SEPTAGE

MANAGEMENT
A Practitioner’s Guide
Urban India's journey beyond ODF

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Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 2 26/02/18 12:14 PM
 SEPTAGE
MANAGEMENT
A Practitioner’s Guide
Urban India's journey beyond ODF

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 1 26/02/18 12:14 PM

 Research director and coordinator: Suresh Kumar Rohilla

Writers: Bhitush Luthra, Amrita Bhatnagar, Mahreen Matto and Uday Bhonde

Editor: Arif Ayaz Parrey

Layout: Kirpal Singh

Design: Ajit Bajaj

Cover: Tarique Aziz

Production: Rakesh Shrivastava and Gundhar Das

We are grateful to the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India for their support to CSE as a Centre of
Excellence for Sustainable Water Management

© 2017 Centre for Science and Environment

ISBN: 978-81-86906-20-0

Price: r200 (US $12)

Material from this publication can be used, but with acknowledgement.

Citation: Suresh Kumar Rohilla, Bhitush Luthra, Amrita Bhatnagar, Mahreen Matto and Uday Bhonde 2017, Septage
Management: A Practitioner’s Guide, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi

Published by
Centre for Science and Environment
41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi 110 062
Phones: 91-11-40616000
Fax: 91-11-29955879
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cseindia.org

Printed at Bravo Printex, New Delhi

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 Contents

Executive summary 9
1. Introduction 10
1.1 Background 10
1.2 Need for a guide 15
1.3 Objectives 16
1.4 How to use this guide 16
1.5 Target group 16

2. Understanding septage and its management 18

2.1 Characteristics of septage 19
2.2 What is septage management? 19
2.3 Why manage septage 20

3. Septage management: How to start? 24

3.1 Stakeholder identification and engagement 24
3.2 Assessment of baseline information 25
3.3 Suggested institutional framework 30
3.4 Current economics and business model 30
3.5 Monitoring and grievance redressal systems 33

4. Stages of septage management 35

4.1 Containment system 35
4.2 Septage quantification 45
4.3 Emptying 47
4.4 Transportation 50
4.5 Septage treatment 53
4.6 Effluent treatment 64
4.7 Resource recovery 73

The way forward 80

References 81
Appendices 84

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

List of appendices
Appendix 1 Excreta management of 27 cities from different agro-climatic regions 84
Appendix 2 Revised Service Level Benchmarks for sanitation proposed in FSSM policy 86
Appendix 3 Roles and responsibilities of institutions in the development of FSSM plans 87
Appendix 4 Generic business model for septage management 88
Appendix 5 Types of containment systems 89
Appendix 6 Comparison of systems with respect to various parameters 90
Appendix 7 Small-bore sewer 94
Appendix 8 General standards for discharge of environmental pollutants Part A: Effluents 95
Appendix 9 Important weblinks 96

List of figures
Figure 1 Sewage treatment in India 10
Figure 2 India’s septage management—timeline and the way forward 12
Figure 3 Status of excreta management of 27 cities 14
Figure 4 Benefits of septage management over a conventional sewerage system 14
Figure 5 Sanitation chain 19
Figure 6 Why manage septage 21
Figure 7 Steps for planning septage management 24
Figure 8 Stakeholder engagement strategy 25
Figure 9 Stakeholder analysis tool webpage 25
Figure 10 Sanitab webpage 26
Figure 11 SFD susana website 27
Figure 12 Shit flow diagram of a sample city 28
Figure 13 Flowchart of complaint redressal system for septage management 34
Figure 14 Sanitation systems in India 35
Figure 15 Sanitation technologies and corresponding percentage of population 36
Figure 16 Standard septic tank design 37
Figure 17 Single chambered septic tank 38
Figure 18 Two-chambered septic tank 39
Figure 19 Two-chambered septic tank with filter 40
Figure 20 Anaerobic baffled reactor with filter 40
Figure 21 Latrine with twin pits 41
Figure 22 Working of a bio-digester 43
Figure 23 Bio-toilet representation 44
Figure 24 Sanitech tool—treatment technologies webpage 55
Figure 25 Different treatment technologies based on their function 56
Figure 26 Settling-thickening pond 57
Figure 27 Unplanted drying bed 58
Figure 28 Planted drying bed 59
Figure 29 Co-composting of septage with organic waste 61
Figure 30 Lagoon technology 63
Figure 31 Flowchart to select suitable effluent disposal method 68
Figure 32 Design of a soakpit 68
Figure 33 Solids-free sewer or small-bore sewer 69
Figure 34 Decentralized wastewater treatment system 70
Figure 35 Phytorid treatment technology 71
Figure 36 Schematic of an SBT plant 71
Figure 37 Horizontal flow constructed wetland 73
Figure 38 Closing the loop 76
Figure 39 Catalytic fast pyrolysis 79

