EXPERIMENT (3)

GROUND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Ground Electrodes
- The term “ground” is defined as a conducting connection by which a circuit or
equipment is connected to the earth.
- The connection is used to establish and maintain as closely as possible the potential
of the earth on the circuit or equipment connected to it.
- A “ground” consists of a grounding conductor, a bonding connector, its grounding
electrode(s), and the soil in contact with the electrode.
- Grounds have several protection applications as follows:
1. For natural phenomena such as lightning, grounds are used to discharge the
system of current before personnel can be injured or system components
damaged.
2. For stray potentials due to faults in electric power systems with ground
returns, grounds help ensure rapid operation of the protection relays by
providing low resistance fault current paths. This provides for the removal of
the stray potential as quickly as possible. The ground should drain the foreign
potential before personnel are injured and the power or communications
system is damaged.

- Ideally, to maintain a reference potential for instrument safety, protect against static
electricity, and limit the system to frame voltage for operator safety, a ground
resistance should be zero ohms. In reality, this value cannot be obtained.
- Last but not least, low ground resistance is essential to meet NEC, OSHA and other
electrical safety standards.

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 - Figure (1), illustrates a grounding rod. The resistance of the electrode has the
following components:
1. The resistance of the metal and that of the connection to it.
2. The contact resistance of the surrounding earth to the electrode.
3. The resistance in the surrounding earth to current flow or earth resistivity which is
often the most significant factor due to the following:

a) Grounding electrodes are usually made of a very conductive metal (copper or

copper clad) with adequate cross sections so that the overall resistance is
negligible.
b) The National Institute of Standards and Technology has demonstrated that the
resistance between the electrode and the surrounding earth is negligible if the
electrode is free of paint, grease, or other coating, and if the earth is firmly
packed.
c) The only component remaining is the resistance of the surrounding earth. The
electrode can be thought of as being surrounded by concentric shells of earth or
soil, all of the same thickness. The closer the shell to the electrode, the smaller
its surface; hence, the greater its resistance. The farther away the shells are from
the electrode, the greater the surface of the shell; hence, the lower the resistance.
Eventually, adding shells at a distance from the grounding electrode will no
longer noticeably affect the overall earth resistance surrounding the electrode.
The distance at which this effect occurs is referred to as the effective resistance
area and is directly dependent on the depth of the grounding electrode. In
theory, the ground resistance may be derived from the general formula:

L
R
A
Resistance = (Resistivity * Length)/Area

This formula illustrates why the shells of concentric earth decrease in resistance the farther
they are from the ground rod:

R = (Resistivity of Soil * Thickness of Shell) /Area

In the case of ground resistance, uniform earth (or soil) resistivity throughout the volume is
assumed, although this is rarely the case in nature. The equations for systems of electrodes
are very complex and often expressed only as approximations. The most commonly used
formula for single ground electrode systems is the following:
   ln 4 L   1 
R  
2 L  r 

R is resistance in ohms of the ground rod to the earth (or soil)

L is grounding electrode length
r is grounding electrode radius
 is average resistivity in ohms-cm.

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Effect of Ground Electrode Size and Depth on Resistance
1) Size Effect: Increasing the diameter of the rod does not materially reduce its resistance.
Doubling the diameter reduces resistance by less than 10% (Figure 2).

2) Depth Effect: As a ground rod is driven deeper into the earth, its resistance is
substantially reduced. In general, doubling the rod length reduces the
resistance by an additional 40% (Figure 3).The NEC (1987, 250-83-3)
requires a minimum of 8 ft (2.4 m) to be in contact with the soil. The most
common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical rod which meets the NEC code. A
minimum diameter of 5/8 inch (1.59 cm) is required for steel rods and 1/2
inch (1.27 cm) for copper or copper clad steel rods (NEC 1987, 250-83-2).
Minimum practical diameters for driving limitations for 10 ft (3 m) rods
are:
• 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) in average soil
• 5/8 inch (1.59 cm) in moist soil
• 3/4 inch (1.91 cm) in hard soil or more than 10 ft driving depths

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Grounding Nomograph
Grounding Nomograph (Figure 4), Is a graph used for calculating the rod diameter and rod
depth based on the required rod resistance and soil resistivity according to the following
steps:
1) Select required resistance on R scale.
2) Select apparent resistivity on P scale.
3) Lay straightedge on R and P scale, and allow intersecting with K scale.
4) Mark K scale point.
5) Lay straightedge on K scale point & DIA scale, and allow intersecting with D scale.
6) Point on D scale will be rod depth required for resistance on R scale.

