Unit - IV

Theories of failure

Dr. Biraja Prasad Mishra

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar

October 30, 2023

 Mechanical Behavior of Materials

When external load is applied to a body:

▶ Produces stresses and strains
▶ Stresses are directly proportional to strains within the elastic limit
▶ Load removal ⇒ body returns to its original shape
▶ No permanent deformation within elastic limit
If stress is beyond the elastic limit:
▶ Permanent deformations occur in the body
▶ Load removal ⇒ body does not retain its original shape
▶ Permanent deformations ⇒ "failure"
Note:
▶ "Failure" does not mean rupture of the body

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 Failure in a Tensile Test

Consider the failure (or permanent deformation) of a bar in a simple

tensile test.
Tensile stress is directly proportional to tensile strain up to the elastic
limit.
▶ Definite value of tensile stress within elastic limit.
Beyond the elastic limit, increased tensile stress leads to bar failure.
Reasons for failure:
▶ Increase in tensile stress
▶ Other factors such as shear stress and strain energy also reach definite
values
▶ Any of these factors may determine the bar’s failure.

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Unit - IV Theories
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 Theories of Failure

1 According to important theories, failure occurs when one of the

following limiting values is reached:
1 The maximum principal stress
2 The maximum principal strain
3 The maximum shear stress
4 The maximum strain energy
5 The maximum shear strain energy

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 Maximum Principal Stress Theory or (Rankine Theory)
According to the Maximum Principal Stress Theory:
▶ Failure occurs when:
1 The maximum principal tensile stress σ1 in the complex system reaches
the value of the maximum stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
2 Or when the minimum principal stress (i.e., the maximum principal
compressive stress) reaches the value of the maximum stress at the
elastic limit in simple compression.

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 contd...

s
2
σx + σy σx − σy

σ1 = + 2
+ τxy (1)
2 2
s
2
σx + σy σx − σy

σ2 = − 2
+ τxy (2)
2 2
2τxy
tan 2θp = (3)
σx − σy
σ1 − σ2
τmax = (4)
2
where, σ1 is the maximum principle stress and σ2 is the minimum principle
stress.

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 contd...

Therefore, for a body to fail under the Maximum Principle Stress

Theory, the yield stress of the body must be equal to the maximum
principle stress, i.e., σ1 .
Hence for failure to occur, σ1 = Yield Stress (σyp )

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 contd...

Let in a complex three dimensional stress system, σ1 , σ2 , σ3 =

principal stresses at a point in three perpendicular directions. The
stresses σ1 , and σ2 , are tensile and σ3 is compressive. Also σ1 is more
than σ2 ,
σt∗ - tensile stress at elastic limit in simple tension.
σc∗ - compressive stress at elastic limit in simple compression,
then according to this theory, the failure will take place if

σ1 ≥ σt∗ in simple tension (5)

|σ3 | ≥ σc∗ in simple compression (6)

where |σ3 | represents the absolute value of σ3 .
This is the simplest and oldest theory of failure and is known as
Rankine’s theory.

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 contd...

If the maximum principal stress σ1 is the design criterion, then

maximum principal stress must not exceed the permissible stress σt
for the given material. Hence, σ1 = σt , where σt = permissible stress
and is given by
σt∗
σt = (7)
factor of safety

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 Problem

Q.1 The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 100 N/mm2
(tensile), 80 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the
stress at the elastic limit in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine
whether the failure of material will occur according to maximum
principal stress theory. If not, then determine the factor of safety.

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Unit - IV Theories
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 Solution
Given:

σ1 = 100 N/mm2 (8)

2
σ2 = 80 N/mm (9)
2 2
σ3 = 50 N/mm (compressive) = −50 N/mm (10)
2
σt ∗ = 200 N/mm (11)

Since, σ1 ≥ σt ∗ , then failure will not occur according to maximum

principal stress theory.
Factor of safety
σt ∗
▶ Taking σ1 = σt ∗ , & σt = , we have,
Factor of Safety
200
Factor of safety = =2 (12)
100

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 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY (St. Venant)
According to this theory, the failure will occur in a material when the
maximum principal strain reaches the strain due to yield stress in
simple tension or when the minimum principal strain (i.e., maximum
compressive strain) reaches the strain due to yield stress in simple
compression. Yield stress is the maximum stress at elastic limit.
σ1 is the maximum principle stress and σ2 is the minimum principle
stress and the strain will be acting towards the maximum principle
stress direction.
Relation between stress and strain is:

σ = Eϵ (13)
σ
=⇒ ϵ = (14)
E
For bi-lateral stresses, the Principal strain in the direction of principal
stress σ1 is,
σ1 νσ2
ϵ1 = − (15)
E E
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 contd...