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

List of tables
Table 1 Target users 17
Table 2 Characteristics of septage 20
Table 3 Legislative and regulatory provisions for septage management 22
Table 4 Characteristics of septage in tropical countries 23
Table 5 Essential baseline data to plan septage management 26
Table 6 Roles and responsibilities of institutions in the development of FSSM plans 30
Table 7 Monitoring septage programmes 34
Table 8 Urban containment systems in India 36
Table 9 Recommended sizes of septic tank 37
Table 10 Specifications for designing of a twin-pit 41
Table 11 Sludge accumulation rate 42
Table 12 How to choose suitable containment system 44
Table 13 Estimate of septage generation 45

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Abbreviations

ABR Anaerobic baffled reactor

AD Anaerobic digester
AF Anaerobic filter
ASP Activated sludge process
BD Biogas digester
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
CAPEX Capital expenditure
CBO Community-based organization
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
CSE Centre for Science and Environment
CSP City sanitation plans
CW Constructed wetland
DRDO Defence Research Development Organization
DWWT Decentralized wastewater treatment
EIA Environmental impact assessment
FRP Fibre glass-reinforced polymer
FS Faecal sludge
FSM Faecal sludge management
FSSM Faecal sludge and septage management
FT Feeding tank
GoI Government of India
GoM Government of Maharashtra
GWMC Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation
IEC Information, education and communication
IS Indian Standard
IST Improved septic tank
IT Imhoff tank
IWK Indah Water Konsortium
km Kilometer
KwH Kilowatt hour
LGU Local government unit
MBR Membrane bioreactor
MCC Mysuru City Corporation
MD Mechanical dewatering
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MLD Million litres per day
MoUD Ministry of Urban Development
NFSSM National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management Alliance
NGO Non-governmental organization
NUSP National Urban Sanitation Policy

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

NWSC National Water and Sewerage Corporation

O&M Operation and maintenance
ODF Open defecation free
OPEX Operational expenditure
OSS Onsite sanitation system
PDB Planted drying bed
PHED Public Health and Engineering Department
PPE Personal protective equipment
PT Public toilet
RWA Resident welfare association
SBM Swachh Bharat Mission
SBR Sequential batch reactor
SBT Soil biotechnology
SFD Shit flow diagram
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SMP Sewage management plan
SS Stainless steel
SSP Sanitation Safety Planning
STP Sewage treatment plant
TN Total nitrogen
TP Total phosphorous
TSS Total suspended solids
UASB Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket
UDB Unplanted drying bed
ULB Urban local body
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VIP Ventilated improved pit
VP Value proposition
WHO World Health Organization
WSP Waste stabilization pond
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Glossary

Black water: A mixture of urine, faeces and flush water along with anal cleansing water (if
water is used for cleansing), and/or dry cleansing materials. Black water contains pathogens of
faeces and the nutrients of urine that are diluted in the flush water.

Effluent: The supernatant liquid discharged from a septic tank. The liquid separated out from
the septage is also referred to as effluent.

Faecal sludge: The settled contents of pit latrines and septic tanks. It differs from sludge
produced in municipal wastewater treatment plants. The characteristics of faecal sludge can
differ widely from household to household, city to city, and country to country. The physical,
chemical and biological qualities of faecal sludge are influenced by the duration of storage,
temperature, soil conditions, and intrusion of groundwater or surface-water into septic tanks
or pits, performance of septic tanks, and tank emptying technology and pattern.

Grey water: The total volume of water generated from washing food, clothes and dishware, as
well as from bathing, but not from toilets. It may contain traces of excreta and, therefore, also
pathogens. Grey water accounts for approximately 65 per cent of the wastewater produced in
households with flush toilets.

Pit latrine: Latrine with one or two pits for collection and decomposition of excreta. The liquid
generally infiltrates into the surrounding soil.

Pour-flush latrine: Latrine with a rural pan, where small quantities of water are poured from a
container by hand, to flush away faeces.

Scum: Grease, oil and other substances floating on the surface of a septic tank.

Septage: The semi-solid matter from onsite sanitation systems like septic tanks. It has an
offensive odour, appearance and high concentration of BOD, COD and TSS etc.