Ground Resistance Values

- NEC 250-84 (1987): Resistance of man-made electrodes:
“A single electrode consisting of a rod, pipe, or plate which does not have a
resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by one additional rod of
any of the types specified in section 250-81 or 250-83. Where multiple rod, pipe or
plate electrodes are installed to meet the requirements of this section, they shall be
not less than 6 ft (1.83 m) apart.”
- The (NEC) states that the resistance to ground shall not exceed 25 ohms. This is an
upper limit and guideline, since much lower resistance is required in many instances.

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- “How low in resistance should a ground be?” An arbitrary answer to this in ohms is
difficult. The lower the ground resistance, the safer; and for positive protection of
personnel and equipment, it is worth the effort to aim for less than one ohm. It is
generally impractical to reach such a low resistance along a distribution system or a
transmission line or in small substations. In some regions, resistances of 5 ohms or
less may be obtained without much trouble. In other regions, it may be difficult to
bring resistance of driven grounds below 100 ohms.

- Accepted industry standards stipulate that transmission substations should be

designed not to exceed one ohm. In distribution substations, the maximum
recommended resistance is for 5 ohms or even 1 ohm. In most cases, the buried grid
system of any substation will provide the desired resistance.

- In light industrial or in telecommunication central offices, 5ohms is often the

accepted value. For lightning protection, the arrestors should be coupled with a
maximum ground resistance of 1ohm.

- These parameters can usually be met with the proper application of basic grounding
theory. There will always exist circumstances which will make it difficult to obtain
the ground resistance required by the NEC or other safety standards. When these
situations develop, several methods of lowering the ground resistance can be
employed. These include parallel rod systems, deep driven rod systems utilizing
sectional rods, and chemical treatment of the soil. Additional methods discussed in
other published data are buried plates, buried conductors (counterpoise), electrically
connected building steel, and electrically connected concrete reinforced steel.

- The measurement of ground resistances may only be accomplished with specially

designed test equipment. Most instruments use the fall-of-potential principle of
alternating current (AC) circulating between an auxiliary elect rode and the ground
electrode under test. The reading will be given in ohms, and represents the resistance
of the ground electrode to the surrounding earth.

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Ground Resistance Testing Principle (fall of Potential - 3. Point Measurement)

The potential difference between rods X and Y is measured by a voltmeter, and the current
flow between rods X and Z is measured by an ammeter.
(Note: X, Y and Z may be referred to as X, P and C in a 3-point tester or C1, P2 and C2 in a
4-point tester.) (See Figure 5)

E
By Ohm’s Law E  I  R or R  , we may obtain the ground electrode resistance (R),
I
E 20
If E = 20 V and I = 1 A, then, R    20 R
I 1

It is not necessary to carry out all the measurements when using a ground tester. The ground
tester will measure directly by generating its own current and displaying the resistance of the
ground electrode.

Position of the Auxiliary Electrodes on Measurements

The goal in precisely measuring the resistance to ground is to place the auxiliary current
electrode Z far enough from the ground electrode under test so that the auxiliary potential
electrode Y will be outside of the effective resistance areas of both the ground electrode and
the auxiliary current electrode. To find out if the auxiliary potential rod Y is outside the
effective resistance areas is to move it between X and Z and to take a reading at each
location. If the auxiliary potential rod Y is in an effective resistance area (or in both if they
overlap, as in Figure 6), by displacing it the readings taken will vary noticeably in value.
Under these conditions, no exact value for the resistance to ground may be determined.

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On the other hand, if the auxiliary potential rod Y is located outside of the effective
resistance areas (Figure 7), as Y is moved back and forth the reading variation is minimal.
The readings taken should be relatively close to each other, and are the best values for the
resistance to ground of the ground X. The readings should be plotted to ensure that they lie
in a “plateau” region as shown in Figure 7. The region is often referred to as the “62% are
area . ” .