For 3D stresses, the Principal strain in the direction of principal stress

σ1 is,
σ1 νσ2 νσ3
ϵ1 = − − (16)
E E E
σ1 σ2 + σ3
 
=⇒ ϵ1 = −ν (17)
E E
Similarly,
σ2 σ1 + σ3
 
=⇒ ϵ2 = −ν (18)
E E
σ3 σ1 + σ2
 
=⇒ ϵ3 = −ν (19)
E E

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 contd...

Strain due to yield

1
stress in simple tension = × yield stress in tension
E
1
= × σt ∗ (20)
E
and strain due to yield stress in simple compression
1
× σc ∗ (21)
E
where yield stress is the maximum stress at elastic limit.
According to this theory, the failure of the material will take place
when
σt ∗
ϵ1 ≥ (22)
E
σc ∗
or|ϵ3 | ≥ (23)
E
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 contd...
Substituting the values of ϵ1 and ϵ3 , we get the conditions of failure as
1 1
(σ1 − ν (σ2 + σ3 )) ≥ × σt ∗ (24)
E E
or (σ1 − ν (σ2 + σ3 )) ≥ σt ∗ (25)
Also,
1 1
(σ1 − ν (σ2 + σ3 )) ≥ × σc ∗ (26)
E E
or (σ3 − ν (σ1 + σ2 )) ≥ σc ∗ (27)
For actual design (i.e. where some quantity is to be calculated),
instead of σt ∗ or σc ∗ , the permissible stress (σt , or σc ) in simple
tension or compression should be used where
σt∗
σt = (28)
factor of safety
σc∗
σc = (29)
factor of safety
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 contd...

Hence for design purpose, the equations become

σ1 − ν (σ2 + σ3 ) = σt (30)
σ3 − ν (σ1 + σ2 ) = σc (31)

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 Problem
Q.3 Determine the diameter of a bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of
9kN together with a transverse shear force of 4.5kN using :
▶ Maximum principal stress theory, and
▶ Maximum principal strain theory.
Given the elastic limit in tension = 225N/mm2 , factor of safety - 3 and
Poissons ratio = 0.3.
Soln. Given data:
▶ Axial pull, P = 9 kN = 9 × 1000N = 9000N
▶ Transverse shear force, F = 4.5kN = 4500N
▶ Elastic limit in tension, σt∗ = 225N/mm2
▶ Factor of safety = 3
▶ Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.3
Parameters
▶ From MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY, the permissible
stress in tension is given by
σt∗ 225
σt = = = 75N/mm2 (32)
Factor of safety 3
▶ The axial pull will produce tensile stress whereas transverse shear force
will produce shear stress in the bolt. Let us calculate these stresses.
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 contd...
Let d = diameter of bolt in mm.
Now tensile stress,
P
σ=
Area of cross section
P
= πd 2
4
4P
=
πd 2
4 × 9000
=
πd 2
11459
=⇒ σ = N/mm2
d2
and shear stress,
F 4F 4 × 4500 5729.5
τ= π×d 2
= 2
= 2
= N/mm2
4
πd πd d2

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 contd...
Now let us calculate the maximum and minimum principal stresses σ1
and σ2 .The principal stresses (maximum and minimum) in the bolt
are given by
s 
2
σ σ
σ1 andσ2 = ± + τ2
2 2
s 2 2
11459 11459 5729.5