Septic tank: A water-tight single-storied tank in which sewage is retained long enough to
permit sedimentation and digestion.

Self-cleansing velocity: Velocity of liquid which is high enough to initiate self-scrubbing action.

Sludge: The settled matter in a semi-solid condition.

Soakpit: A porous, covered chamber that allows wastewater to permeate into the ground. It is
also known as a soak-away or leach pit.

Suspended solids: Small solid particles which remain in suspension in sewage, septage or
effluent.

Vacuum tanker or truck: A vehicle that has a pump and a tank, designed to pneumatically
suck liquids and slurries (like septage). These vehicles are also used to transport extracted
liquids.

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Executive summary

Most of urban India is dependent on onsite systems like septic tanks and pits for
the disposal of septage. The number of such systems is only going to increase
as India moves towards achieving the ambitious, country-wide goal of putting
an end to open defecation. But in many onsite systems, limited attention has
been accorded to proper construction, operation and maintenance, and the
management of septage generated. Despite Environment Protection Act, 1986
forbidding disposal of waste into water bodies, septage is dumped anywhere
and everywhere, polluting water sources (both groundwater and surface-water),
leading to severe health implications.

It is recognized that septage management is essential to achieve citywide

sanitation, as more than 70 per cent urban population in India is dependent
on onsite sanitation systems (OSS). There is also enough evidence that
conventional systems cost a lot of money and water.

This guide to septage management is meant to assist practitioners involved in

the sanitation sector as well as urban designing and planning. The purpose of
the guide is to explore the steps involved in managing septage throughout the
sanitation chain (containment, emptying, transportation, treatment and end-
use or disposal) and to demonstrate how septage management can be applied
in cities.

The guide explains all stages of the sanitation chain for urban centres dependent
on OSS by discussing the current scenario in India for each stage. It describes
innovative tools that can be used to assess and plan for improving each stage.
It explains the calculations through an example city (wherever possible) and
showcases best management practices through case studies (international and
national) throughout the guide.

Septage management is not just managing faecal sludge from septic tanks
but also pits existing in urban centres. Moreover, this guide recognizes that
just managing the sludge component would be an incomplete solution to
the sanitation challenges rapidly growing urban centres face. Therefore, it is
essential that the liquid component, or effluent, from these onsite systems is
also managed, and end use of treated water is promoted to reduce freshwater
demand.

The approach used in this guide conforms with 2030 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), which include clean water, sanitation and sustainable cities with
community involvement as major priorities. In a nutshell, this guide intends
to assist practitioners manage septage as a resource, by integrating it into city
sanitation planning.

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

A survey of 423 cities under different categories undertaken by the Ministry of

Urban Development (MoUD) in 2009 highlighted the need for urgent action in
terms of improving sanitation to make town and cities healthy and clean. The
2011 Census indicates that 81.4 per cent households in urban India have a toilet
facility. But only 40 per cent households with a toilet facility are connected to
a piped sewer network. Treatment of sewage is a significant challenge. Across
India, 62,000 million litres a day (MLD) of sewage is generated. There are 816
sewage treatment plants installed in India (of which, 522 were operational, as
of March 2015), with a treatment capacity of about 23,277 million litres per day
(MLD). However, only about 18,883 MLD of sewage is treated (see Figure 1:
Sewage treatment in India).1 Cities with more than 35 million population have
68 per cent of total installed wastewater treatment capacity, but nearly 39 per
cent of these treatment plants do not adhere to standards for discharging into
water bodies.2 Clearly, the sewerage systems are failing to keep up with the
excreta challenge.3

Furthermore, under the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), an initiative of the

Central government, a total of 18 crore toilets with containment systems will
be up and ready by 2019.4 With the advent of SBM and allied sanitation-related
reforms, the focus has been only on increasing the number of toilets, and little
on treatment of the waste generated. By constructing so many toilets with
onsite systems, we are just holding back the problem, not resolving it. Thus, it
is time we bring into focus discussions about the management of the waste from
these toilets. This will ensure not just an open defecation-free (ODF) India, but
pollution-free water bodies, cities and towns as well. Septage management in
cities would also help achieve the aims of SDG-6, which includes improving
water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, and minimizing
the release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing global recycling and safe
end use by 2030.