Figure 14

Figure 15

Measuring Resistance of Ground Electrodes (62% Method)

The 62% method has been adopted after graphical consideration and after actual test. It is
the most accurate method but is limited by the fact that the ground tested is a single unit.
This method applies only when all three electrodes are in a straight line and the ground is a
single electrode, pipe, or plate, etc., as in Figure 8.

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Consider Figure 9, which shows the effective resistance areas (concentric shells) of the
ground electrode X and of the auxiliary current electrode Z. The resistance areas overlap. If
readings were taken by moving the auxiliary potential electrode Y towards either X or Z, the
reading differentials would be great and one could not obtain a reading within a reasonable
band of tolerance. The sensitive areas overlap and act constantly to increase resistance as Y
is moved away from X.

Now consider Figure 10, where the X and Z electrodes are sufficiently spaced so that the
areas of effective resistance do not overlap. If we plot the resistance measured we find that
the measurements level off when Y is placed at 62% of the distance from X to Z, and that
the readings on either side of the initial Y setting are most likely to be within the established
tolerance band. This tolerance band is defined by the user and expressed as a percent of the
initial reading: ± 2%, ± 5%, ± 10%, etc.

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Auxiliary Electrode Spacing

No definite distance between X and Z can be given, since this distance is relative to the
diameter of the electrode tested, its length, the homogeneity of the soil tested, and
particularly, the effective resistance areas. However, an approximate distance may be
determined from the following chart which is given for a homogeneous soil and an electrode
of 1” in diameter. (For a diameter of 1/2”, reduce the distance by 10%; for a diameter of 2”
increase the distance by 10%.)

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Multiple Electrode System
A single driven ground electrode is an economical and simple means of making a good
ground system. But sometimes a single rod will not provide sufficient low resistance, and
several ground electrodes will be driven and connected in parallel by a cable. Very often
when two, three or four ground electrodes are being used, they are driven in a straight line;
when four or more are being used, a hollow square configuration is used and the ground
electrodes are still connected in parallel and are equally spaced (Figure 11). In multiple
electrode systems, the 62% method electrode spacing may no longer be applied directly.

The distance of the auxiliary electrodes is now based on the maximum grid distance
(i.e. in a square, the diagonal; in a line, the total length. For example, a square having a
side of 20 ft will have a diagonal of approximately 28 ft).

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Two-Point Measurement (Simplified Method)

This is an alternative method when an excellent ground is already available. In congested

areas where finding room to drive the two auxiliary rods may be a problem, the two-point
measurement method may be applied. The reading obtained will be that of the two grounds
in series. Therefore, the water pipe or other ground must be very low in resistance so that it
will be negligible in the final measurement. The lead resistances will also be measured and
should be deducted from the final measurement.
This method is not as accurate as three-point methods (62% method), as it is particularly
affected by the distance between the tested electrode and the dead ground or water pipe.
This method should not be used as a standard procedure, but rather as a back-up in tight
areas. See Figure 20.

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Tech Tips

Excessive Noise
Excessive noise may interfere with testing because of the long leads used to perform a fall-
of-potential test. A voltmeter can be utilized to identify this problem. Connect the “X”, “Y”
and “Z” cables to the auxiliary electrodes as for a standard ground resistance test. Use the

voltmeter to test the voltage across terminals “X” and “Z” (Figure 22).
The voltage reading should be within stray voltage tolerances acceptable to your ground
tester. If the voltage exceeds this value, try the following techniques:
A) Braid the auxiliary cables together. This often has the effect of canceling out the
common mode voltages between these two conductors (Figure 23).

Figure 23
B) If the previous method fails, try changing the alignment of the auxiliary cables so that
they are not parallel to power lines above or below the ground (Figure 24).
C) If a satisfactory low voltage value is still not obtained, the use of shielded cables may be
required. The shield acts to protect the inner conductor by capturing the voltage and
draining it to ground (Figure 25).
1. Float the shields at the auxiliary electrodes. 2. Connect all three shields together at (but
not to) the instrument. 3. Solidly ground the remaining shield to the ground under test.

