4. The police, the courts and the correctional systems are all instruments utilized by the ruling class to
insure adherence to their laws.
5. People who are socio-economically close to the power group tend to develop normative behavioral
systems that are similar to members of the power group. The further away a person is from the power
group, the more likely they will possess different normative behavioral systems and the greater the
likelihood that those different behaviors will be defined as criminal.
6. Crime is not an inherent quality of any act. All behavior patterns in fact have the potential to be
defined as criminal. Criminality is merely a label given to certain behaviors by the ruling authorities.
7. The ability to confer criminal status is a privilege enjoyed by the powerful classes, to the broad
detriment of the less powerful. Generally, criminal behavior is merely behavior that threatens the
interests of the powerful.
8. Law and definitions of crime may be modified from time to time, but never to the extent that existing
political and economic relationships are jeopardized. As a rule, law changes are a reflection of changes
in the needs and interests of the powerful.
9. The freedoms that laws confer grant a great deal more freedom to some groups than to others. The
freedoms allegedly protected by law, are only protected for those who can afford it. In the end, legal
efficacy reigns supreme, not the law.
10. Rather than being an independent arbitrator of conflict, the state is in fact the prize for which
different groups compete in order to gain control.

RADICAL CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

1. Capitalism is the root of all crime and needs to be abandoned as an economic system.
2. Restructure society, moving toward a classless, utopian, socialistic state.
3. The restructuring may require a revolution.
4. Tear down the prisons.
5. Abolish police forces.
6. Adopt a non-interventionist strategy
RADICAL CRIMINOLOGY PROBLEMS
1. Ignores Durkheim (after the revolution there will still be deviance, just new definitions)
2. There is a value to deviance

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 35 OF 38

 3. High cost of the revolution, and it would ironically be borne by the very people it is supposed
to help.
4. Capitalism is the root of much crime, but not the root of all crime.
5. Give no insight into how deviances arise initially.

A. ACCESS TO SERVICES/CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL

NETWORKS
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
A. Substitute home care
B. Creating Women Friendly Environments in Hospitals
C. A feminist’s approach to counselling

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION
1. Provides support systems, including a service and referral center, to help survivors deal with their
physical trauma (BCCF)
2. Provides a supportive and affirming environment (WCC)
3. Provides psycho-social support and referrals to female survivors of domestic and intimate-relationship
violence (and their children), and spreads awareness about the realities and prevalence of domestic and
intimate-relationship violence (save our women)

A. RAPE CASES
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL
RAPE CRISIS CENTER
1. Psychological counseling, medical and health services, including their medico-legal examination
2. Secure free legal assistance or service
3. Assist in evidence gathering and, in the investigation, to hasten the arrest of offenders and filing of
cases in court
4. Ensure the privacy and safety of victims
5. Provide psychological counseling and medical services whenever necessary for the family of victims
6. Adopt and implement programs that are survivor
7. Assist the government in raising public awareness
8. Develop a referral system

ACCESS TO SERVICES
1. Call your Local Police
2. Don’t be afraid to tell exactly the incident happened
3. Trust the agency whom you reported the incident.
4. Approach the right person or agencies to avoid further harm

B. CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

A. POLICE OFFICER:
1. Refer the case to the women’s desk of the precinct, or any other concerned agency such as local
DSWD, DOJ, and NGO handling the cases;
2. Refer the case to a prosecutor for inquest, if the accused is detained of for preliminary investigation, if
the accused is at large;
3. Provide security to the survivors of rape, witnesses and service providers; and
4. Ensure that the evidence gathered on the case are safeguarded.

B. PROSECUTOR
1. Conduct the inquest or preliminary investigation
2. Present during trial, the admission of evidence of the victim’s past sexual conduct, opinion thereof, or
reputation;
3. Ensure that the inquest of preliminary investigation and trial shall be conducted in a language or
dialect that is known or familiar to the victim;
4. Exert utmost efforts to prevent delay in the preliminary investigation and trial of the rape case; and
5. Not to divulge to the public the name, address and any other information or circumstances tending to
establish the identity of the victim. Moreover, the public shall be barred during the conduct of the
inquest or preliminary investigation if it will serve the best interests of the victim
C. COURT
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 36 OF 38
1. Ensure the efficiency of legal services supporting the free legal assistance to victims of rape.
2. All hearings in rape cases shall be made confidential and shall not be open to the public unless
ordered by the court.

D. CORRECTIONS
1. Restoring a good behavior on the offender to prevent him from re-victimizing the offended party or
other people around him.

E. COMMUNITY
1. Concerned agencies especially members of the Rape crisis Center should be responsible enough in
helping the victim. The physician who is in charge of medical treatment or examination of the victim
should treat her with due care and confidentiality. She should appear and testify in court as an expert
witness on the case.
2. DSWD should adhere on its role in ensuring social reintegration of rape survivors in their family and
community. Network with the five pillars of the justice system to link the survivors to appropriate
resources in response to identified needs.
3. NGOs should help in advocating community-based programs supporting for victims of rape and their
families; as well as to the elimination of all forms of violence against women and children.

B. VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT-PROS AND CONS

WHAT IS A VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT?
This is a victim’s written statement which is submitted to the United States Attorney’s Office
and forwarded to Probation who then submits it to the Judge to review before sentencing the defendant.
It personalizes to the Judge the emotional, physical, and financial impact you and others have suffered as
a direct result of this crime. Since some victims are uncomfortable with completing a formal statement
for review, the Judge will also consider a personal letter. Victim Impact Statements may be seen by the
defendant and the defense attorney.

PRO’S - ADVANTAGES
FOR YOURSELF:
- The Victim Impact Statement provides you with an opportunity to describe how you have been
affected by the crime. It can be a powerful “part of the healing process” for the victim.