Figure 1: Sewage treatment in India

30% Treated

Not treated 70%

Source: Inventorization of sewage treatment plants, Central Pollution Control Board, 2015

10

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Key points from Excreta Matters: Seventh State of

India’s Environment Report
• Pollution from one city distorts water supply plans of those downstream.
• Cities, having encroached and polluted their lakes, seek to source water from further and
further away. The hidden costs of pollution are electrifying.
• Costs of building centralized wastewater treatment system is high.
• Cities can build sewerage system for few not all.
• Cities spend to treat waste of some, which eventually gets mixed with untreated waste of
the majority.
• The result is pollution; and cities drowning in their own excreta.

There is poor or no septage management in Indian cities, though, (i) there is

enough evidence to prove the adverse impacts of lack of septage management
on public health and environment and, (ii) there are legislative provisions to
enforce septage management in the country. A rapid assessment of septage
management in Asia carried out by United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) in 2010 revealed that by 2017 about 148 million people
in urban areas would depend on septic tanks in India. This was also recognized
by the National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP), 2008, which emphasizes
the need for proper collection, treatment and disposal of septage from onsite
installations.5

There is enough evidence to show that faecal sludge and septage management
is not only affordable and sustainable as compared to centralized sewerage
system but can also be implemented quickly to make cities clean and healthy.6
In order to address the issue in a time-bound manner, MoUD issued an
advisory note to all urban local bodies (ULBs) based on the policy paper on
septage management prepared by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).
The advisory supplements the NUSP by outlining the contents and steps
of developing a septage management sub-plan (SMP) as a part of the city
sanitation plan (CSP), being prepared and implemented by cities.7 Figure 2:
India’s septage management—timeline and the way forward gives a temporal
overview of India’s septage management.

In 2015–16, CSE conducted a study of 27 cities from different agro-climatic

zones of India, to understand the excreta management of the selected cities
(see Figure 3: Status of excreta management of 27 cities). A tool called ‘shit
flow diagram’ was used to understand the flow of excreta from containment to
disposal. If we leave Delhi out of the calculations, the study revealed that 55
per cent of the population is dependent on OSS, and 8 per cent practice open
defecation. Overall, excreta of only 29 per cent population is safely managed.
If Delhi is also considered, the population dependent on OSS decreases to 37
per cent and those defecating in the open comes out to be 5 per cent, clearly
indicating how sewerage systems are dominant in metropolitan cities. Even
then, excreta managed safely comes out to be only 47 per cent (for details of the
study of each of the 27 cities, refer to Appendix 1). It can be concluded from
the study that the smaller and medium-sized towns and cities are completely
dependent on onsite systems and limited service provisions are available
to manage the excreta of such towns. Bigger cities also do not have enough
sewers, and there is a huge demand for septage management in all kinds of
urban centres.

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Figure 2: India’s septage management—timeline and the way forward

National Urban Sanitation Policy

• 100% safe confinment of human Prep
excreta and liquid waste • C
• Mandate states to develop State K
Sanitation Strategy and City d
Advisory note on Septage
Sanitation Plan • D
Management
• Guide to decision • Ta
• Issued by MoUD based on
making sanitation g
policy paper by CSE
technology options
• Septage management sub
in urban India
plan to be
Cap
incorporated in City
• C
Sanitation Plan
G

Policy Paper on Septage Management Excr

• Centre for Science and Environment prepared • H
policy paper on Septage Management in India • Es
to assist MoUD

2008 2011 2013

2009 2012 2014

Ranking of Indian cities

• 423 cities ranked on 19 sanitation parameters
• None of the cities found to be healthy and clean
CSE
• D
o
• C
CSE recognised as COE m
• MoUD recognises CSE as Center of Excellence • Es
in urban development for sustainable water an
management in
• Pr
m

Swa
• A
Report by CSE
• Report on State of India’s Environment based
on 71 Indian cities Ata
• It demonstrated how urban India is soaking up Tran
water, polluting rivers and drowning in its • H
own excreta (in 2 volumes) m

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

National Policy on Faecal Sludge and

Septage Management
Preparation of City Sanitation Plan • National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management
• CSE - GIZ handholding support to 34 ULBs (from policy issued by MoUD
Kerala, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh) to
develop CSPs including septage management
• Developed toolkit for preparation of CSPs
• Tamil Nadu developed septage management • FSM 4 International Conference organised at Chennai
guidelines with MoUD and Govt. of Tamil Nadu as local host/
partner

Capacity building on water and waste management

• CSE-BMGF handholding support to 10 towns in Way forward: City’s journey beyond ODF
Ganga basin including septage management • Implementation of integrated waste water and
septage management plan, based on CSP
• Treatment of septage and sewage at decentralised scale
• Reuse and recycle of treated waste (solid and liquid)
Excreta Flow Diagram • CSE-COE: School of water and sanitation at AAETI, Nimli
• Handholding support to develop SFD in 11 cities to act as capacity building hub for ULBs and others
• Established SFD helpdesk