= ± +
2 × d2 2 × d2 d2
2
5729.5 8103

= ±
d2 d2

13832.5
∴ σ1 = N/mm2 (33)
d2
−2373.5
σ2 = N/mm2 (34)
d2

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 contd...
Diameter of bolt according to maximum principal stress theory
▶ Here diameter of the bolt is to be calculated. This becomes the case of
design. For the purpose of design, according to maximum principal
stress theory, the maximum principal stress should not exceed the
permissible stress σt in tension.Hence, from Maximum Principal Stress
Theory,
σ1 = σt
13832.5
= 75
d2
=⇒ d = 13.58 ≊ 13.6mm
Diameter of bolt according to maximum principal strain theory
▶ Here,
13832.5
σ1 = N/mm2 (35)
d2
−2373.5
σ2 = N/mm2 (36)
d2
σ3 = 0 (37)
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 contd...
Here maximum principal stress is σ1 . Hence maximum strain will be
in the direction of σ1 .
∴
σ1 ν
Maximum strain = − (σ2 + σ3 ) (38)
E E 
1 13832.5 −2373.5
 
= 2
− 0.3 × +0
E d d2
1 14544.55
= ×
E d3
Maximum strain due to permissible tension =
1 1
× σt = × 75 (39)
E E
For design purpose, (as here diameter is to be calculated), the
maximum strain should be equal to the strain due to permissible
stress in tension.
Hence equating the two values we have,
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 contd...

1 14544.55 1
× = × 75 (40)
Es d2 E
14544.55
=⇒ d = = 13.92mm
75

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 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY
This theory is due to Guest and Tresca and therefore known as
Guest’s theory. According to this theory, the failure of a material will
occur when the maximum shear stress in a material reaches the value
of maximum shear stress in simple tension at the elastic limit. The
maximum shear stress in the material is equal to half the difference
between maximum and minimum principal stress.
If σ1 , σ2 and σ3 are principal stresses at a point in a material for
which σt∗ is the principal stress in simple tension at elastic limit, then

Max. shear stress in the material

= Half of difference of maximum and minimum principal stresses

1
= × (σ1 − σ2 ) (41)
2
In case of simple tension, at the elastic limit the principal stresses are
σ1 = σt∗ and σ2 = 0
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 contd...
Max. shear stress in simple tension at elastic limit = Half of
difference of maximum and minimum principal stresses
1 ∗ 1
(σ − 0) = × σt∗
= (42)
2 t 2
∴ for the failure of material,
1 1
(σ1 − σ2 ) ≥ σt∗
2 2
=⇒ (σ1 − σ2 ) ≥ σt∗ (43)
For actual design (i .e., when some quantity is to be calculated)
instead of σt∗ , the allowable stress σt in simple tension should be
considered, where
σt∗
σt = (44)
Factor of safety
The above equation is used for design purpose only. It should not be
used for determining the failure of the material due to maximum
shear stress theory.
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 Problem
Q. Determine whether failure of material will occur or not according to
maximum shear stress theory. σ1 = 200N/mm2 , σ2 = 100N/mm2
and σ3 = −50N/mm2 . Also, σt∗ = 200N/mm2
Sol. Given data:
σ1 = 200N/mm2
σ2 = 100N/mm2
σ3 = −50N/mm2
σt∗ = 200N/mm2
Now, according to MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY, the
Max. shear stress in simple tension at elastic limit = Half of
difference of maximum and minimum principal stresses
1
= [σ1 − σ3 ]
2
1 250
= [200 − (−50)] = = 125N/mm2
2 2

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 contd...

Max. shear stress at elastic limit in simple tension

1 ∗
= σ
2 t
1
= × 200
2
= 100N/mm2

As maximum shear stress developed in the material is 125N/mm2

whereas maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension is
100N/mm2 , hence failure will occur.

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 Problem

Q. At a section of a mild steel shaft, the maximum torque is 8437.5Nm

and maximum bending moment is 5062.5Nm. The diameter of shaft
is 90mm and the stress at the elastic limit in simple tension for the
material of the shaft is 220N/mm2 . Determine whether the failure of
the material will occur or not according to maximum shear stress
theory. If not,then find the factor of safety.
Sol. Given data:
▶ Maximum torque T=8437.5 Nm
▶ Maximum bending moment, M = 5062.5 Nm
▶ Stress at elastic limit in simple tension
σt∗ = 220N/mm2 = 220 × 106 N/m2
▶ Dia. of shaft, d = 90mm = 0.09m.
At any section, the torque will produce shear stress whereas the
bending moment will produce bending stress. These stresses will be
maximum on the surface of the shaft. Let us find these stresses first.