FOR THE COURT:

If a charge is laid and the accused person is found guilty, your Victim Impact Statement will be
considered by the Judge at the time of sentencing. Your Victim Impact Statement will help the Court
understand how the crime has affected you emotionally and physically, and the effect the crime has had
on your life.
Helpful to the judge when he or she decides what sentence the defendant should receive. Although the
Judge will decide the defendant’s sentence based upon the presentence report and certain sentencing
guidelines, the Judge may consider your opinion before making a decision.
Finally, it includes a financial loss statement which is used to verify and assess the financial
impact of the crime upon you. This information is used by the Judge to determine any money the
defendant may have to pay you for expenses you have paid or owe because of this crime.

CON’s – DISADVANTAGES
1. The judge has the discretion to deny this request and to edit the statement if there are concerns about
its length or content.
2. No professional or universal guidelines exist on how judges should handle victim impact statements;
although victim-witness advocates have developed their own recommendations for victims on how to
prepare an impact statement and a good many websites exist that offer a template for impact statements.
3. Judges often find themselves in the dual position of respecting the idea of the victim impact statement
while also understanding that their sentence will be based perhaps more so on plea agreements and
sentencing guidelines than on victim input.

CONCLUSION
We have a lot of Victim Assistance Center both in Government and Non-Government
Organization; however, victims failed to avail their services due to lack of information about it and
inaccessibility of their location. Criminal case may prosper even without the appearance of victim in
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 37 OF 38
court and CJS often focused their attention to the offenders prompting them not to give much attention
to victims.

RECOMMENDATION
1. Police Officers who received the Victim’s complaint should always inform them about the agencies
that could assist them.
2. Victim Impact Statement may be effective in our CJS if we are going to adopt it in criminal
proceedings particularly for crimes of Domestic Violence.

RELATED LAWS:
PD. 765 - In August 1975 was enacted allowing the integration of Police, Jail and Fire into Integrated
National Police.
Republic Act 6975 known the DILG act of 1990, paved the way of the establishment of PNP, BJMP,
and BFP as separate entities.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9263 - ON MARCH 2004, amending certain provisions of Republic act no.
6975(DILG) Act of 1990 was enacted to provide for the professionalism and restructuring of the Bureau
of fire Protection (BFP), upgrading the level of qualification, making it a part of the PNP and AFP. The
impending attrition of some BFP uniform personnel for failure to comply with the upgrading
qualification standard was prevented with the passage of Republic act 9592 in 2009, an act extending for
five (5) years the reglementary period for complying with the minimum educational qualification and
appropriate eligibility in the Bureau of Fire Protection.

REPUBLIC ACT NUMBER 8551 OR THE PNP REFORM AND REORGANIZATION ACT OF
1998, FEBRUARY 25, 1998, UNDER PRESIDENT FIDEL V. RAMOS – Amended some provisions
of R.A. 6975 which reorganized the PNP for the purpose of reforming and professionalizing it.
RANK CLASSIFICATION - For purposes of efficient administration, supervision and control, the
rank classification of the members of PNP shall be as follows: Under R.A Number 8551

PNP RANKS AFP RANKS

Director General General (4 star)
Deputy Director General Lt. General (3-star)
Director Major General (2-star)
Chief Superintendent Brig, General (1star)
Senior Superintendent Colonel
Superintendent Lt. Colonel
Chief Inspector Major
Senior Inspector Captain
Inspector Lieutenant
Senior Police Officer IV Master Sergeant
Senior Police Officer III Technical Sergeant
Senior Police Officer II Staff Sergeant
Senior Police Officer I Sergeant
Police Officer III Corporal
Police Officer II Private First Class
Police Officer I Private

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11200 – An act providing for the Rank classification in the Philippine National
Police (PNP), amending for the purpose section 28 of Republic Act No. 6975, as amended, otherwise
known as the “Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990”. Approved:
February 08, 2019
SECTION 1. SECTION 28 OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 697 - Otherwise known as the “Department of
the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990”, is hereby amended to read as FOLLOWS:
SECTION 28. RANK CLASSIFICATION – For purpose of clarity of command and responsibility,
and for the effective and efficient administration, supervision, and control, the rank classification of the
uniformed personnel of the PNP shall be AS FOLLOWS:

NEW RANK CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE NATIONAL

POLICE (PNP) UNDER RA NO. 11200 SEC. 28 OF RA NO. 6975 -
8551
RA NO. 6975 AND 8551 RA NO. 11200
Director General POLICE GENERAL
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 38 OF 38
Deputy Director General POLICE LIEUTENANT GENERAL
Director POLICE MAJOR GENERAL
Chief Superintendent POLICE BRIGADIER GENERAL
Senior Superintendent POLICE COLONEL
Superintendent POLICE LIEUTENANT COLONEL
Chief Inspector POLICE MAJOR
Senior Inspector POLICE CAPTAIN
Inspector POLICE LIEUTENANT
Senior Police Officer IV POLICE EXECUTIVE MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer III POLICE CHIEF MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer II POLICE SENIOR MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer I POLICE MASTER SERGEANT
Police Officer III POLICE STAFF SERGEANT
Police Officer II POLICE CORPORAL
Police Officer I PATROLMAN/PATROLWOMAN
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11131 - An act regulating the practice of criminology profession in the
Philippines, and appropriating funds therefor, repealing for the purpose republic act no. 6506, otherwise
known as “an act creating the board of examiners for criminologists in the Philippines”. Approved:
November 08, 2018.

SECTION 1. TITLE. – This Act shall be known as “THE PHILIPPINE CRIMINOLOGY

PROFESSION ACT OF 2018”.