2015 2017 2019

14 2016
Down To Earth
• Cover stories in DTE magazine on septage
management in Indian cities based on 21 SFDs
• CSE’s State of India’s Environment 2015 & 2017,
reports on need for septage management

CSE-COE invited to: Online course on FSM

• Develop and conduct first training programme • First online course on FSM delivered by 6 global
on septage management partners including CSE
• Conduct sensitisation workshop on septage • Global e-learning allliance of alumni formed
management
• Establish helpdesk on decentralised waste water
and septage management to support pilot National faecal sludge and septage management
initiatives • CSE, CPR, CEPT, ASCI and other organisations came
• Prepare a practitioner’s guide on septage together to make an alliance
management • A primer on FSSM and Rapid Assessment Tool for
budgetary calculation for FSM was launched
Swachh Bharat Mission • Maharashtra developed septage management
• Aims to eradicate open defecation by 2019 guidelines supported by CEPT
• 131 towns/cities identified as flagship cities for city’s
journey beyond ODF
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban • CSE to provide handholding support to 23 cities for
Transformation preparing city sanitation plan and effective FSSM
• Has provision for funding on septage strategy
management

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Figure 3: Status of excreta management of 27 cities

Excluding Delhi Including Delhi

Managed: Managed:
onsite onsite
Not managed:
Not managed:
onsite
Managed: onsite
13% Managed: 07%
offsite offsite

30%
16% 42%
40%

05%

21%
08% 18%
Open
Not managed: defecation
Open Not managed:
offsite
defecation offsite

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2016

Figure 4: Benefits of septage management over a conventional sewerage system

Conventional sewerage Septage management

Water
requirement High (>135 lpcd) Low

Capital costs High Low

Operation and
maintenance costs High Low

Technical High High Low Low

expertise conveyance treatment conveyance treatment

Maintenance High on Low on Low on High on

requirement service households service households

High
treatment High Low

Implementation
challenges High Low

Source: Septage management guidelines, UDD, GoM, 2016

Figure 4: Benefits of septage management over a conventional sewerage

system depicts that septage management, once implemented, can prove to
be a sustainable step towards citywide sanitation due to its advantages over
conventional sewerage systems.

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National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management Policy, 2017

MoUD issued the National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) in early
2017. The policy aims to facilitate nationwide implementation of FSSM services in all ULBs
and to set the context, priorities, and direction for safe and sustainable sanitation in each
and every household in India.8 Some key features of the policy are as follows:

• State-level guidelines, framework, objectives, timelines and implementation plans to

address septage management.
• Formulating strategy at the Central level to initiate capacity-building for training on FSSM.
• Creating a sanitation benchmark framework which can be used by ULBs to develop a
database and registry of certified onsite sanitation system, and a robust reporting format.
• Funding for facilitation of FSSM projects and encouragement to increase public private
partnerships (PPP).
• Achieving integrated citywide sanitation along with safe disposal.
• Revised service-level benchmarking for sanitation (Refer to Appendix 2).

1.2 Need for a guide

Cities have already started to face the consequences of growing septage

mismanagement, with overflowing drains during rains, and faecal waste
polluting groundwater. A policy on FSSM launched by MoUD in February
2017 clearly recognizes the fact that sewerage networks alone cannot help
achieve citywide sanitation (see Box: National Faecal Sludge and Septage
Management Policy, 2017). National environmental regulatory provisions
(acts, notifications, etc.) do not allow unsafe disposal of domestic waste. States
like Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Odisha have taken initiatives towards
septage management by issuing operative guidelines for ULBs in 2014 (Tamil
Nadu) and 2016 (Maharashtra and Odisha). There are over 25 million OSS in
urban India, however, there are limited septage management programmes or
treatment facilities implemented in the country.9 Both solid and liquid waste
discharged from the OSS is one of the important reasons of water source
pollution (surface and groundwater) and environmental degradation. SBM
aims to make India clean, sanitized and ODF by 2019, but just constructing
toilets will aggravate the existing problem of septage mismanagement. This
mismanagement has led to great environmental, economic and health impacts.
Due to absence of any aggregated septage management practices, all the
improved sanitation solutions and facilities will continue to degrade surface-
water bodies and groundwater resources. Therefore, there is a necessity to
practice septage management as a supplement to conventional sewerage
systems to achieve citywide sanitation.

