CE-423

Water Supply
Planning and
Development

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 • Safe and readily available water is important for public health, whether it is used for drinking,
domestic use, food production or recreational purposes.
• Improved water supply and sanitation, and better management of water resources, can boost
countries’ economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction.

In 2015, the UN General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation. Everyone
has the right to sufficient, continuous, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for
personal and domestic use.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the United
Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all
people enjoy peace and prosperity.

TARGET
6.1. By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
6.2. By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open
defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of
hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially
increasing recycling and safe reuse globally

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6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable
withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of
people suffering from water scarcity
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through
transboundary cooperation as appropriate
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes

UN SDG No. 6
Indicator: SAFELY MANAGED DRINKING WATER SERVICES
Drinking water which is:
▪ from an improved water source located on the premises
▪ available when needed
▪ free from fecal and priority chemical contamination
Key Players in Ensuring a Successful Water Supply Program
• Government
• Community
• Competent Personnel
• Funding Agencies
GLOBAL WATER ISSUES
WATER QUALITY (UN Water, 2014) WATER DEMAND (OECD, 2012)
▪ Human population growth ▪ Expected to increase by 55% by 2050
▪ Industrial and agricultural activities expand ▪ 400% increase in water demand for manufacturing
▪ Climate change threatens to cause the major alterations to the ▪ 140% for electricity
▪ 130% for domestic use
hydrological cycle
▪ Agriculture will remain as the largest user of water

WATER and HEALTH

Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as:
• Diarrhea
• Cholera
• Dysentery
• Hepatitis A
• Typhoid
• Polio
Absent, inadequate, or inappropriately managed water and sanitation services expose individuals to
preventable health risks.

ECONOMIC and SOCIAL EFFECTS

▪ When water comes from improved and more accessible sources, people spend less time and effort
physically collecting it, meaning they can be productive in other ways.
▪ This can also result in greater personal safety by reducing the need to make long or risky journeys to
collect water.
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 ▪ Better water sources also mean less expenditure on health, as people are less likely to fall ill and
incur medical costs, and are better able to remain economically productive.
▪ With children particularly at risk from water-related diseases, access to improved sources of water
can result in better health, and therefore better school attendance, with positive longer-term
consequences for their lives
CATEGORIES OF WATER CONSUMPTION
DOMESTIC
• In-house Use: Drinking, cooking, sanitation, house cleaning, laundry, car washing, etc.
• Out-house Use: garden watering, lawn sprinkling, bathing pools, etc.
• Standpipe Use: standpipes and public fountains
TRADE & INDUSTRIAL
• Industrial: for factories, industries, power stations, docks, etc.
• Commercial: shops, offices, restaurants, hotels, airports, small trades, workshops, etc.
• Institutional: hospitals, schools, universities, government offices, military establishments, etc.
AGRICULTURAL
- For crops, livestock, horticulture, greenhouses, dairies, farmsteads
PUBLIC
- For public parks, green areas, street watering, water mains and sewer flushing, fire-fighting
LOSSES
• Distribution Losses – leakage from mains and service pipes upstream of consumers’ meters or
property boundary; leaks from valves, hydrants and washouts, leakage and overflows from service
reservoirs
• Consumer Wastage – leakage and wastage on consumers’ premises and from their supply pipes,
misuse, or unnecessary use of water by consumers
• Metering and Other Losses – source meter errors, supply meter errors unauthorized or unrecorded
consumption

CHALLENGES
FACTORS AFFECTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
▪ Climate Change
▪ Increasing Water Scarcity
▪ Population Growth
▪ Demographic Changes
▪ Urbanization
✓ By 2025, half of the world’s population will be living in water-stressed areas.
✓ Re-use of wastewater, to recover water, nutrients, or energy, is becoming an important strategy
✓ Increasingly, countries are using wastewater for irrigation
✓ Options for water sources used for drinking water and irrigation will continue to evolve, with an increasing
reliance on groundwater and alternative sources, including wastewater.
✓ Climate Change will lead to greater fluctuations in harvested rainwater.
✓ Management of all water resources will need to be improved to ensure provision and quality.

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WATER SUPPLY SYTEM
- A water supply system delivers water from sources to customers, and provides services vital to the
function of an industrialized society and important to emergency response and recovery after
disastrous events (e.g., earthquakes).
- Water supply systems are one of the most important infrastructure buildings. The main purpose of
water supply systems is the distribution of water to all its users. Water must be delivered in
sufficient quantity and at acceptable pressure.
Water Supply Systems are dependent on:
▪ Spatial Characteristics which includes topography and its influence on the pressure distribution in the
pipe network).
▪ Most of WSS are installed on existing or planned roads, so problems with existing communal
infrastructures can occur during construction.

OBJECTIVES OF A WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

To supply safe and wholesome water to the consumers
❖ To supply water in adequate quantity
❖ To make water available within easy reach of the consumers
❖ To supply water to domesticated animals
❖ To supply water to industries

LESSON LEARNED BY THE PHILIPPINE WATER SECTOR

• Phased Design
• Use of Updated Technology
• Operational Autonomy
• Tariff Design
• Institutional Development Practices
• Monitoring System

CONSIDERATIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE SYSTEM

• Technical Considerations
• Financial Considerations
• Social Considerations
• Environmental Consideration

WATER SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS

1. Service Level
2. Water Demand Projections
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 3. Facilities Design
4. Capital Investment and O&M Costs
5. Tariff Design
6. Design Iteration
7. Plans and Design Specifications
DESIGN OUTPUTS
1) Engineer’s Report
2) General Layout
3) Detailed Plans
4) Specifications
5) Bill of Quantities and Cost Estimates
REQUIREMENTS FOR DETAILED ENGINEERING DESIGN
1) General
2) Confirmation of Proposed Source Facilities
3) Topographic Survey
4) System Configuration and Sizing
5) Final System Design
6) Schematic Network Diagram
7) Preparation of Detailed Design Drawings
8) Cost Estimates

THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF WATER

• Water is one of the most abundant substances on Earth without which life, it is said, cannot exist.
• It covers more than 70 per cent (70%) of the earth’s surface and exists as vapor in the earth’s
atmosphere.
• It is considered as the universal solvent.
• Pure water, a tasteless, odorless and colorless liquid) is never found in nature. It is obtained only by
special methods of distillation and by chemical action in laboratories.
• Water in liquid form is most dense at 4° C.
• At 4°C, pure water has a specific gravity of 1.
• The density of pure water is constant at a particular temperature.
• Water is the only substance on Earth that exists in nature in all three physical states of matter.
• When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by volume.
• The specific heat of water in the metric system is 1 calorie – the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram one degree Celsius.