PRIVILEGES OF A REGISTERED CRIMINOLOGIST

RA NO. 11131 SECTION 34 – All registered criminologist shall be exempt from taking any other
entrance or qualifying Government or civil examinations and shall be considered civil service eligible to
the FOLLOWING GOVERNMENT POSITIONS:
1. Dactylographer 14. Traffic Operation Officer
2. Ballisticians 15. Associate Graft Investigation Officer
3. Questioned Document Examiner 16. Special Police Officer
4. Forensic Photographer 17. Safekeeping Officer
5. Polygraph Examiner 18. Sheriff
6. Probation Officer 19. Security Officer
7. Parole Officer 20. Criminal Investigator
8. Special Investigator 21. Warden
9. Special Agent 22. Reformation Officer
10. Investigative Agent 23. Fire Fighter
11. Intelligence Agent 24. Fire Marshall
12. Law Enforcement Evaluation Officer 25. Jail Officer up to the rank of Jail Superintendent
13. NAPOLCOM Inspector 26. Police Officer up to the rank of Police Superintendent
and other law enforcement agencies and agencies under the
Criminal Justice System.

RA NO. 11131, ARTICLE V (5), SECTION 35 – Registered Criminologist shall enjoy the priority of
appointment and not shall be required to take any qualifying or entrance examinations in the Armed
Forces of the Philippines.

**********************Glossary 01*****************************

1. CRIME - It is an act or omission in violation of a public law commanding or prohibiting it.

2. CRIMINALITY - A continuously distributed trait composed of a combination of other continuously
distributed traits that signals the willingness to use force, fraud, or guile to deprive others of their lives,
limbs, or property for personal gain.
3. CRIMINOLOGY - An interdisciplinary science that gathers and analyzes data on crime and criminal
behavior.
4. HYPOTHESES - Statements about relationships between and among factors we expect to find based
on the logic of our theories.

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 39 OF 38

5. IDEOLOGY - A way of looking at the world; a general emotional picture of “how things should be”
that forms, shapes, and colors our concepts of the phenomena we study.
6. LEVEL OF ANALYSIS - That segment of the phenomenon of interest that is measured and
analyzed, i.e., individuals, families, neighborhoods, states, etc.
7. POLICY - A course of action designed to solve some problem that has been selected from among
alternative courses of action.
8. THEORY - A set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how phenomena are related and
from which a number of hypotheses can be derived and tested.
9. UNCONSTRAINED VISION - One of the two so-called ideological visions of the world. The
unconstrained vision denies an innate human nature, viewing it as formed anew in each different culture.
10. FELONY – acts or omissions punishable by Revised Penal Code.
11. OFFENSE – acts or omissions punishable by special laws.
12. MISDEAMENOR/ INFRACTION – acts or omission in violation of city or municipal ordinances.
13. CRIMES MALA INSE – are acts that are bad in themselves, forbidden behaviors for which there is
wide scale consensus in the mores for prohibition (ex. To steal, to kill, to rape). Universally condemned
crimes that are “inherently bad.”
14. CRIMES MALA PROHIBITA – are acts that are bad or punishable because they have been
prohibited by law. Acts that are viewed as inherently bad in themselves but are violations because the
law defines them such. (Ex. Traffic laws, carrying of firearms). Crimes those are “bad” simply because
they are prohibited.
15. DEVIANT BEHAVIOR – refers to a behavior which is outside the range of normal societal
toleration.
16. BEHAVIOR – the way a person behaves or acts or conducts.
17. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a theory, and means that
the theory has been supported by research evidence.
18. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure sense, an ideology
states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains how things actually are.
19. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a logical manner
and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not contradict one another. Restated, does
the theory make logical and consistent sense?
20. MACRO THEORIES- Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime—
crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there are variations in group
rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
21. MICRO THEORIES - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders or
on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more likely than others to
commit crime. Other authors have used the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
22. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to produce effect Y. If X is not
present, Y will not occur.
23. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are involved. How
simple is the theory?
24. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are suggested.
25. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the social sciences. X is more or
less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
26. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the appearance of X cause
effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X would always cause the effect Y each and every
time the relationship is seen.
27. SCOPE - Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the theory covers.
28. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused, determined, or
predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological forces but that these interact with
exercise of choice and will by individuals. Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is
difficult.
28. SUFFICIENT CONDITION - Each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.
29. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people to commit crime,
and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 40 OF 38

the theory to the scientific process. In this case, you would find that greed has been defined as someone
who commits criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
30. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be subjected to
scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are tautological, propose causes that are not
measurable, or are so open-ended that empirical findings can always be reinterpreted to support the
theory.
31. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
32. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this category attempt to
explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.
33. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category attempt to explain
how laws are made, and how the criminal justice system operates as a whole.
34. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real-world applications that the theory proposes or suggests, and
the ability to implement those applications.
35. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has been prevented simply
due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an individual could be legally punished for
committing a criminal act.
36. ACUTE CONFORMISTS - One of three types of individuals coined by POGARSKY. These
individuals comply with the law because it is the right thing to do.
37. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a military model of
discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a deterrent effect on young offenders, but
they have generally failed to yield long-term reductions in recidivism.
38. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how quickly an individual
is punished after committing a crime.
39. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an
individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she has committed. Certainty is the most
important of the three elements.
40. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian notions of free will
and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core, classical criminology refers to a belief that a
crime is committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a
rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
41. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This refers to a
set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less attractive. The belief that crime is a
rational act is used to make a potential target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
42. DETERRABLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by POGARSKY. This
is the only group that may be deterred by threat of sanctions.
43. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and rational choice theories. This
theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of punishments that combine the proper
degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity. Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
44. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people will act in a
manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties in closely with classical
criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory, where people seek to increase their pleasure and
reduce their pain.
45. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to make decisions according
to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under this perspective, people can understand the difference
between right and wrong, and can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law. In later chapters,
this view will be contrasted with views that claim that crime is a result of biological, psychological, or
social forces beyond an individual’s control.
46. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a community or a society of
people can be deterred from committing a criminal act after having witnessed the punishment of an
individual or individuals for having committed that act.
47. INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by POGARSKY.
These people are so committed to criminal activity that they cannot be deterred.
48. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies to an individual offender, and refers to
what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how severe he or she believes the punishment