CSE has been recognized as a Centre of Excellence in the area of citywide

sanitation, including septage management. A policy paper on septage
management in India by CSE was one of the first initiatives in the field of
septage management in India. The policy paper was a stepping stone towards
sensitization of relevant stakeholders, which was observed in the Advisory
Note on Septage Management released by MoUD.

This practitioner’s guide is devised to widen the outreach of CSE’s capacity-

building programme on septage management. This guide intends to sensitize
the reader by answering questions like:

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

• What is septage management?

• Why do we need to manage septage?
• How do we manage septage?

Through this guide, it is intended that septage will be seen as a resource

instead of waste. If managed properly, it contains nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus and, in some case varying amounts of micro-nutrients such as
boron, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.10

1.3 Objectives

• To sensitize practitioners about the need for septage management to achieve

citywide sanitation.
• To provide steps to improve service delivery for each stage of the sanitation
chain.
• To list down various innovative tools available to assess and improve the
service delivery.
• To present successful case studies of various stages of septage management.

1.4 How to use this guide

This guide will present information in an understandable and accessible form

to demonstrate to the various users and implementers how citywide sanitation
can be achieved by managing septage. The stages of the sanitation chain are
explained, the existing scenario in India at each stage is described, and action
points for each stage are also proposed. The guide enumerates various tools
that a reader can refer to at different stages of septage management. It signposts
a wide range of guidance sources, and presents numerous examples of good
practices to show what is possible across the spectrum of septage management.

An example of City X is taken to understand how to implement a septage

management plan at each stage of the sanitation chain. It becomes clear with
the example, how to calculate septage load, number of trucks required, capacity
of the treatment plant etc. The examples of cities given in this document are
completely fictitious, made with an intention to help reader relate with the
context of the document. Any resemblance to an existing settlement is purely
coincidental.

1.5 Target group

The target audience for this guide comprises city officials from ULBs and
development authorities, such as urban planners, architects, town planning
officers, public health engineers, sanitary inspectors, and others involved in
preparing and enforcing regional, master, zonal, city development, and city
sanitation plans, and developing other local planning provisions or design
standards. It can be incorporated in the course module of various technical
courses recognized by Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering
organization (CPHEEO), MoUD. Further non-state actors such as decision-
makers and technical staff from private organizations and resident welfare
associations (RWAs) can also benefit from these suggestions. Table 1: Target
users provides an overview of the major user groups based on the involvement
in the formulation and implementation of septage management strategies.

(a) Primary users: Primary users have a direct influence on implementation

of septage management in a town or city, and mainly includes government

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Table 1: Target users

Primary users

Government bodies Technical staff and decision-makers

• Development authorities • Urban planners: Chief town planners,

• State urban development agencies senior town planners, junior town assistant
• Town and country planning organizations planners

• Municipal corporations • Engineers: Superintending engineers,

• Municipalities executive engineers, assistant engineers,
• Other ULBs environment engineers, and project officers

• Public health engineering departments • Engineers, health and sanitary inspectors

• Water supply and sewerage boards
• Urban shelter improvement boards

Engineering colleges and institutes under the • Students of Bachelors of Engineering,

following courses Bachelors of Technology (civil and
environmental), i.e. future engineers in this
Post-graduate course in public health engineering
sector; and their teachers
and environmental engineering, short-term courses
in public health engineering and environmental
engineering and refresher courses on various aspects
of citywide sanitation

Private organizations • Technical staff and decision-makers

Consultants (Environmental impact assessment; EIA)

Private organizations
Community-based organizations (CBOs): RWAs,
residents

Secondary users

Non-governmental organizations and decision-makers working in the sanitation sector

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2016

officials. The guide will assist the primary user in identifying and scoping
issues that need to be addressed while preparing septage management plans
and also help them to implement them at a citywide level. Teachers and
students of Public Health Engineering and Environmental Engineering can
benefit by adding septage management in their course curriculum.

(b) Secondary users: Secondary users may not directly have an impact on
septage management plans, but can capacitate or influence decision-makers
about the process. Examples include NGOs and consultants.

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2. Understanding septage and its management

This chapter aims to provide the reader in depth understanding of septage and
its management and how it is different from faecal sludge and sewage.

Septage
Septage or septic tank waste refers to the partially treated matter stored in and
pumped out of a septic tank. In other words, faecal sludge from septic tanks
is known as septage, but faecal sludge and septage are interchangeably used
in India. Septage is a by-product of pretreatment of household wastewater in
a septic tank where it accumulates over time. It is generally pumped out of a
septic tank or onsite sanitation system using a vacuum tanker.