USES AND IMPORTANCE OF WATER

1. Consumptive Water Use
- water removed from available supplies without return to a water resource system
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 2. Non-consumptive Water Use
- water use that can be treated and returned as surface water
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

5 4
2 5 4
3
6
2 2
1 7
8
8 10
7
1
8
9

13 1 10

13 9

1) Water evaporates from oceans, streams, soil moisture, and snow due to the heat provided by solar
radiation.
2) Water vapor results from the evaporation of water. It reaches high up into the atmosphere and
condensation occurs.
3) As water vapor reaches higher, it becomes cooler. Cold air cannot hold as much water vapor as warm
air can, so as the air cools, it becomes saturated and the water vapor in it condenses. As a result,
clouds form.
4) While much of the clouds remain above the oceans, a part of them are transported to the land areas
by wind.
5) When the air can no longer hold all the condensed water vapor, excess amounts precipitate or change
from gas to liquid (or solid).
6) Rain drops may evaporate back into the atmosphere even when falling.
7) Another part may be intercepted by vegetation, structures, and other such surface modifications (land
cover).
8) Water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through infiltration which enhances the
moisture content of the soil.
9) Water that infiltrates the ground fills the spaces between sediments and cracks in the rock and flows
slowly as groundwater.
10) The precipitation reaching the ground surface after meeting the needs of infiltration and evaporation
moves down the natural slope over the surface and through a network of gullies, streams, and rivers
to reach the ocean.
11) The groundwater may come to the surface through springs and other outlets after spending a
considerably longer time than the surface flow.
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 12) The portion of the precipitation by which a variety of paths above and below the surface of the earth
reaches the stream channel is called runoff. Once it enters a stream channel, runoff becomes stream
flow.
13) When groundwater fills in all the empty spaces underground, it reaches an impenetrable layer of rock
where it percolates for hundreds (or thousands) of years.
14) Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the atmosphere
through the process of transpiration.
FACTORS ALTERING THE WATER CYCLE
Many factors have an impact on the normal workings of the water cycle. Examples are:
• extent of agricultural and industry activities deforestation and forestation
• the construction of dams the amount of water abstracted
RESPONSIBILITIES OF UTILITIES IN RELATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
✓ Utilities must do whatever is necessary to promote water conservation measures and reduce non-
revenue water.
✓ It is incumbent on the water system designer to consider:
1) the location and features of the utility’s facilities
2) ensure that the operation of the utility will not harm the ecology and that its design and plans
incorporate measures to avoid adding to risk factors that contribute to climate change.
CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS TO CONSIDER
Climate Change Effects
1) Rising Sea Levels
2) Increased saline intrusion into groundwater aquifers
3) Water treatment challenges: increased bromide; need for desalination
4) Increased risk of direct storm and flood damage to water utility facilities
Effects of Warmer Climate
1) Changes in discharge characteristics of major rivers due to upstream changes
2) Changes in recharge characteristics of major groundwater aquifers due to upstream changes
3) Increased water temperature leading to increased evaporation and eutrophication in surface sources
4) Water treatment and distribution challenges
5) Increased competing demands for domestic and irrigation
6) Increased urban demand with more heat waves and dry spells
7) Increased drawdown of local groundwater resources to meet the increasing water demands
Effects of More Intense Rainfall Events:
1) Increased turbidity and sedimentation
2) Loss of reservoir storage
3) Water filtration or filtration/avoidance treatment challenges
4) Increased risk of direct flood damage to water utility facilities

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SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO MITIGATE RISKS FROM CLIMATE CHANGE
A. Water Conservation Measures
1) Meter all production and connections
2) Reduce NRW
3) Demand Management through tariff design
4) Dissemination of water conservation tips to consumers
B. Design of Facilities
1) If possible have at least 2 sources of supply at different locations.
2) Build superstructures above high flood line level.
3) Adopt energy-efficiency programs and, where possible, select facilities which require less power
consumption. (e.g. use of hydraulic ram pump)
4) Monitor wells near coastlines to prevent salinization. If climate change causes sea levels to rise
dramatically, even aquifers that have been sustainably utilized can suffer salinization.
5) Utilization of renewable energy sources
C. Reforestation of Watersheds:
1) Join or initiate community programs for watershed reforestation. Enlist assistance from NGOs and
the LGU units.
2) Enlist the support of the community in protecting the watersheds.
D. Mitigation of Disaster Effects
1) Formation of a Disaster Response Committee
2) Networking with multi-sectoral organizations
Components of a Water Supply System
Source of Water
- This refers to the place from where water is obtained. The source must be reliable and have a
minimum number of impurities. It should have more charge than that of demand.
- The source may be surface or sub- surface.
Intake
• An intake collects the water from the source and feeds it to the transmission line.
• The basic functions of intake are: to ensure required water and reduce sediment entry, to check trash
and debris entry along with water entering and prevent the entry of ice, and to collect water from the
source and feed it to the transmission line.
Pump
• A pump is a lifting device commonly required to lift water from a source which is operated with the
help of energy.
• It is essential when the area to be supplied is located at a higher elevation than that of the source of
supply.
Collection Chamber
• If the water demand is not met by a single source, it may be required. This prevents the backflow of
water from one source to another.

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 • It is used to collect water from more than one source.
• It settles coarse materials contained in river or spring water.
Transmission Mains
• For the conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant, different types of conduit are
used like open channels, aqueducts, pipelines, etc. is known as transmission mains.
• Water from the transmission main is not given to users.
Interruption Chamber
• The chamber which is provided in the transmission lines to prevent bursting pipes due to excessive
pressure is known as an interruption chamber.
• Hence, the function of this chamber is to release high pressure or convert
Treatment or Purification
• The raw water contains various types of impurities to remove those impurities which is harmful to
human and other living beings’ health water treatment is done.
• The objective of water treatment is to provide and maintain water that is hygienically safe, palatable,
and aesthetically
Reservoir
• Reservoir is necessary to balance the variation of demand and to reserve water.
Control Valves
• They are provided in the pipelines to control and regulate the flow of water.
Distribution System
• After the treatment of water, it is distributed to the targeted community for domestic, industrial,
commercial, and public uses by the means of a pipe network is known as the distribution system.
• It is designed for peak flow.
Break Pressure Tank
• A small tank constructed in a rural gravity water supply specifically built to break the hydrostatic
pressure is called a break pressure tank.
• It prevents the pipe from bursting due to excessive pressure.
• The main function of a Break Pressure Tank is releasing force into atmospheric pressure.
Public Standpost
• This is the last and most frequently used component of the water supply system.
• In rural areas, consumers collect water from public stand posts to meet their house demand.
• If people cannot afford private connections in the rural area and scattered houses in the area a stand
post serves 8 to 10 households.

