The Fundamental Unit of Life – Cell

 All living organisms in this universe are made up of cells.

 They either exist as a single cell or as a combination of multiple cells.
Discoveries about Cells – The Fundamental Unit of Life
Period of
Discovered By What they discovered?
time
Robert Hooke 1665 noticed the presence of cells in a cork slice

Leeuwenhoek 1674 found the presence of living cells in the pond water

Robert Brown 1831 recognized the existence of a nucleus in the cell

invented the term ‘Protoplasm’ which is the liquid present in a
Purkinje 1839
cell
presented the cell theory that all organisms are actually made up
Schleiden and Schwann 1838, 1839
of cells
suggested that all cells come from cells that already exist in
Virchow 1855
nature
The Cell Theory
1. A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
2. All the living organisms are made up of cells.
3. Cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
 Unicellular Organisms – The organisms that consist of a single cell such as Amoeba.
 Multicellular Organisms – The organisms which contain various cells that perform different functions
in the organism such as plants fungi and animals
How can multicellular organisms originate from a single cell?
A cell has the capability to divide itself into cells of its own type. Therefore, more cells can generate from an
already existing cell.
The Shape of the Cell
 The shape of the cell may vary depending upon the type of function they perform in an organism.
 Cells are capable of changing their shape. For example, the white blood cells and amoeba can change
shapes on their own.
How can cells perform distinct functions in organisms?
Cells are capable of performing multiple functions in an organism. A cell contains specific components
which are called Organelles. Each organelle in the cell can perform different functions such as making new
cells or clearing the waste of the cell. Thus, organelles allow a cell to perform several kinds of activities in
an organism.
The Organization of a Cell
A cell contains three features –
 The Plasma Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane
 It is just like an envelope that covers the whole cell. Therefore, a cell gets separated from the external
environment because it has a plasma membrane.
 The plasma membrane has the capability to decide which materials should enter or leave the cell and
which should not. That is why it is also called as a ‘Selectively Permeable Membrane’.
 Movement of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide to and from the cell is carried out by means of diffusion.
 Gaseous substances have a tendency to move to areas where their concentration is less from the areas
where there is higher. This movement is defined as the process of diffusion. Diffusion can take place of
solids, liquid, gases.
 Movement of Water between the Cell and its External Environment –
It is carried out by the means of osmosis. Osmosis is a process in which water moves
from the region of high concentration to one where its concentration is low through a
semi permeable membrane. Therefore we can say that Osmosis is just a special case of
the process of diffusion.
Hypotonic Solutions
 If the concentration of water outside the cell is higher than the concentration of
water inside the cell the cell gains water by the process of osmosis.
 Water can move into the cell from the cell membrane. In the case of hypotonic
solutions, more amount of water enters the cells which results in swelling of the
cells.
Isotonic Solutions
 If the cells are put in an environment which has similar concentration
of water as present inside. This state allows for the free movement of water across
the membrane without changing concentration of solutes on either side.
 Therefore, the size of the cell does not vary in
an isotonic solution because there is no net movement of
water.
Hypertonic Solutions
 If the cells are kept in an environment which
has lower concentration of water than what is present inside
the cells then due to the process of osmosis water moves out of the cells.
 This results in a decrease in size of the cells (they shrink) as more amount of water
comes out of the cell.
What is Endocytosis?
It is a process by which the plasma membrane engulfs food and other materials inside
the cell.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is a outer, hard covering of the cell which maintains the shape of the cell.
 The cell wall is generally made up of cellulose.
 What is plasmolysis?
Plasmolysis is a process in which the contents of the cell that are away from the cell wall shrink or
contract when a cell loses water due to Osmosis when it is kept in hypertonic solution.
 Can dead cells absorb water? No, dead cells cannot absorb water through osmosis.
 How plants, fungi, and bacteria can exist in hypotonic medium?
Plants, fungi, and bacteria exist in such situations because of their rigid cell membranes. Even if the cells
swell up the cell membrane is able to prevent them from bursting out.
The Nucleus
Nucleus is a prominent, organelle present in cell which is the controlling centre of all activities of cell.
The Structure of the Nucleus
 A nucleus has a nuclear membrane which covers it all around.
 There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow movement of substances in and out of the
nucleus.
 There are chromosomes, rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus which contain genetic information
made up of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid)
Chromatin
Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The chromatin organizes itself into chromosomes
whenever the cell is about to divide.
Nucleolus
It is called as the Brain of the Nucleus. It comprises of 25% of the volume of the nucleus. It consists of
proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA). It helps information of ribosomes which help information of proteins
inside the cell.
What is a nucleoid?
Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they lack a nuclear membrane. Such a nucleus
with no definite nuclear boundaries is called a Nucleoid.

What are the prokaryotes?

Organisms whose cells do not have a definite cell membrane are called Prokaryotes.

What are eukaryotes?