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 contd...
We know that,
π
T = × d3 × τ
16
16 × T
=⇒ τ =
πd 3
16 × 8437.5
=⇒ τ =
π × (0.09)3
=⇒ τ = 58.946 × 106 N/m2

Also we know that,

M σb
=
I y
M ×y d
=⇒ σb = where on the surface y =
I 2
M ×d
=⇒ σb =
I ×2
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 contd...

M ×d
=⇒ σb =
π × d4
×2
64
32 × M
=⇒ σb =
π × d3
32 × 5062.5
=⇒ σb =
π × (0.09)3
=⇒ σb = 70.735 × 106 N/m2

On the surface of the shaft, at any point the shear stress is

58.946 × 106 N/m2 and bending stress is 70.735 × 106 N/m2 . The
principal stresses at this point is given by,
s 2
σb σb
σ1 and σ2 = ± + τ2
2 2
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 contd...

1 2 =⇒ σ and σ =
v
u !2
70.735 × 106 u 70.735 × 106
±t + (58.946 × 106 )2
2 2
=⇒ σ1 and σ2 =
6 2
104.115 × 10 N/m and − 33.385 × 106 N/m2
∴ σ1 = 104.115 × 106 N/m2
σ2 = −33.385 × 106 N/m2

Now apply the maximum shear stress theory

▶ Maximum shear stress due to principal stresses = Half of difference
between maximum and minimum principal stresses

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 contd...

1
104.115 − (−33.385) × 106

=
2
= 68.75 × 106 N/mm2

Maximum shear stress in simple tension

1 ∗
= [σ − 0]
2 t
σt∗
=
2
220 × 106
=
2
= 110 × 106 N/mm2
As the maximum shear stress due to principal stresses is less than the
maximum shear stress in simple tension at the elastic limit, the failure
of the material will not occur .
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 contd...
Factor of Safety
Let σt = Allowable tensile stress in simple tension.
The maximum allowable shear stress in simple tension will be
1
[σt − 0] =
2
σt
=
2
Equating Maximum shear stress due to principal stresses and the
maximum allowable shear stress in simple tension, we have
σt
68.75 × 106 =
2
=⇒ σt = 137.5 × 10 N/m26

Factor of safety =
σt∗ 220
= = 1.6
σt 137.5
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 MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY
This theory is due to Haigh and is known as Haigh’s Theory.
According to this theory, the failure of a material occurs when the
total strain energy per unit volume in the material reaches the strain
energy per unit volume of the material at the elastic limit in simple
tension.
We know that the strain energy in a body is equal to work done by
1
the load (P) in straining the material and it is equal to × P × δL
2
For the failure of the material,
1  2  1
σ1 + σ22 + σ32 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 ) ≥ × (σt∗ )2
2E  2E
=⇒ σ12 + σ22 + σ32 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 ) ≥ (σt∗ )2 (45)

For two dimensional stress system, σ3 = 0. Hence the equation

reduces to
 
σ12 + σ22 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 ) ≥ (σt∗ )2 (46)

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 contd...

For actual design (i.e. when some quantity is to be calculated) instead

of σt∗ , allowable stress σt in simple tension should be considered where

σt∗
σt =
Factor of safety
Hence for design, the following equation should be used
 
σ12 + σ22 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 ) ≥ (σt∗ )2 (47)

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 Problem
The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 100 N/mm2
(tensile), 80 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the
stress at the elastic limit in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine
whether the failure of material will occur according to maximum
strain energy theory. If not, then determine the factor of safety.
Sol. Given data:
σ1 = 200N/mm2
σ2 = 100N/mm2
σ3 = −50N/mm2
σt∗ = 200N/mm2
ν = 0.3
Elastic limit in simple tension, σt ∗ = 200N/mm2 ∴ Total strain
energy per unit volume in the material
1
σ12 + σ22 + σ32 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 )


=
2E
1
= × 49500 (48)
2E
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 contd...