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 Using Hardy Cross
Derivation
➢ Hardy Cross was a civil engineer who specialized in structural engineering.
➢ He worked for the University of Illinois under the Department of Civil Engineering.
➢ In 1930, he published a paper that helped resolve challenges in the analysis of continuous frames by
distributing fixed end moments through his method known as Moment Distribution Method.
➢ Six years after, in the year 1936, he published another paper that paved way to revolutionize water
distribution systems through his method in pipe network analysis in which he applied the concept of
Moment Distribution Method.
Hardy Cross Method
The introduction of the Hardy Cross method for analyzing pipe flow networks revolutionized municipal water
supply design. Before the method was introduced, solving complex pipe systems for distribution was
extremely difficult due to the nonlinear relationship between head loss and flow.
Principles
➢ Principle No. 1 (Mass Balance)
In a certain junction, the inflow must equal the outflow.
➢ Principle No. 2
The sum of the head losses around a closed loop must be equal to zero

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Process
1) Assign initial guess for flow rates.
2) Find h and R for every pipe in a loop.
3) Sum up h and R per loop.
4) Find ∆Q for each loop.
5) Apply correction to each pipe.
6) Repeat

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WATER DEMAND

1) Service levels to be implemented
2) Size of the community
3) Standard of living of the populace
4) Quantity and quality of water available in the area
5) Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers
6) Climatological conditions
7) Habits and manners of water usage by the people
SERVICE LEVEL DEFINITIONS
Level I – Point Source
- Provides a protected well or developed spring with an outlet
- Without distribution system
- Normally serves an average of 15 households within a radius of 250 meters.
Level II – Communal Faucet System or Stand Posts
- Composed of a source, a reservoir, a piped distribution network, and communal faucets
- One faucet serves 4-6 households within a radius of 25 meters
Level III – Waterworks System or Individual House Connections
- Includes a source, a reservoir, a piped distribution network, and individual household taps
DESIGN PERIOD
For small water utilities, large outlays are not available and cannot be matched by the rural population’s
capacity to pay. For these reasons, the design period or horizon in our reference manual is set at 5 or 10 years.
Five-year Design Period
Advantages:
• Low initial capital cost
• Lower amortization on loans due to the lower investment cost
Disadvantages:
• Need for new capital outlays after five (5) years to upgrade system capacity
• Facilities are more viable to plan for a one stage 10-year period than to plan in two stages of 5-year
period each
Ten-year Design period
Advantages
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 • The water system facilities are capable of meeting the demand over a longer period.
• No major investment cost is expected during the 10-year design period.
Disadvantages
• The higher initial capital cost will require initial tariffs to be set higher.
DESIGN POPULATION
The Design Population is the targeted number of people that the project will serve.
Determining Design Population:
1. Projecting annual municipal and barangay growth rates
2. Projecting municipal and barangay populations
3. Projecting the population served
Determining Growth Rate and Projecting Population
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
– This method is based upon the assumption that the population increases at a constant rate.

Given the following data, determine the population in the year 2020 using arithmetic increase method.

2. Geometric Increase Method

- when the instantaneous rate of change of population is constant

Given the following data, determine the population in the year 2020 using
geometric increase method.

3. Exponential Increase Method

- This method is based upon the assumption that the instantaneous rate of change of a population
with respect to time is proportional to the population itself.

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A growing city had a population of 500000 in 2005. In 2010, the population was 760000. Assume exponential
growth. Predict the population in 2025.

Projecting the Population Served

1. Preparation of Base Maps
2. Ocular inspection
3. Delineation of the proposed service area
4. Determination and assessment of the level of acceptance by the residents of the planned water
system
5. Assessment of the availability and abundance/scarcity of alternative water sources
WATER CONSUMPTIONS
Unit Consumption for domestic water demand is expressed in per capita consumption per day (usually liters
per capita per day or lpcd)
Recommended unit consumption assumptions:
• Level II Public Faucets: 50-60 lpcd (each faucet serves 4-6 households)
• Level III House Connections: 80-100 lpcd
• Institutional Connections: 1.0 m3/day
• Commercial Connections: 0.8 m3/day
Total Consumption is the sum of the domestic, institutional and commercial consumptions expressed in
m3/d.
a) Domestic Consumption
- The year-by-year total domestic consumption is projected by applying the projected unit
consumption to the projected population to be served for each year
- Note: In anticipation of the trend towards upgrading to Level III in the future, the Level II system
planner should assume that within 5 years, 90% of the households served would opt for individual
house connections.
b) Institutional and Commercial Consumption

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NONREVENUE WATER
- Non-revenue water is the amount of water that is produced but not billed as a result of leaks,
pilferages, free water, utility usages, etc.
- This should be considered in the estimation of the capacity of the water supply system.
- An assumption of 15% NRW can be used for a new system. This can be increased up to a total of 20%
at the end of 10 years.
WATER DEMAND
- The water demand is a summation of all the consumptions given in the preceding sections and
will determine the capacity needed from the source/s.
- The average daily water demand, also known as the Average Day Demand (ADD), is calculated (in
m3/day or lps) from the estimated water consumptions and the allowance for the NRW
(expressed as a percentage).
- A system with consumption of 2 lps with a 15% NPW will have an average day demand equal to

Demand Variations and Demand Factors

Demand Parameter Demand Factor Description Uses
Average Day 1.0 The average of the daily To serve as basis for the annual
Demand water estimates and projections on
requirement spread in a year production, revenues, non-revenue
water, power costs, and other O&M
costs
Minimum Day 0.3ADD The minimum amount of To check on possible occurrence of
Demand water required in a single day excessive static pressures that the
over a year system might not be able to
withstand. (No point in the
transmission and distribution system
should be subjected to pressure
more than 70 m.)
Maximum Day 1.3ADD The maximum amount of The total capacity of all existing and
Demand water future water sources should be
required in a single capable of supplying at least this
day over a year. demand at any year during the
design period.
Peak Hour Demand 2.5ADD (>1000 The highest hourly demand in The pipeline network should be
Connections) a day designed to operate with at least 3
3.0ADD (<1000 meters during peak hour conditions.
Connections) If there is no reservoir, the power
ratings of pumping stations should
be sufficient for the operation of the
facilities during peak hour demands.
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SAMPLE COMPUTATION
Given the following data: Po = 2000, P10 = 3000, Persons per HH = 5. Determine the required source capacity
for a well operating 18 hrs./day for a Level II system. Assume 15% NRW.