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 41 OF 38

for a crime will be if caught. The perceptions of the individual are often very different from the actual
reality experienced.
49. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should fit the crime without regard to individual differences.
50. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY - This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology. While
the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare
Beccaria, this version adds a new dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in
criminological thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and
other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.
51. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment fit the crime. Also referred to as “an eye for an eye.”
51. A. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be committed, three
elements must be present: an available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians.
52. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that taking young
offenders or potential offenders to a prison environment, and exposing them to the realities of prison
life, could prove beneficial in reducing delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not
produce the expected results.
53. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how harsh the punishment
for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must fit the
crime. If a punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can
lead to more crime.
54. SHOCK INCARCERATION - This approach generally uses a combination of a brief prison
sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief exposure to the realities of incarceration will
deter the offender from further criminality.
55. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specific offender in mind. The
belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal act, then that individual will be less likely to
violate the law in the future.
56. THOUGHTFULLY REFLECTIVE DECISION MAKING (TDRM) - This term describes a
process of good decision making where all the relevant information is collected and analyzed, and
possible solutions and alternative solutions are thought about. Reflection on what went right and wrong
is also part of the process.
57. ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by biological parents
compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic
link to criminal behavior. Results have been mixed.
58. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born criminal.”
Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit
crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so.
59. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - MEDNICK’S THEORY that individuals who
inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learns to control aggressive or antisocial
behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to increased violence and criminal activity.
60. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a combination of genetics
and the environment influences behavior.
61. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL - A view of crime also referred to as biological positivism that claims
that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly
conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a
biological perspective, deterrence is of little value.
62. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and
the environment on criminal behavior.
63. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level of arousal works
in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn
appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
64. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This type of criminal is
the most dangerous, and can be identified through his or her stigmata or identifying characteristics.
65. CONCORDANCE - This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding behavior of
siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
66. CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The CRIMINALOID Is
motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper circumstances.
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 42 OF 38
67. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an
individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological
predisposition. Soft Determinism, as explained by MATZA, examines the role of determinism, but also
acknowledges that other factors, from environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This
assumes that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological
makeup.
68. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are
genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural
selection and survival.
69. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A general approach that suggests that the process
of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to
generation.
70. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The insane criminal
type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the mentally unstable. These criminals are
unable to control their actions; however, they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics
of the born criminal.
71. MENTAL FUNCTIONING AND DELINQUENCY - A neurophysiology approach that believed
that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of a learning disability. This approach has also
been used to look for a relationship between IQ and crime. Additionally, aspects of mental functioning,
verbal ability, and mental flexibility have been examined.
72. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born
criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin
wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
73. TESTOSTERONE AND CRIMINAL AGGRESSIVENESS - A biochemistry approach that looks
at the relationship between the male hormone testosterone and antisocial aggressive behavior.

**********************Glossary 02****************************
RECENT LAWS DURING DUTERTE ADMINISTRATION:
1. PROCLAMATION NO. 124 – January as “National Bible Month”
2. EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 25 - Renamed Benham Rise to Philippine Rise.
3. EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 26- Ordered a nationwide smoking BAN. Implemented in July 23
4. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10913 - Anti-Distracted Driving Act
5. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10666 - or the "Children on Motorcycle Safety Act of 2015",
6. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10931-Free tuition in state universities
7. R.A. 10932 NO - Enhanced Anti-Hospital Deposit Law
8. R.A 10928 - Extending Passport Validity to 10 years
9. R.A. 10929 - Establishing FREE INTERNET ACCESS in public places
10. R.A.10930- Extending Driver’s License Validity for Five Years
11. RA 8049 - Anti Hazing Law
12. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10969- Or the Free Irrigation Service Act
13. RA 10742- SK REFORM
14. RA 10963 - Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Law

IMPORTANT EVENTS:
1. JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS - a mosquito-borne illness endemic to the Philippines
2. AVIAN INFLUENZA OUTBREAK- declared in Pampanga
3. PHILIPPINES RANKED 6TH IN THE 29TH SEA GAMES. (Malaysia: host country) -24golds,
33 silvers, 64 bronze won by the Philippines in the 29thseagames
4. 6.4 BILLION Shipment of drugs from china, nakalusot Sa Customs under Sec. Nicanor Faeldon
5. 2019- Philippines will host SEA Games
6. NOVEMBER 10–12 – The Philippines hosted the 31st ASEAN Summit Clark Freeport Zone in
Angeles, Pampanga.[32]
7. NOVEMBER 13–14 – The hosted the Twelfth East Asia Summit at the Clark Freeport Zone in
Angeles, Pampanga.[87]
8. DECEMBER 19- President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion
Act (TRAIN) Act January 1, 2018 took effect- Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act
(TRAIN)
is a legislation which made reforms on taxation in the Philippines.
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 43 OF 38
9. ISNILON HAPILON of Abu Sayyaf and Omar Maute of Maute Group, leaders of ISIL-linked
militants fighting the government in the Battle of Marawi were reportedly killed on October 16
10. OCTOBER 23 – the Battle of Marawi was declared officially over by the military MARTIAL
LAW- MAY 23- DEC. 31
11. JANUARY 22 – The Mayon Volcano’s alert status was raised to Alert Level 4 due to intensified
volcanic activities.
12. The Office of the President has ordered a 90-day preventive suspension order against Overall Deputy
Ombudsman Melchor Arthur Carandang for alleged grave misconduct and grave dishonesty for the
unauthorized disclosures of the alleged bank transactions of President Rodrigo Duterte and his family.
13. FEBRUARY 28 – President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Paris Agreement on Climate Change
14. MAY 23, 2017 – Martial Law was declared on the islands of Mindanao –
15. DEC 31. 2017 – Expiration of validity of the martial law
16. JULY 2, 2017- Pacquiao’s Fight against Jeff Horn
17. JULY 24, 2017 – 2nd SONA of Duterte
18. AUGUST 8, 2017 - Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Celebrates 50th Golden
Anniversary Celebration in PICC.
19. SEPT 21- Proclamation No. 319 Duterte declared “National Day of Protest”
September- National Peace Consciousness Month
20. JANUARY 31- A total lunar eclipse coinciding with a super moon and blue moon phenomenon was
witnessed by many astronomers and sky watchers throughout the country.
21. DengVaxia scandal vs Aquino and butch Abad
22. 29TH OF MARCH 1969. - 49th anniversary of New People’s Army. (NPA)
23. SEPT 21, 2017- National Day of Protest
24. FEBRUARY 12 -The Philippine Government has signed the administrative order to completely ban
the deployment of all workers to Kuwait.
25. MARCH 1 – President Rodrigo Duterte has signed Republic Act No. 10973 that restored the power
of select officials of the Philippine National Police (PNP) to issue subpoenas on cases under
investigation.
26. MARCH 14 – President Rodrigo Duterte has announced that the Philippines is withdrawing from
the International Criminal Court (ICC)