Septage is the liquid and solid material that is pumped from a septic tank,
cesspool, or other such onsite treatment facilities after it has accumulated over
a period of time. Usually, septic tank retains 60–70 per cent of the solids, oil
and grease that enter it. The scum accumulates on the top and the sludge settles
to the bottom, comprising 20–50 per cent of the total volume of the septic tank.
Offensive odour and appearance are the most prominent characteristics of
septage. It is a host of many disease-causing organisms along with significant
level of grease, grit, hair and debris.11

Septage has three main components:

Scum: The layer of solids formed by wastewater constituents that floats to the
surface of a tank or reactor (such as oil, grease, hair or any other light material).12

Effluent: The liquid fraction collected in between scum and sludge in a septic
tank is known as effluent, sometimes also referred to as a supernatant.

Sludge: Solids which collect at the bottom of the tank.13

Sewage vs septage
Sewage is untreated wastewater which contains faeces and urine, this
Faecal sludge vs septage
wastewater gets conveyed through the sewerage system. Generally,
There appears to be a very thin
grey water from the kitchen and bathroom also becomes part of sewage.
line between septage and faecal The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of sewage ranges from 150–
sludge. Septage is limited to 350 mg/l and all sewage treatment plants are designed for this load.
septic tanks, and has already Septage is slurry, it is emptied out of septic tanks and is much more
undergone partial digestion, concentrated than sewage; for example, BOD of septage ranges from
whereas faecal sludge includes 1,000–20,000 mg/l.
contents from other onsite
technologies, including septic Faecal sludge
tanks, and may or may not be It is the solid or settled contents of pit latrines and septic tanks. It is raw
digested. Given the number
or partially digested, slurry or in a semisolid form, it results from the
of countries in the region and
collection, storage or treatment of combinations of excreta and black
ULBs in India that use the term
‘septage’ to describe waste in
water, with or without grey water. It differs from sludge produced in
onsite sanitation, this report municipal waste water treatment plants. The characteristic of faecal
also uses the term for all types sludge can differ widely from household to household, city to city, and
of human excreta collected country to country. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of
from onsite sanitation systems, faecal sludge are influenced by the duration of storage, temperature, soil
including wet and dry systems, condition, and intrusion of groundwater or surface-water in septic tanks
and private or public toilets. or pits, performance of septic tanks, and tank-emptying technology and
pattern.14

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2.1 Characteristics of septage

The factors which influence the characteristics of septage are the design of
the OSS, food habits of users, the performance of septic tanks, tank-emptying
technology and pattern, the intrusion of groundwater, temperature, admixtures
to septage like grease, kitchen, or solid waste, and the storage duration, which
can last from months to years. These characteristics have practical implications
for treatment. For example, septage which is still rich in organic matter and has
not undergone significant degradation is difficult to dewater. Conversely, septage
that has undergone significant anaerobic degradation such as from septic tanks
or anaerobic baffled reactors (ABRs)—in other words, which is stabilized—
is more easily dewatered. All these factors influence the characteristics of
faecal sludge. Septage is a very variable material. Consequently, management
systems need to be designed on a case-by-case basis. Table 2: Characteristics
of septage compares characteristics of septage from onsite sanitation facilities
and wastewater sludge.

2.2 What is septage management?

Sanitation often focuses only on the provisioning of physical infrastructure—

toilets or latrines—in order to increase the ‘coverage of toilets’, or to look at
the epitome of sanitation: ODF cities. But in order to provide tangible and
sustainable sanitation, there is a need to focus on the entire ‘sanitation chain’
(see Figure 5: Sanitation chain). In simple terms, a sanitation chain (the term
‘sanitation chain’ is often used interchangeably with ‘service chain’,15 or
‘sanitation value chain’,16 but in this study ‘sanitation chain’ is preferred) is an
outline for understanding how faecal waste flows through each system.17 It sets
out interlinked steps vital to manage septage and effluent from generation to
disposal or end use, thereby summarizing the city-level outcomes and current
status of the same.