1. Calculating for no. of Standpipes (Sp)

2000 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 400 𝐻𝐻
5 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛/ 𝐻𝐻

400 𝑆𝑝
= 66.67 ≈ 67 𝑆𝑝
6 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠/𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠
8. Assuming 15% NRW
2. Calculating for Consumption 261
50𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 307 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
67 × 6 × 5 × = 100500 0.85
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦
3. Assuming 15% NRW 9. Calculate for Max. Day Demand
100500 𝑙𝑝𝑑 307 × 1.3 = 400 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 118235.234 𝑙𝑝𝑑
85%
10. Convert to lps:
118235.234𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 1𝑑𝑎𝑦 1ℎ𝑟
× × = 1.82 ≈ 2 𝑙𝑝𝑠 400 𝑚3 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1ℎ𝑟 1000𝑙
𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 18ℎ𝑟𝑠 3600𝑠 × × × = 6.17 𝑙𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦 18 ℎ𝑟. 3600𝑠 𝑚3
4. For Level II WSS, assume that 90% will switch to
Level III Connections at the 10th Year.

Calculating for No. of Level III Connections:

3000 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠
= 600 𝐻𝐻
5 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝐻𝐻

600𝐻𝐻
= 540 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
90%
For this community size, assume 2 commercial and
1 institutional connection
5. Calculating for No. of Level II Connection:
600𝐻𝐻
= 60𝐻𝐻
10%

60𝐻𝐻
= 10 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠
6𝐻𝐻/𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
6. ADD for standpipes
6𝐻𝐻 5𝑝 1𝑚3
10 × × × 50𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑 × = 15 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑝 𝐻𝐻 1000𝑙
7. ADD for Domestic:
5𝑝 1𝑚3
540 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛.× .× 90𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑 × = 243 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛 1000𝑙
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Factors to Consider
• Adequacy and Reliability
• Quality
• Cost
• Legality
• Politics
BASIC CLIMATOLOGY OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. Characterized by:
1. high temperature
2. high humidity
3. abundant rainfall.
Temperature
• Mean annual temperature: 26.6°C (excludes Baguio)
• Coolest month: January (25.5°C)
• Warmest month: May (28.3°C)
(Mean annual temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3°C)
Humidity
- refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere
✓ Philippines’ high relative humidity is due to: high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water
✓ Average monthly relative humidity: 71% (March) - 85% (September)
Rainfall
- the most important climatic element in the Philippines
✓ Mean annual rainfall: 965mm-4,064mm
✓ Places with greatest amount of rainfall: Baguio City, Eastern Samar & Eastern Surigao
✓ Places with least amount of rainfall: Southern Cotabato
Seasons
Two major seasons:
• Rainy Season (June-November)
• Dry Season (December-May)
o Cool Dry Season (December to February)
o Hot Dry Season (March to May)

CLIMATE TYPES
Climate Type Characteristics Regions Covered
Type I Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April Western parts of Luzon, Mindoro,
and wet during the rest of the year. Areas are shielded Negros and Palawan experience
by mountain ranges but are open to rains brought in by this climate
southwest monsoons (Habagat) and tropical cyclones.
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Type II Characterized by the absence of a dry season but with a Includes Catanduanes, Sorsogon,
very pronounced maximum rain period from November eastern part of Albay, eastern and
to January. Regions with this climate are located along northern parts of Camarines Norte
or very near the eastern coast. and Sur, eastern part of Samar,
and large portions of Eastern
Mindanao
Type III Seasons are not very pronounced but are relatively dry Includes western part of Cagayan,
from November to April and wet during the rest of the Isabela, parts of Northern
year. Areas are partly sheltered from the trade winds Mindanao and most of Eastern
but are open to Habagat and are frequented by tropical Palawan
cyclones.
Type IV Characterized by a more or less even distribution of Includes Batanes, Northeastern
rainfall throughout the year. Luzon, Southwest Camarines
Norte, Western Camarines Sur,
Albay, Northern Cebu, Bohol and
most of Central, Eastern and
Southern Mindanao.

✓ Climate Types and the rainfall data can be used in assessing the average volume of rain for a given
area to determine the feasibility of rain harvesting or capacity of certain surface sources to supply
projected demands.
✓ Generally, the east and west coasts of the country receive the heavier rainfall.
✓ The northeast monsoon or “Amihan” brings frequent rains to the east coast of the islands
✓ The southwest monsoon or “Habagat” brings rainy season in Manila, western coast, and the northern
parts of the archipelago.

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER SOURCES

1. Rainwater
- is a product of water vapor that has risen due to evaporation and accumulated in the atmosphere,
which condenses and falls on the Earth's surface.
2. Surface Water
- exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff. It comes from rains, surface runoff and
groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, impounding reservoirs, seas, and oceans.
- Quantity of surface runoff depends on (but not limited to):
o Amount and intensity of rainfall Climate and vegetation
o Geological, geographical, and topographical features of the catchment area
o the amount of pollutants
o contaminants picked up by the water in the course of its travel

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 - For rural water supply systems, surface water sources should be chosen as the last priority
because of the high cost of treatment and the general lack of expertise for the maintenance and
operation of the appropriate treatment facilities.
3. Groundwater
- is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground surface to form
underground deposits called aquifers
- generally preferred as a water source
✓ The upper surface of groundwater is the water table
✓ Groundwater is often clear, free from organic matter and bacteria due to the filtering
effect of soil on water percolating through it

TYPES AND EXTRACTION METHODS

Spring
- is a point where groundwater flows out of the ground
Well
- is a hole constructed by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or drilling for the purpose of
withdrawing water from underground aquifers
Infiltration Galleries/Wells
- are horizontal wells, constructed by digging a trench into the water-bearing sand and installing
perforated pipes in it. Water collected in these pipes converges into a “well” from which it is
pumped out.