IMPORTANT NAMES:
1. MARIA LOURDES SERENO – On March 8, through Votes of 38-2, the House Committee on
Justice has found probable cause in the impeachment complaint against Chief Justice Maria Lourdes
Sereno.
2. HORACIO "ATIO" CASTILLO III – Killed by Aegis Juris fraternity over the fatal hazing of
University of Santo Tomas (UST) law freshman student in September last year.
3. BONGBONG” MARCOS, JR. AGAINST VICE PRESIDENT LENI ROBREDO - The Supreme
Court (SC), sitting as the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET) has for the election protest of former
Senator Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, Jr (counting started on Apr. 2 for Camarines Sur, Iloilo, and
Negros Oriental)
4. KERWIN ESPINOSA, PETER LIM - The Department of Justice has cleared alleged drug lords due
to lack of evidence
5. MAUTE GROUP – rebel group who seized Marawi City, they are not ISIS, but only ISIS-affiliated
6. OMAR MAUTE-Leader of Maute inspired by Isis in Marawi City
7. REYNALDO PAROJINOG SR. – Mayor who was killed in the drug ops in Ozamiz City.
8. NOVA PAROJINOG- Her daughter
9. KIAN LOYD DELOS SANTOS - A 17-year-old who was kill

IMPORTANTS PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS

1. BRIG GEN RAFAEL CRAME - The first Filipino chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1917.
2. COL. LAMBERTO JAVALERA - The first chief of police of the Manila Police Department after
the Philippine Independence from the United States of America in 1946.
3. COL. ANTONIO TORRES - The first Filipino chief of police of the Manila Police Department in
1935. And he declared Manila as an open city (DEC.8, 1941)
4. GEN. ARTHUR MCARTHUR (FATHER OF DOUGLAS MACARTHUR) - First District
Director of Metropolitan Police Force.
5. P/DIR GEN. CESAR NAZARENO - The first chief of the Philippine National Police.
6. CAPTAIN GEORGE CURRY - First chief of Police in Manila
7. DELILAH - who was able to gain information by using her Beauty and Charm.
8. SUN TZU - Art of war- The father of Police Intelligence
9. SIR ARTHUR WELLESLY - Greatest military Spymaster at All time.
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 44 OF 38
10. FREDERICK THE GREAT - father of organized military espionage
11. KARL SCHULMEISTER - "Napoleon's Eye"
12. JOSEPH PETROSINO - Pioneer in the fight against organized crime.
13. HERBERT YARDLEY -The American black chamber.
14. AKBAR - 'the great Mogul'
15. ALFRED REDL - A Homosexual double spy who while working as intelligence direct proof
Austria and Hungary, spied the Russian.
16. NATIONAL IN SCOPE - Means that the PNP is a nationwide government org. whose jurisdiction
covers the entire breadth of the Philippine archipelago.
17. CIVILIAN IN CHARACTER - Means membership in the PNP is by virtue of one's qualification
as set by the law.
CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAM
1. COINED IN THE WORD "CRIMINOLOGY" - RAFAELLE DE GAROFALO.
2. FATHER OF CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE BECCARIA.
3. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS- DR. HANS GROSS
4. FATHER OF BEHAVIORAL GENETICS- FRANCIS GALTON
5. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL/OLD CRIMINOLOGY - CESARE BECCARIA FATHER OF
MODERN CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE LOMBROSO
6. FATHER OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION- ALBERT OSBORNE
7. FATHER OF FORENSIC/ MODERN BALLISTICS - COL. CALVIN HENRY GODDARD
8. FATHER OF PROBATION- JOHN AUGUSTUS
9. FATHER OF ORGANIZED MILITARY ESPIONAGE- FREDERICK THE GREAT.
10. MOTHER OF ALL CRIMINALS- ADA JUKE/ MARGARET.
11. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WHOLE WORLD- EDWARD SAVAGE
12. COINED IN THE WORD "PHOTOGRAPHY" - WILLIAM HERSCHEL
13. FATHER OF POLICE PROFESSIONALIZATION- AUGUST VOLLMER
14. FATHER OF POLICE ORGANIZATION- HENRY VAYOL.
15. FATHER OF UTILITARIANISM- JEREMY BENTHAM
16. FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION- TEODULO NATIVIDAD.
17. FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION- MATTHEW DAVEN PORTHILL.
18. FATHER OF PAROLE/MODERN PENOLOGY- ALEXANDER MACANOCHIE
19. FIRST PRISON CHAPLAIN- REV. JARRED CURTIS
20. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER- EDWARD SAVAGE
21. FATHER OF MODERN POLICING- SIR ROBERT PEEL.
22. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL POLYGRAPHY- JOHN A. LARSON.
23. FATHER OF MODERN LAW ENFORCEMENT- AUGUST VOLLMER.
24. FATHER OF PSYCHO ANALYSIS- SIGMUND FREUD
25. FATHER OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATION- DR. EDMON LOCARD
26. FATHER OF PODOSCOPY- DR. EDMON LOCARD
27. FATHER OF PERSONAL IDENTI- ALPHONSE BERTILLION
28. FATHER OF FINGERPRINT- SIR RICHARD HENRY
29. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AUSTRIA- DR. HANS GROSS
30. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AMERICA- DR. PAUL KIRK
31. FATHER OF AMERICAN PRISON- ZEBULON REED BROCKWAY.
32. FATHER OF VICTIMOLOGY- BENJAMIN MENDELSON VON HENTEG
32. "CRIMINOLOGY" - EDWIN SUTHERLAND "CRIMINOLOGIE" -ITALIAN WORD BY
PAUL TOPINARD" "CRIMINOLOGIA"-LATIN WORD BY RAFAELLE DE GAROFALO
33. BENJAMIN ROBINS – FATHER OF MODERN GANNERY/FATHER OF BALLISTICS
PENDIULUM
34. FATHER OF EUGENICS- GALTON FIRST LETHAL INJECTION- LEO
ECHAGARAY./RAPE
35.JOHN AUGUSTUS-FATHER OF PROBATION
36.EDWARD SAVAGE-FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WORLD
37.TEODULO C. NATIVIDAD-FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION
38.MATHEW DAVENFORT HILL-FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION
39.ZEBULON R. BROCKWAY-HE WAS THE FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF ELMIRA
REFORMATORY
40.SIR EVELYN RUGGLES BRISE-DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH PRISONS WHO OPENED
THE BORSTAL INSTITUTION
41.JOHN HOWARD-KNOWN AS THE FATHER OF PENITENTIARY
42.SIR WALTER CROFTON-HE WAS THE DIRECTOR OF THE IRISH PRISON
43.ALEXANDER MACANOCHIE-FATHER OF MODERN PENOLOGY AND FATHER OF
PAROLE
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 45 OF 38
REPUBLIC ACTS - Are laws made by congress, the latter referring to House of Representatives and
senate of the Philippines duly signed by the president
PRESIDENTIAL DECREES- Are laws made and approved by then former president Marcos; here are
some of them;