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Excessive Auxiliary Rod Resistance

The inherent function of a fall-of-potential ground tester is to input a constant current into
the earth and measure the voltage drop by means of auxiliary electrodes. Excessive
resistance of one or both auxiliary electrodes can inhibit this function. This is caused by
high soil resistivity or poor contact between the auxiliary electrode and the surrounding dirt
(Figure 26). To ensure good contact with the earth, stamp down the soil directly around the
auxiliary electrode to remove air gaps formed when inserting the rod. If soil resistivity is the
problem, pour water around the auxiliary electrodes. This reduces the auxiliary electrode’s
contact resistance without affecting the measurement.

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Tar or Concrete Mat

Sometimes a test must be performed on a ground rod that is surrounded by a tar or concrete
mat, where auxiliary electrodes cannot be driven easily. In such cases, metal screens and
water can be used to replace auxiliary electrodes, as shown in Figure 27.

Place the screens on the floor the same distance from the ground rod under test as you
would auxiliary electrodes in a standard fall-of-potential test. Pour water on the screens and
allow it to soak in. These screens will now perform the same function as would driven
auxiliary electrodes.

TOUCH POTENTIAL MEASUREMENTS

The primary reason for performing fall-of-potential measurements is to observe electrical

safety of personnel and equipment. However, in certain circumstances the degree of
electrical safety can be evaluated from a different perspective. Periodic ground electrode or
grid resistance measurements are recommended when :

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1) The electrode/grid is relatively small and is able to be conveniently disconnected.
2) Corrosion induced by low soil resistivity or galvanic action is suspected.
3) Ground faults are very unlikely to occur near the ground under test.

Touch potential measurements are an alternative method for determining electrical safety.
Touch potential measurements are recommended when:

1) It is physically or economically impossible to disconnect the ground to be tested.

2) Ground faults could reasonably be expected to occur near the ground to be tested, or near
equipment grounded by the ground to be tested.
3) The “footprint” of grounded equipment is comparable to the size of the ground to be
tested. (The “footprint” is the outline of the part of equipment in contact with the earth.)

Neither fall-of-potential resistance measurements nor touch potential measurements tests the
ability of grounding conductors to carry high phase-to-ground fault currents. Additional
high current tests should be performed to verify that the grounding system can carry these
currents.

When performing touch potential measurements, a four-pole ground resistance tester is

used. During the test, the instrument induces a low level fault into the earth at some
proximity to the subject ground. The instrument displays touch-potential in volts per ampere
of fault current. The displayed value is then multiplied by the largest anticipated ground
fault current to obtain the worst case touch potential for a given installation.

For example, if the instrument displayed a value of .100W when connected to a system
where the maximum fault current was expected to be 5000 A, the maximum touch potential
would be: 5000 x .1 = 500 volts.

Touch potential measurements are similar to fall-of-potential measurements in that both

measurements require placement of auxiliary electrodes into or on top of the earth. Spacing
the auxiliary electrodes during touch potential measurements differs from fall-of-potential
electrode spacing, as shown in Figure 28.

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Consider the following scenario: If the buried cable depicted in Figure 28 experienced an
insulation breakdown near the substation shown, fault currents would travel through the
earth towards the substation ground, creating a voltage gradient. This voltage gradient may
be hazardous or potentially lethal to personnel who come in contact with the affected
ground.

To test for approximate touch potential values in this situation, proceed as follows: Connect
cables between the fence of the substation and C1 and P1 of the four-pole earth resistance
tester. Position an electrode in the earth at the point at which the ground fault is anticipated
to occur, and connect it to C2. In a straight line between the substation fence and the
anticipated fault point, position an auxiliary electrode into the earth one meter (or one arm’s
length) away from the substation fence, and connect it to P2. Turn the instrument on, select
the 10 mA current range, and observe the measurement. Multiply the displayed reading by
the maximum fault current of the anticipated fault.

By positioning the P2 electrode at various positions around the fence adjacent to the
anticipated fault line, a voltage gradient map may be obtained.

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