Water Quality
- a measure of how good the water is, in terms of supporting beneficial uses or meeting its
environmental values.
✓ Before deciding on the source, water quality tests should be conducted first through representative
samples.
✓ These tests should be performed on-site and through samples taken to the laboratory
Water Quality Parameters
✓ Some parameters may be observed and tested on site with the use of portable equipment; while
others have to be analyzed formally by an accredited testing laboratory.
✓ Details of the assessment report should include but does not limit to: weather conditions, time of
sampling, flow rate (when possible) and the physical appearance
Table 5.1 Water Quality Parameters to be Tested
High Priority (critical) Parameters:
1. Microbiological: Total Coliform, Fecal 6. Benzene 11. Manganese
Coliforms 7. Color 12. Chloride
2. Arsenic 8. Turbidity 13. Sulfate
3. Cadmium 9. Iron 14. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

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4. Lead 10. pH
5. Nitrate
Other Parameters:
1. Temperature 4. Total Hardness 7. Dissolved Silica
2. Biological Oxygen Demand 5. Chromium 8. Total Mercury
3. Ammonia as NH3-N 6. Sulfide 9. Pesticides

Frequency of Samples
A. Microbiological Tests
Table 5.2 Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-water Supply Systems for Microbiological Examination
Source/ Supply Mode Population Served (no. of persons) Minimum Frequency of Sampling
Level I 90 – 150 Once in three (3) months
Level II 600 Once in two (2) months
Less than 5000 1 sample monthly
5,000 – 100,000 1 sample per 5,000 population per month
Level III
More than 100,000 20 samples and additional one (1) sample per 10,000 population
per months
Emergency Supplies Before delivery to users
for Drinking Water
B. Physical/Chemical Tests
- The minimum frequency is once a year regardless of service levels
- Samples are to be taken from the source itself.
COMPONENTS OF WATER QUALITY
A. CHEMICAL ASPECT
1) Hardness - due primarily to calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates and calcium and
magnesium sulfate and chloride
Objectionable for the ff. reasons:
• Has a laxative effect
• Makes soap lathering more difficult
• Causes scaling in cookware
2) Alkalinity and acidity – pH level of water
3) Carbon Dioxide - Carbonic acid formation and the presence of free CO2 causes corrosion
4) Dissolved Oxygen
- Causes flat taste
- water devoid of oxygen may indicate an appreciable level of oxygen-consuming organic substances
5) Chemical Oxygen Demand - a measure of the amount of organic content of water
6) Organic Nitrogen - a constituent of all waste protein products from sewage, kitchen wastes and all
dead organic matter
7) Iron & Manganese
- cause staining of clothing and plumbing fixtures
- causes the clogging of strainers and screens
- causes rusting of metallic conduits
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 8) Toxic Substances - may constitute a danger to health
9) Phenolic Compounds - these cause undesirable taste in water whenever present
B. Physical Aspects
1) Turbidity - a measure of the degree of cloudiness or muddiness of water
2) Color - due to the presence of colored substances in solution
3) Odor - should be absent or very faint for water to be acceptable for drinking
4) Taste - the presence of undesirable taste in water indicates the presence of contaminants
C. Microbiological Aspects
Coliform Bacteria - primary indicator of fecal pollution
Other indicators include:
Parasitic Protozoa, Helminths, Entamoeba, Giardia
✓ Pathogens can be removed by filtration or by disinfection
✓ Chlorine, which is readily available and inexpensive, is the usual disinfectant
Basic Methods used for enumeration of coliform organisms:
1) Multiple-tube Fermentation
- Coliform density is estimated via a most probable number (MPN), which is generated using
specific probability formulas
2) Membrane Filtration Method
- a technique for testing water samples. Water is drawn through a special porous membrane
designed to trap microorganisms larger than 0.45 μm.
PHILIPPINE STANDARDS FOR WATER QUALITY
The Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water 2017
- a policy established by the Department of Health (DOH) which prescribes the standards and
procedures on drinking-water quality aiming to protect the public and consumer’s health
- provides the minimum standards for quality of potable water

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A) Rainwater
- can be utilized as an important source of water supply in areas where rain is well distributed
throughout the year and where surface and groundwater are scarce
- Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater in a scientific and controlled
manner for future use.
Rainwater Harvesting Benefits
✓ Environment-friendly, easy approach for water requirements
✓ Uses simple technologies that are inexpensive and easy to maintain
✓ Ideal solution for water supply in areas without adequate alternative water resources (good
backup source to wells and municipal water)
✓ Increases ground water level and improves its quality
✓ Mitigates the effects of drought
✓ Reduces the runoff, which otherwise would flood storm water drains
✓ Reduces flooding of roads and low- lying areas
✓ Reduces soil erosion
✓ Cost-effective and easy to maintain
✓ Reduces water and electricity bills
✓ Little soap is needed since rainwater is soft
✓ Very flexible, allows expansion, reconfiguration, or relocation, if necessary
Notes on Rainwater Harvesting
• Bypass the first 5 to 10 minutes of rainwater and filter the collected water
• The cistern be treated after every rain with a chlorine compound of at least 5 mg/l chlorine
RAINWATER HARVESTING
➢ Traditionally, rainwater harvesting involves harvesting the rain from a roof. The rain will collect
in gutters that channel the water into downspouts and the into some sort of storage vessel.
➢ Today, rainwater harvesting is becoming a viable alternative for supplying households and
businesses with water and not just for the farms anymore. There are many countries such as
Germany and Australia where rainwater harvesting has become a norm.
Uses of Collected Rainwater
• Irrigation Use
• Indoor, non-potable use
• Whole house, potable use (when properly treated)
Methods of Collecting Rainwater
• Rain Barrels
o This method is the most common and one that many people are familiar with. This
involves installing a barrel at a gutter downspout to collect rainwater. The actual barrel
may be a recycled barrel or a new commercially available rain barrel.
o Pros:
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 ▪ Easily implemented by anyone at any residence
▪ Barrels are readily available in your community or at various stores & websites
▪ Barrels don’t take up much space so they can fit into any situation
o Cons:
▪ Capacity is generally only 50 to 100 gallons
▪ Easily overflows and wastes collection opportunities
• Dry System
o This method is a variation of a rain barrel set-up, but it involves a larger storage volume.
Essentially, the collection pipe “dries” after each rain event since it empties directly
into the top of the tank.
o Pros:
▪ Can store a large amount of rainwater
▪ Great for climates where rainfall happens with infrequent, larger storm events
▪ Can be inexpensive to implement
▪ Less complicated system so maintenance is easier
o Con:
▪ The storage tank must be located next to your house
• Wet System
o This method involves locating the collection pipes underground in order to connect
multiple downspouts from different gutters. The rainwater will fill the underground
piping and the water will rise in the vertical pipes until it spills into the tank. The
downspouts and underground collection piping must have water-tight connections. The
elevation of the tank inlet must be below the lowest gutter on the house.
o Pros
▪ The ability to collect from your entire collection surface
▪ The ability to collect from multiple gutters and downspouts
▪ The tank can be located away from your house
o Cons:
▪ More expensive to implement due to underground piping
▪ Sufficient difference between gutters and tank inlet must be available