1. P.D. 1414 - CREATED THE LAW ON INDIGENOUS PERSON, OR THE KATUTUBO

2. P.D. 1619 - SOLVENT AND VOLATILE
3. P.D. 968 - PROBATION LAW
4. P.D. 603 - THE CHILD AND YOUTH WELFARE ACT CODE.EFFECTIVE JUNE 8 1975
5. P.D. 1069 - PHIL EXTERNAL/EXTRADITION LAW
6. P.D. 532 - ANTI PIRACY AND ANTI HIGHWAY LAW OF 1974
7. P.D. 533 - ANTI-CATTLE RUSTLING LAW OF 1974
8. P.D. 1602 - ILLEGAL GAMBLING
9. P.D. 1866 - AS AMENDED BY R.A. 8294, ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF FIREARM AND
EXPLOSIVES
10. P.D. 1612 -ANTI FENCING LAW
11. P.D. 684 - CREATED SK
12. P.D. 1184 - CREATED THE PPSC
13. P.D.229 -DECLARING BGY CHAIRMAN AS PERSON IN AUTHORITY
14. P.D. 557 - DECLARING ALL BARRIOS AS BARANGAY
15. P.D. 1508 - CREATION OF BARANGAY COURT
16. P.D.1829 - PENALIZING OBSTRUCTION OF APPREHENSION AND PROSECUTION OF
CRIMINAL OFFENDER
17. P.D. 46 - ACT PUNISHING THE RECEIVING AND GIVING OF GIFTS OF PUBLIC
OFFICIAL AND EMPLOYEES
18. P.D 1689 - INCREASED THE PENALTY FOR CERTAIN FORMS OF ESTAFA
19. P.D.2018 - MAKES THE ILLEGAL RECRUITMENT A CRIME OF ECONOMIC
SABOTAGE PUNISHABLE BY LIFE IMPRISONMENT
20. P.D 133 - PRESCRIBED HEAVY PENALTY FOR EMPLOYEES’ THEFT AND
LABORERS
21. P.D.1185 - FIRE CODE OF THE PHILS
22. P.D.1731 - PROVIDES FOR REWARDS AND INCENTIVES TO GOVT WITNESS AND
INFORMANTS
23. P.D 1732 - PROVIDES IMMUNITY FOR GOVT WITNESSES
24. P.D., 1869 - PROHIBITION OF GOVT OFFICIALS TO ENTER IN GAMBLING HOUSE
AND CASINOS
25. R.A 7160 - LOCAL GOVT CODE OF 1991
26. R.A. 4103 - INDETERMINATE SENTENCE LAW
27. R.A. 4200 - ANTI-WIRE TAPPING LAW
28. R.A. 1524 - PROVIDES FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE CONDITIONS FOR
PARDON
29. R.A. 7610 - SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD ABUSED
EXPLOITATION AND DISCRIMINATION ACT AS AMENDED
30. R.A. 9344 - JUVENILE JUSTICE AND WELFARE SYSTEM MY 4 2006
31. R.A. 9231 - CHILD LABORING ACT
32. R.A. 6809 - LOWERING THE AGE OF MINORITY FROM 21 TO 18 YEARS OF AGE,
TOTALLY EMANCIPATED
33. R.A 7659 - DEATH PENALTY
34. R.A. 8177 - ACT DESIGNATING DEATH BY LETHAL INJECTION LAW
35. R.A. 3019 - AS AMENDED BY ANTI-GRAFT AND CORRUPTION PRACTICES
36. R.A. 6713 - CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC OFFICIAL
AND EMPLOYEES
37. R.A. 7080 - ANTI-PLUNDER ACT
38. R.A. 7877 - ANTI-SEXUAL HARASSMENT ACT OF 1995
39. R.A. 8049 - ANTI-HAZING LAW
40. R.A. 6539 - ANTI-CARNAPPING
41. PD. 532 - ANTI PIRACY AND ANTI-HIGHWAY ROBBERY LAW
42. PD. 533 - ANTI CATTLE RUSTLING LAW
43. RA. 6235 - AN ACT PROHIBITING CERTAIN ACTS INIMICAL TO CIVIL AVIATION
44. RA.6539 - ANTI CARNAPPING LAW
45. PD. 1612 - ANTI FENCING LAW
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 46 OF 38
46. PD. 1613 - ANTI ARSON LAW (SIMPLE ARSON)
47. RA. 7832 - ANTI ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINES
48. RA. 8484 - ACCESS DEVICES REGULATION ACT OF 1998
49. RA. 9160 - ANTI MONEY LAUNDERING ACT OF (2001)
50. RA. 9372 - HUMAN SECURITY ACT OF (2007)
51. RA. 9745 - ANTI TORTURE ACT (2009)
52. RA. 9775 - ANTI CHILD PORNOGRAPHY (2009)
53. RA. 9208 -ANTI TRAFFICKING IN PERSON (2003)
54. RA.8049 - AN ACCOUNT REGULATING HAZING AND OTHER FORMS OF
INITIATION RITES IN FRATERNITIES’ SORORITIES AND OTHER ORGANIZATION
55. RA. 7610- SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD ABUSE
56. RA.9262- ANTI VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT
57. RA.9165- COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUG ACT OF JULY 4 2002
58. RA.9346 - AN ACT PROHIBITING THE IMPOSITION OF DEATH PENALTY AND
AMENDING OR SUCH PURPOSE RA. 7659
59. RA. 3019- ANTI GRAFT AND CORRUPTION ACT
60. RA. 1379- FORFEITURE OF QUESTIONABLE OR OTHERWISE III-GOTTEN WEALTH
61. RA.7080- ANTI PLUNDER ACT
62. RA. 10193- ANTI DISTRACTED DRIVING ACT
63. RA. 4200- ANTI WIRETAPPING LAW
64. PD. 1829- LAW ON OBSTRUCTION OF JUSTICE
65. BP. 22- BOUNCING CHECK LAW
66. RA.10591- COMPREHENSIVE FIRE ARM LAW
67. RA.10175- ANTI CYBER-CRIME LAW
68. RA.9344- JUVENILE JUSTICE WELFARE ACT OF 2006

STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURES (SOP)

SOP 1 - POLICE BEAT PATROL PROCEDURES
SOP 2 - BANTAY KALYE
SOP 3 - SIYASAT
SOP 4 - REACT 166
SOP 5 - LIGTAS (ANTI-KIDNAPPING)
SOP 6 - ANTI CARNAPPING
SOP 7 - ANTI TERRORISM
SOP 8 - JOINT ANTI BANK ROBBERY
SOP 9 - ANTI HIGHJACKING/HIGHWAY ROBBERY
SOP 12 - ANTI ILLEGAL GAMBLING
SOP 16 - ANTI PORNOHRAPHY
SOP 19 - ANTI ILLEGAL LOGGING
SOP 20 - ANTI ILLEGAL FISHING
SOP 21 - ANTI ILLEGAL DRUGS
10-0 - CAUTION
10-1 - UNABLE TO COPY/CHANGE LOC
10-4 - ACKNOWLEDGMENT
10-12 - STAND BY
10-50 - ACCIDENT
10-52 - AMBULANCE NEEDED
10-74 – NEGATIVE

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
1. WITNESS --- man of the hour in court.
2. VICTIM ---- the forgotten one.
3. OFFENDER -- the principal character to the CJS
4. SUSPECT --- One who implicated to the commission of a crime (subject of investigation)
5. RESPONDENT --- person who is a subject of Preliminary investigation or inquest proceeding.
6. ACCUSED --- person who charged of an offense in court and facing trial.
7. APPELLANT --- one who filed an appeal.
8. CRIMINAL --- who is found guilty by final judgment
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 47 OF 38
9. POLICE --- initiator or prime mover of the CJS
10. PARDONEE --- one who is given pardon.
11. PAROLEE --- one who is granted with parole.
12. PROBATIONER --- one whose application for probation was granted.
13. PETITIONER --- one who files an application for Probation, parole and pardon
14. CRIMINOLOGIA ---- (Italian word) RAFFAELLE GAROFALO 1885
15. CRIMINOLOGIE ---- (French word) PAUL TOPINARD 1887
16. R.A 6506 --- Act creating the Board of Examiners for Criminologists in the Phil. And other purpose.
(approved/effective=July 1,1972)
17. CRIMINAL ECOLOGY --- study of criminality in relation to the spatial distribution in a
community.
18. CRIMINAL EPIDEMIOLOGY ---- study of the relationship between environment and
criminality.
19. CRIMINAL PSYCHIATRY --- study of human mind in relation to criminality.
20. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY ---- study of human behavior in relation to criminality.
21. CRIMINAL DEMOGRAPHY --- criminality and population.
22. CRIMINAL PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY ---- study of criminality in relation to Physical
constitution of men.
23. VICTIMOLOGY ---- study of role of victim in the commission of the crime.
24. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY --- study of the cause or the origin of crime.
25. PENOLOGY ---- control and prevention of crime and the treatment of youthful offender.
26. SOCIOLOGY ---- study of human society, its origin, structure, functions and directions.
27. CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH ---- study if crime correlated to with antecedent variables,
state of the crime trend.
28. DELINQUENCY ---- act not inconformity with the norms of society.
29. AUGUST COMTE --- Father of sociology
30. EMILE DURKHEIM --- father / modern sociology.
31. MALA PROHIBITUM CRIME ---- acts that are outlawed because they clash with current norms
and public opinion, such as tax, traffic and drugs law.
32. MALA IN SE CRIME --- acts that outlawed because they violate basic moral values such as rape,
murder, assault and robbery.
33. MASS MURDER --- killing a large number of persons at one time.
34. HYPOGLYCEMIA --- which the glucose in the blood falls below levels/efficient brain
functioning.
35. HYPERGLYCEMIA --- high blood sugar
36. MARITAL RAPE ---- forcible sex between legally married partners.
37. STATUTORY RAPE ---- sexual relation between a minor female and an adult male. (11yrsold
below)
38. JEREMY BETHAM --- pain and pleasure
39. CESARE BECARRIA --- Free will theory
40. EDWIN SUTHERLAND ---- who introduced the following definition of criminology. "Dean of
criminology”
41. GABRIEL TARDE ---- introduced the "Theory of imitation - suggestion”
42. ENRICO FERRI ---- "Theory of imputable and denial of Free Will.
43. ADA JUKE --- Mother of criminals.
44. HENRY GODDARD ---- He was the first person to use the term "MORON"
45. ROBERT MERTON ---- applied the theory of anomie of Durkheim to criminology
46. AUGUST AICHORN --- "Latent delinquency”
47. EGO --- "reality principle”
48. ID ---- "pleasure principle”
49. SUPEREGO ---- resulted from incorporating within the personality the moral standards and values
of parents, community /others /tells what is right from wrong.
50. OEDIPUS COMPLEX ---- Electra complex in man.
51. ELECTRA COMPLEX ---- girls begin to have sexual feeling for their father’s.
52. ERIK ERIKSON ---- "identity crisis"