Strain- energy per unit volume at elastic limit in simple tension

1
= × σt2∗
2E
1
= × 2002
2E
40000
= (49)
2E
Now apply the theory of maximum strain energy.
If we compare equations (1) and (2), we find the total strain energy
per unit volume in the material is more than the strain energy per
unit volume at elastic limit in simple tension.Hence failure will occur.

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 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY THEORY
This theory is due to Mises and Henky and is known as Mises-Henky
theory. This theory is also called the energy of distortion theory.
According to this theory, the failure of a material occurs when the
total shear strain energy per unit volume in the stressed material
reaches a value equal to the shear strain energy per unit volume at
the elastic limit in the simple tension test.
The total shear strain energy (or energy of distortion) per unit volume
due to principal stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 in a stressed material is given
as
1  
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 (50)
12C
The simple tension test is a uniaxial stress system which means
principal stresses are σ1 , σ2 = 0 and σ3 = 0.
At the elastic limit the tensile stress in simple test is σt∗

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 contd...
Hence at the elastic limit in simple tension test, the principal stresses
are σ1 = σt∗ , σ2 = 0 and σ3 = 0.
The shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in simple
tension will be
1  ∗ 
= (σt − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 + (0 − σt∗ )2
12C
1
2(σt∗ )2


= (51)
12C
For the failure of the material,
1   1  ∗ 2
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ≥ 2(σt )
12C  12C
  
=⇒ (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ≥ 2(σt∗ )2 (52)
For a two-dimensional stress system, σ3 = 0
Factor of safety
σt∗
σt =
Factor of safety
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30, 2023 38 / 42
 Problem
Determine whether the failure of the material will occur or not
according to maximum shear strain energy.
σ1 = 200 N/mm2
σ2 = 100 N/mm2
σ3 = −50 N/mm2
σt∗ = 200 N/mm2
ν = 0.3
Sol. The total shear strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses
σ1 , σ2 and σ3 in the stressed material is given by
1  
= (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2
12C
1  
= (200 − 100)2 + (100 − (−50))2 + (−50 − 200)2
12C
1
= × 95000 (53)
12C
Dr. Biraja Prasad Mishra (Department of Civil & Environmental
Unit - IV Theories
Engineering
of failure
C. V. Raman Global University,
October Bhubaneswar)
30, 2023 39 / 42
 contd...
The shear strain energy per unit volume at elastic limit in simple
tension
1  ∗ 
= (σt − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 + (0 − σt∗ )2
12C
1
(2σt∗ )2


=
12C
1
= × 2 × (200)2
12C
1
= × 80000 (54)
12C
Now apply the theory of maximum shear strain energy.
If we compare equations (1) and (2), we find that the total shear
strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3
are more than the shear strain energy per unit volume at elastic limit
in simple tension. Hence failure will occur.

Dr. Biraja Prasad Mishra (Department of Civil & Environmental

Unit - IV Theories
Engineering
of failure
C. V. Raman Global University,
October Bhubaneswar)
30, 2023 40 / 42
 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THEORIES FOR
TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM

The different theories of failure can be represented graphically for

two-dimensional stress system.
This means only σ1 and σ2 are existing and σ3 = 0.
The principal stress σ1 is taken along x-axis having +ve value to the
right of origin O.
The principal stress σ1 is taken along y-axis having +ve value
upwards.
It will also be assumed that the elastic limit is the same in tension
and compression.
Hence σt∗ = σt∗ where σ ∗ = Elastic limit in tension and compression.
Now the theories of failure may be represented graphically as follows :

Dr. Biraja Prasad Mishra (Department of Civil & Environmental

Unit - IV Theories
Engineering
of failure
C. V. Raman Global University,
October Bhubaneswar)
30, 2023 41 / 42
 Maximum principal stress theory.
The criterion of failure according to this theory is
▶ Maximum tensile, principal stress σ1 = σt∗ = σ ∗
▶ Maximum compressive, principal stress σ2 = σc∗ = σ ∗

Figure: Graphical representation of maximum principal stress theory

Dr. Biraja Prasad Mishra (Department of Civil & Environmental
Unit - IV Theories
Engineering
of failure
C. V. Raman Global University,
October Bhubaneswar)
30, 2023 42 / 42