Estimation of Water Collected (Through Rain Harvesting)

➢ Determine the amount of water
which can be collected in a year if
the annual rainfall is 2,360 mm and
the available collecting surface has
the dimension of 5 x 10 meters.
➢ Note: One millimeter of rain falling on one square meter of roof will yield 0.80 to 0.90 liters
of water depending on the type of roof.

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 Rainwater Collection System
1. It all starts with the roof surface. Nearly all roof
surfaces are fine for rainwater harvesting.
2. Gutters should have some sort of gutter
protection screening in order to keep large
debris from entering the gutters.
3. Rainwater can be collected from any type any
shape of gutter. There is no need for a special
gutter for harvesting rainwater.
4. An additional filtration opportunity is with the
installation of a rain head (downspout filter)
that allows for a bit of self-cleaning filtration
options.
5. A first-flush diverter helps to prevent the first flush of contaminated rainwater from
entering the tank.
6. Another rainwater filtration opportunity is with a tank screen that is installed on the tank
entry point. It also helps to keep mosquitoes and pests out.
7. Rainwater tanks come in all sorts of sizes and materials.
8. Install an insect proof flap valve on the end of the overflow pipe to keep mosquitoes and
pests out.
9. An auto-fill system can be installed to keep a minimum amount of water in the tank at all
times. This is very important for rainwater tanks that are connected to automatic irrigation
systems in order to prevent the pump from running dry.
10. Select a pump system to provide pressurized rainwater to distribute the rainwater easier or
to connect to an inground irrigation system.
11. Install an irrigation filter inline after the pump in order to catch any large debris that may
have gotten through the pump.
12. A water level indicator can be helpful with monitoring the water usage from the tank.
B) Springs
- are outcrops of groundwater that often appear as small water
- holes or wet spots at the foot of hills or along river banks
C) Infiltration Wells
- involves a simple means of obtaining naturally filtered water
- consists of a system of porous perforated, or open-joint pipe or other conduit that drains to a
receiving well
✓ It is not advisable to construct an infiltration well unless the water table is relatively stable and
the water intercepted is free of pollution.
✓ Careful tests to measure yield should be made to determine the length of collecting pipes
before constructing an infiltration well.
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 ✓ It is usually necessary to dewater the working trench (cribbing and dewatering pumps) making
it more expensive more expensive than a simple bored or driven well
D) Surface Water Supplies
Surface water
- includes water from streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, seas and oceans.
➢ Surface water usually contains organic and inorganic minerals and needs expensive water
treatment.
➢ Surface water should be avoided for rural water supplies.

GENERAL PLAN OF ACTION

1. Utilize Existing Wells
2. New Well Sources
a. Determine the best possible well sites
b. Do preliminary well design
c. Select the method of construction
d. Construct the well
e. Test for safe yield and water quality
WELL HYDROLOGY
Well
- is a hole which has been dug, bored, driven or drilled
beneath the ground for the purpose of extracting
ground water.
Unsaturated zone
- zone immediately beneath the ground surface and
contains both water and air in the voids and pores.
Saturated zone (aka aquifer)
- zone where the voids are all filled with water. Water
in this zone is referred to as groundwater
Water table
- the boundary between the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone.
- not stationary
- tends to follow the topography of the land

Types of Aquifers
1. Unconfined Aquifer
- also called water table aquifer
- are often shallow and the hydraulic pressure at
its surface water level or water table is equal
to atmospheric pressure

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 2. Confined Aquifer
- also called artesian aquifer
- an aquifer is sandwiched between an upper impermeable layer and a lower impermeable layer
- hydraulic pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure

CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS BASED ON AQUIFER TAPPED

1. Shallow Wells
- a well is considered shallow if it is less than 20 meters deep
- tap the upper water-bearing layer underground
- could be unreliable and sometimes intermittent
- usually more affected by contamination
2. Deep Wells
- are over 20 meters deep
- taps the deeper unconfined aquifer
- not confined by an overlying impermeable layer
- characterized by the presence of a water table
- less susceptible to surface contamination
- yield tends to be more reliable
3. Artesian Wells
- Like deep wells but water extracted from confined aquifer
- confining impermeable layers are above and below the aquifer

REHABILITATION OR IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING WELLS