53. MONOGAMY --- one marriage (1 man and 1woman)
54. POLYGAMY --- marriage of one man with two or more wife.
55. POLYANDRY --- marriage of one woman with two or more husband.
56. 18-70 --- full responsibility
57. 18 --- Age of majority or legal age

**********************Glossary 03*****************************

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 48 OF 38

 SAMPLE QUESTION AND ANSWER REVIEWER ON THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
1. The field of criminology is a multi-disciplinary science. One of its aspects is the study of crime
focused on the group of people and society which is known today as:
A. Criminal Psychology B. Criminal Sociology C. Criminal Psychiatry
D. Criminal Etiology
2. Macho means?
A. assertive B. angry C. heroic
D. stubborn
3. Bilious means
A. wealthy B. puffed out C. bad tempered
D. irritable
4. Hypothetical means
A. Temporary B. Exaggerated C. Provable
D. Assumed
5. The theory in which reformation is based upon, on the ground that the criminal is a sick person.
A. Positivist Theory B. Classical Theory C. Neo Classical School
D. Sociological Theory
6. It is defined as a crime where a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his or
her occupation commits the criminal act.
A. Labor Crimes B. Organized Crimes C. High Collar crimes D.
White collar crime
7. The strict code of conduct that governs the behavior of the Mafia members is called ___.
A. Omerta B. Triad C. Silencer
D. Mafioso
8. The groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (Index crimes) and property crimes (Non Index
crimes) are called ___.
A. Conventional crimes B. Non-conventional Crimes C. Felony
D. Offense
9. What is the literal meaning of the term Cosa Nostra?
A. This thing of ours B. Omerta C. Two Things
D. 5th estate
10. The criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and devoted primarily to
the pursuit of profits through illegal means commonly known as ___.
A. Organized crime B. Professional Organization C. White collar crime
D. Blue collar crime
11. One of the following represents the earliest codification of the Roman law, which was incorporated
into the Justinian Code.
A. 12 Tables B. Burgundian Code C. Hammurabic Code D.
Code of Draco
12. The generic term that includes all government agencies, facilities, programs, procedures, personnel,
and techniques concerned with the investigation, intake, custody, confinement, supervision, or treatment
of alleged offenders refers to:
A. Correction B. Penology C. Criminal Justice
D. the base pillar
13. The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, who was criticized for his methodology
and his attention to the biological
characteristics of offenders, was:
A. C Lombroso B. C Beccaria C. C Darwin
D. C Goring
14.The theory in criminology, which maintains that a person commits crime or behaves criminally
mainly because he or she is being possessed by evil spirits or something of natural force that controls
his/her behavior is called:
A. Devine Will Theory B. Demonological Theory C. Classical Theory
D. All of these
15. Criminology changes as social condition changes. This means the progress of criminology is
concordant with the advancement of other sciences that has been applied to it. This means that
criminology is _____.
A. Dynamic B. Excellent C. Progressive D. None of
these
16. In as much as crime is a societal creation and that it exist in a society, its study must be considered a
part of social science. This means that criminology is __.
A. Applied science B. Social Science C. Natural Science
D. All of these
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 49 OF 38
17. The term white- collar crime was coined by
A. E. Sutherland B. R. Quinney C. E. Durkheim
D. C. Darwin
18. What is means of "R" in the criminal formula?
A. Total Situation B. Criminal Tendency C. Temperament
D. none of these
19. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of "Survival of the Fittest" as a behavioral science.
He advocated the "Somatotyping Theory".
A. W Sheldon B. R Merton C. E Sutherland
D. Ivan Nye
20. When someone is tagged as criminal, he or she may reject it or accept it and go on to commit crime.
A. Rational Choice Theory B. Control Theories C. Labelling Theory
D. Social Disorganization Theory

REFERENCES:
1. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of the Cordillera (UC).
2. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of Baguio (UB).
3. Electronics Sources

PREPARED BY: MARK P. CIANO, RCrim, MSCJSC

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 50 OF 38