Organisms whose cells contain a well-defined nuclear membrane are called Eukaryotes.
Are there any further differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

There is no presence of nucleus The nucleus exists in the cells

A single chromosome is present There are multiple chromosomes

They undergo asexual reproduction They undergo sexual as well as a sexual reproduction

They are generally unicellular organisms They are generally multicellular organisms
There are membrane bound cell organelles present
There are no membrane bound cell organelles
inside the cells
Example – Bacteria, Blue green algae
Example – Fungi, Plants and Animals
(Cyanobacteria)
Cytoplasm
 The plasma membrane has a fluid like substance in it which is called the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct functions of the cell
Functions of Cytoplasm
 It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.
 The cellular processes occur in cytoplasm such as formation of proteins.
 It allows movement of substances in the cell such as hormones.
 It dissolves cellular wastes.
The Cell Organelles
 In the case of Eukaryotic organisms, the cells contain organelles that have their own membranes apart
from the overall cell membrane of the cell.
What is the significance of membrane-bound organelles in a cell?
The cells perform several functions. The organelles are useful because they allow separation of different
functions that are being performed by the cell.
Organelles which carry out important activities in a Cell –
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum 5. Plastids
2. Golgi Apparatus 6. Vacuoles
3. Lysosomes 7. Centrioles
4. Mitochondria 8. Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 The structure of the ER is quite similar to that of the plasma membrane. It is a network-like structure
which consists of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
 Two types of ER –
o Rough ER
 o Smooth ER
 Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible for the manufacturing of proteins in the cells. They
give a rough texture to the cell.
 The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell which allow the functioning of the cell.
 Functions of ER
o Transportation of material between different parts of the cytoplasm and also between the nucleus and
cytoplasm
o Folding of proteins which are synthesised by ribosome on RER.
o Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER.
Golgi Apparatus
 Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi Apparatus.
o It contains vesicles that are arranged parallel in stacks. These stacks are called Cisterns. These
vesicles have their own membranes. These membranes are sometimes connected to those of the ER.
 Functions of Golgi Apparatus
o Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesized by the ER to different parts of the cell. The material is
stored and packaged in vesicles.
o Formation of complex sugar
o Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes
 They are single membrane vesicles which are responsible for cleaning the cell. They can digest any
foreign material such as food or bacteria and even the worn out cell organelles.
 How lysosomes can digest any foreign material that enters the cell?
o Lysosomes are capable of doing so because they have digestive enzymes in them. These enzymes
break the materials and digest them. These enzymes are synthesized by RER and packaged into
lysosome by Golgi bodies.
 Why lysosomes are called ‘suicide bags’?
o If the cell’s own material gets damaged or dead gets there are chances that lysosomes burst out, thus
digesting its own cell.
Mitochondria
It is a double membrane organelle which has its own DNA and that is why often called ‘Semi Autonomous
Organelle’

 The cell requires energy in order to carry out several activities. This energy is generated by mitochondria
which are often called as the ‘Powerhouse’ of the Cell. Mitochondria are site of cellular respiration.
They use oxygen from air to oxidise the carbohydrates and thereby release energy.
 What are energy currencies of a cell?
 The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which are energy giving molecules of the
cell that are often called as their ‘Energy Currency’.
 The Inner Membrane of Mitochondria called as Cristae Facilitates Generation of ATP molecules as it
has a larger surface area.
Plastids
Just like mitochondria it is also double membraned organelle which has its own DNA and ribosome.
Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of function they play in the cell they can be
classified as –
Chromoplast Leucoplast
Coloured in nature, contain a pigment
Colourless in nature
called chlorophyll
Cause photosynthesis in plants Act as storage spaces of the cells

Contain orange and yellow pigments Contain starch, proteins and oil
Can further be divided into amyloplast, elaioplast and
Can further be divided into Chloroplasts
proteinoplast or aleuroplast.
Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct photosynthesis in plants.
 Chloroplast is derived from two Greek words Chloro and Plasts which means green and plants
respectively.
 Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments called ‘Chlorophyll’ along with lipids, carbohydrates,
minerals, DNA, RNA, grana, thylakoids and stroma.
 The main functions of chloroplasts are:
o Conducting photosynthesis in plants. o Releases oxygen
o Protein synthesis o Storage of Starch
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are the places where cells can store the liquids and solids. They are present in both plants and
animals but the plant vacuoles are bigger in size than the animal vacuoles.
Plant Cell Vacuoles Animal Cell Vacuoles
Plant cell vacuoles store all the material that is required for Animal cell vacuoles contain food items in
the plant to stay alive such as water unicellular organisms
Animal vacuoles can also expel water and
Plant vacuoles maintain the turgidity of the plant cell
waste out of the cell
Plant cells generally contain a single large vacuole Animal cells contain several small vacuoles
Animal vacuoles are scattered throughout
Plant vacuoles are present in the center of the cell
the cell

Centrioles
 A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way.
 Their main purpose is to help a cell in cell division.
 They are found near the nucleus but they can be seen only during the cell division.
 They are found in pairs and form a special substance called Centrosome which appears near the nucleus.
 When the cell divides, the centrosome divides into two parts and each part moves to opposite sides of the
cell.
Ribosomes
 They are cell organelles responsible for protein synthesis.
 Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because the synthesis of proteins is
important in both of them.
 In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
 In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are often attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum.
 The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesize proteins that are to be exported out of the cell while the
ribosomes floating inside the cell synthesize proteins that are used inside the cell.

Animal Cell
PLANT CELL