Typical Causes of Reduced Well Flow
1. Mechanical Blockage
- involves the movement of fine-grained soil materials from the natural formation to the borehole
face or the face of the screen
- caused by corrosion by-products of the metal portions of the well which act to cover the openings
of a well screen
2. Chemical Encrustation
- the deposition of minerals on the well screen or gravel pack which act to restrict the movement of
water into a well
- caused by the precipitation of minerals dissolved in the groundwater due to changes in flow and/or
pressure conditions at the well.
3. Bacteriological Plugging
- This is when microorganisms, such as bacteria, cause clogging problems in wells
- Usually caused by types of iron-related bacteria
Typical Methods of Well Rehabilitation
1. Chemical Treatment
✓ The selected chemicals are placed in the well and agitated frequently for 24 to 72 hours.
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 ✓ The well is then pumped with water before a water test is given
✓ The selected chemicals are placed in the well and agitated frequently for 24 to 72 hours.
✓ The well is then pumped with water before a water test is given
✓ Use of disinfectants are chemicals which are used to kill bacteria present in the immediate vicinity
of a well
✓ Bacteriological plugging is typically treated by a combination of methods to destroy bacteria and to
remove iron encrustation. This treatment often consists of alternating chlorine and acid solutions,
combined with physical treatment methods
2. Physical Methods
a. Well drilling rig is a method where a brush is attached to the drill and used in the well to
mechanically remove incrustations
b. High-pressure jetting is a method that features a tool with an adjustable, multi-head, water-
powered jet that lowers into the well and injects water at a high pressure, dislodging debris
from the well
c. Well surging is the repeated injecting and flushing out of water in a well system. With
repeated flushing, the debris is washed away
Steps in Well Rehabilitation
1. Pull and inspect the pump ✓ Another method of increasing
2. Perform a video survey the well yield is to deepen an
3. Perform mechanical cleaning of the well screen existing well. This method
4. Apply the proper quantity and type of chemical treatments should be discussed with an
5. Allow sufficient chemical reaction time experienced driller.
6. Remove spent chemicals from the well
7. Reinstall the well pump
8. Conduct a performance pumping test
TYPES OF WELLS BASED ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS
TYPES OF WELLS BASED ON DESIGN
1. Dug Wells
- are holes or pits dug manually into the ground to tap the water table
- may be up to 15 meters deep, with diameter usually ranging from 1 meter to 1.5 meters
- lined usually with concrete masonry, bricks, stones, or reinforced concrete
2. Driven Wells
- like dug wells, they tap the shallow portion of the unconfined aquifers
- typically made using a specialized drilling rig called a "well driver" that is designed to pound a
small diameter pipe or casing into the ground
3. Bored Wells
- constructed with hand or power augers, usually into soft cohesive or non-caving formations that
contain enough clay to support the boreholes
- depth could be up to 15 meters

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 - very prone to surface contamination
- not applicable on hard consolidated materials and is not advisable on predominantly boulder
formations
4. Drilled Wells
- can extract groundwater from a much deeper level than the other types of wells
- The NWRB requires professional well drillers to register with it.
- It is not advisable to hire drillers who may not be qualified or lack the necessary experience to
undertake the drilling and well development work for the utility
WELL CONSTRUCTION METHODS
1. Percussion or Cable Tool Method
- a traditional method of drilling water wells that has been used for centuries
- involves using a heavy chisel or bit attached to a cable or rope, which is repeatedly raised and
dropped by a drilling rig to break up rock and soil and create a hole.
Advantages:
✓ Rigs are relatively inexpensive, simple in design and require little sophisticated maintenance
✓ Machines have low energy requirement
✓ Borehole is stabilized during the whole drilling operation
✓ Recovery of reliable samples is possible from every depth unless a heaving condition occurs
✓ Wells can be drilled in areas where little make- up water exists and can be constructed with little
chance of contamination
✓ Wells can be drilled in formations where lost circulation is a problem
✓ Wells can be bailed at any time to determine the approximate yield at certain depths.
Disadvantages:
✓ Penetration rates are relatively slow
✓ Casing costs are usually higher because heavier wall or larger diameter casing may be required and
difficulty to pull-back long strings of casing in some geologic conditions
✓ Not recommended for solid hard rock formations
2. Rotary Drilling Method
- was developed to increase drilling speeds and reach greater depths in most formations
- The drill bit is attached to the lower end of a string of drill pipes, which transmit the rotating action
from the rig to the bit
Advantages:
✓ Penetration rates are relatively high in all types of materials
✓ Minimal casing is required during the drilling operation
✓ Rig mobilization and demobilization are rapid
✓ Well screens can be set easily as part of the casing installation.
Disadvantages:
✓ Drilling rigs are costly and require a high level of maintenance;
✓ Mobility of the rig may be limited depending on the slope and condition (wetness) of the land surface;

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✓ Collection of accurate samples requires special procedures
✓ Drilling fluid management requires additional knowledge and experience
3. Reverse-Circulation Rotary Drilling Method
- Differs from the direct rotary in that the drilling fluid circulates in the opposite direction.
- The suction end of the centrifugal pump, rather than the discharge end, is connected through the
swivel to the Kelly and drill pipe
Advantages:
✓ Porosity and permeability of the formation near the borehole are relatively undisturbed
✓ Large diameter holes can be drilled quickly and economically
✓ No casing is required during the drilling operation
✓ Well screens can be set easily as part of casing installation.
Disadvantages:
✓ Large water supply is generally needed
✓ Reverse-rotary rigs and components are more expensive
✓ Large mud pits are required
✓ Some drill sites are not accessible because of the rig size
4. Air Rotary Method
- air, with a small volume of water and surfactant (foam), serves as the fluid and excavation is
accomplished exactly as is done in the conventional direct rotary method.
- is used principally in semi-consolidated and consolidated formations.
- not recommended for drilling in unconsolidated materials because the quality of the samples is usually
poor and inaccurate.
5. Down-the-hole Drilling Method
- In this method, the percussion mechanism – commonly called the hammer assembly – is located
directly behind the hammer bit.
- The down-the-hole drill is basically a pneumatic jack hammer that is operated at the end of the drill
pipe that rapidly strikes the rock while the drill pipe is slowly rotated.
- The percussion effect is similar to the blow delivered by a cable tool bit, except for its higher impact
and number of blows per minute.
Advantages:
✓ Cutting removals is extremely rapid
✓ Aquifer is not plugged with drilling fluids
✓ No maintenance cost for mud pumps
✓ Bit life is extended
✓ Penetration rate is high, especially with down-the-hole hammer in highly resistant rocks such as
dolomite and basalt
✓ An estimate of the yield can be made during drilling from a particular formation
✓ Wells can be drilled where lost circulation is not a problem.

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 Disadvantages:
✓ High cost
✓ Application restricted to semi-consolidated and well-consolidated formations.

TESTS OF WELL SUITABILITY

1. Pumping “Safe Yield” Test
✓ The well’s safe yield can be roughly determined by operating a test pump with capacity at least equal
to the system peak demand and operating it for 24 to 48 hours.
✓ After 24 hours pumping, the drawdown should be measured at several time intervals to determine if it
has stabilized.
✓ The pumping rate at a stabilized pumping water level is the so called maximum pumping level and the
safe yield is about 60 - 80% of the figure
2. Water Quality Test
✓ This is done to determine if the physical and chemical characteristics of the groundwater meet the
parameters set by the PNSDW
Important Factors to consider in selecting a drilled well site
1. Proximity to the planned service area
2. Local hydro geological conditions
3. Right-of-way and site ownership issues
4. Accessibility of the site by drilling rigs and other equipment
5. Distance/security from potential sources of surface contamination
6. Proximity to existing electric power lines
7. Terrain and ground slope of the site

A survey of existing wells in the proposed area should be done to determine:

1. Typical yields and water quality
2. Depths and which aquifer to tap into
3. Prior drilling success rates

Note: A drilling contractor cannot always determine in advance the depth at which an adequate water supply
will be found. Neighboring wells offer some guidance but not a definite assurance

Hydro-Geological Conditions
- refers to the geological and hydrological factors that affect the movement, availability, and quality of
groundwater within an aquifer system. These conditions include the physical properties of the
subsurface materials, such as porosity, permeability, and storage capacity, as well as the
characteristics of the water itself, such as its chemistry and temperature.

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 ✓ The water resources study of the hydro-geological conditions of the project area will indicate the
viable sites for well exploration in terms of supply capacity and water quality.
✓ Hydro-geological studies are conducted by knowledgeable professionals or drillers, who assess
available information on existing wells

DESIGNING A DRILLED WELL

Well Design
Two stages:
1. Preliminary Design
- prepared by an experienced professional or driller based on hydro-geologic information gathered
before the drilling
- the basis of the well drilling contract and the cost estimates
2. Final Well Design
- the preliminary well design will be adjusted based on actual observations and findings on the specific
site during the drilling period
- during this stage, the design assumptions used are verified and become actual design parameter

The main objective of the design is to construct a well that:

▫ Is structurally stable
▫ Is able to extract groundwater at the desired volume and quality
▫ Has the proper and correctly placed screens or slots to tap the productive aquifers as well as to allow
effortless flow of ground water into the well
▫ Has enough space to house pumps
▫ Has appropriate gravel packing that minimizes entry of sediments and sand particles

Estimated Well Yield

- The combined production of the existing sources (if any) and of the additional well(s) should be at
least
- equivalent to the projected maximum day demand of the water system by the design year.
- The hydro-geological study mentioned in the preceding section would indicate the estimated yield of a
well.
- Prior to construction, this estimated well yield is considered preliminary and is used as basis for the
preliminary well design.
- After well construction and development, the actual well yield will be determined through a pumping
test.
Well Depth
- The depth of the well depends on the water-bearing formation and the budgeted cost.
- The well must be designed to penetrate the aquifer as deep as possible within the budgeted cost.
- Generally, a well is completed to the bottom of the aquifer.

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Casing Diameter
- The well casing could be either a straight casing or telescopic casing. The diameter of a straight
casing is the same from top to bottom of the well.
- Telescopic casing is a combination of a larger diameter casing/screen portion and a smaller diameter
lower casing/screen portion.
- The casing serves as a housing for the pumping equipment and as a conduit for the flow of
groundwater from the screen opening to the suction of the pump.
- The housing portion of the casing should be located such that the pump will always be submerged in
water. It should be set a few meters below the lowest drawdown level, considering seasonal
fluctuations.
- The casing should be large enough to accommodate the pumping unit for the desired supply rate.
Well Screen
- The well screen is the intake portion of the well. The yield of a well depends greatly on the design and
location of the screen.
- Wells can be screened continuously along the bore or at specific depth intervals. This depends on the
depths and thickness of aquifer layers encountered are typically installed in wells where the aquifer is
composed of loose or unstable material
- Usually made of stainless steel
Well screens should as much as possible:
✓ prevent movement of sand into the well
✓ provide optimum opening for groundwater inflow
✓ be corrosion-resistant
✓ be structurally strong to withstand collapse
Types of Well Screens
1. Screen
- the more expensive alternative and is necessary if the aquifer is composed of loose material such as
fine sand, gravel or soft sandstone.
2. Slotted or perforated casing
- can be used when the aquifer formation is more consolidated

Size of Slot Opening

✓ The slot openings must be small enough to keep out sediment but permit easy entry of water into the
well.
✓ The slot size chosen will depend on the particle size of the earth materials in the producing aquifer.
✓ A slot size that allows 60 percent of the aquifer material to pass through during the well development
phase of drilling should be chosen.
✓ The remaining 40 percent, comprising the coarsest materials, will form a natural filter pack around the
perforations or screens
Screen Placement

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 ✓ The screen or perforations on the casing/liner must be placed adjacent to the aquifer.
✓ If improperly placed, the well may produce fine sediment which will plug plumbing fixtures and cause
excessive wear on the pump.
✓ The pumping water level in the well should never go below the top of the slot openings or perforations.
Otherwise, the aquifer would be exposed to oxygen, which would enhance bacterial growth and
reduce well yield.
Gravel Pack
✓ The annular space between the well screen, well casing, and borehole wall is filled with gravel or
coarse sand (called the gravel pack or filter pack).
✓ The gravel pack does not exclude fine silt and clay particles
✓ The uppermost section is normally sealed cement grout to ensure that no water or contamination can
enter the annulus from the surface
Cement Grout
✓ A cement grout should be used to fill the upper 3 m of the annular space between the casing and the
bore hole to provide a seal against possible surface contamination.
✓ At the surface of the well, a surface casing is commonly installed to facilitate the installation of the
well seal

WELL DRILLING
Use of Experienced Deepwell Drillers
Well drilling must be contracted to an experienced and competent well drilling company duly accredited by
the NWRB. Driller’s role includes:
1. Record all changes in geologic formations and their corresponding depth
2. Log the geophysical borehole
3. Develop the well
4. Conduct plumbness test and check alignment
5. Conduct pumping test
Drilling
- During drilling, drillers must keep a detailed log of the drill cuttings obtained from the advancing
borehole.
- After the drilling has been completed, before the well is installed, it is often desirable to obtain more
detailed data on the subsurface geology by taking geophysical measurements in the borehole
Well Development
- Well development is the process of removing fine sediment and drilling fluid from the area
immediately surrounding the perforations.
- This increases the well’s ability to produce water and maximizes production from the aquifer.
- Jetting, surging, backwashing and over pumping are methods used to develop a well.
Well Completion
Several procedures the drilling contractor must complete before the well is ready to use:

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 - Well development
- Disinfecting the well
- Conducting a yield test
Wellhead Protection
- The construction of the final well seal is intended to provide protection from leakage and to keep
runoff from entering the wellhead.
- Aims to prevent pollutants from entering the well and contaminating the drinking water supply
- It is also important to install backflow prevention devices

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