Figure 5: Sanitation chain

Containment Emptying and transport Treatment Disposal and end use

Definition An onsite sanitation system Manual or motorized removal Process of converting faecal Disposal or utilization of output
into which a user interface and transportation of faecal sludge into a product that is products derived from sanitation
discharges waste from the containment safe for end use systems
system

Examples Septic tanks, soakpits and Vacuum trucks or carts FSTPs, constructed wetlands and Manure
cesspools dewatering

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2016

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Table 2: Characteristics of septage

Septage source
Parameter WWTP sludge Reference
Public toilet Septic tank

1.5–12.6 USEPA (1994)

pH
6.55–9.34 Kengne et al (2011)

52,500 12,000–35,000 Koné and Strauss (2004)

30,000 22,000 NWSC (2008)

Total solids, TS (mg/l)
34,106 USEPA (1994)

≥ 3.5% < 3% < 1% Heinss et al. (1998)

Total volatile solids, TVS (as 68 50-73 Koné and Strauss (2004)
percentage of TS) 65 45 NWSC (2008)

49,000 1,200–7,800 Koné and Strauss (2004)

COD (mg/l) 30,000 10,000 7-608 NWSC (2008)

20,000–50,000 <10,000 500–2,500 Heinss et al (1998)

7,600 840–2,600 Koné and Strauss (2004)

BOD (mg/l)
20-229 NWSC (2008)

190–300 Koné and Strauss (2004)

Total nitrogen, TN (mg/l)
32-250 NWSC (2008)

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, TKN (mg/l) 3,400 1,000 Katukiza et al (2012)

3,300 150–1,200 Koné and Strauss (2004)

NH4-N (mg/l) 2,000 400 2-168 NWSC (2008)

2,000–5,000 < 1,000 30-70 Heinss et al (1998)

Nitrates, NO3 (mg n/l) 0.2–21 Koottatep et al (2005)

Total phosphorus, TP (mg p/l) 450 150 9-63 NWSC (2008)

Faecal Coliform (cfu/100 ml) 1x105 1x105 6.3x104–6x105 NWSC (2008)

2,500 4,000–5,700 Heinss et al (1994)

20,000–60,000 4,000 300–2,000 Heinss et al (1998)

Helminths eggs (numbers/l)
600–6,000 Ingallinella et al (2002)

16,000 Yen-phi et al (2010)

Source: Faecal sludge management, IWA, 2014

2.3 Why manage septage

There are many reasons to manage septage. This guide broadly lists four main
reasons (see Figure 6: Why manage septage).

Insufficient infrastructure
The challenge with respect to sanitation infrastructure is not unknown to India.
As described already, only 40 per cent of Indian population having toilets are
connected to sewerage networks, while another 48 per cent are connected to
OSS, therefore, infrastructure does not pose a challenge only in the form of
lack of sewerage network lines, but also in the case of emptying of OSS and
treatment of effluent let out by them.

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Figure 6: Why manage septage

Regulations

Resource Insufficient
recovery WHY? infrastructure

Health and
environment
implications

Source: CSE, 2016

One of the objectives of SBM is construction of toilets and connecting these

toilets to sewerage lines available within 30 metres of the user interface. In
the absence of a sewerage line, the toilets are to be connected to twin pits or
other OSS. This objective will lead to an ODF India. Achieving this objective in
the context of the aforementioned statistics means the need to have emptying
solutions for OSS will increase, which will either be catered through manual
cleaning or through the use of vacuum tankers.

Another important point to realize here is that in the absence of designated

disposal sites, private operators often discharge collected septage into drains,
waterways, open land and agricultural fields, which in turn poses a larger threat
to the environment and health.

Regulations
The legislative framework in India has adequate provisions at the national-,
state- and city-level to protect water and environment. Public health and
sanitation is a part of the ‘constitutional responsibility’ of the municipalities
under the 12th schedule of the Constitution (74th Amendment, 1992). Some
of the key provisions in different laws and regulations that deal with septage
management are given in Table 3: Legislative and regulatory provisions
for septage management. Municipal acts and regulations normally refer to
management of solid and liquid waste, but do not provide detailed rules for
septage management. Inadequacy in the implementation and enforcement
of regulations worsens the problem. We need a better regulatory framework
focused on septage management as well as more robust implementation.

In February 2017, MoUD issued the National FSSM Policy. The policy aims
to set the context, priorities, and direction for, and to facilitate nationwide
implementation of, FSSM services in all ULBs such that safe and sustainable
sanitation becomes a reality for all in each and every household, street, town
and city in India.18

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Table 3: Legislative and regulatory provisions for septage management

Policy Existing key focus Provision for septage management

National Urban Sanitation Policy Prioritizes state-wide sanitation strategy Provision for septage management
(NUSP), 2008 (SSS) and CSP with a focus on service-level exists, but is not part of the service-level
benchmarking. The policy envisages a city benchmarking.
sanitation task force.

Advisory Note on Septage Development of a septage management sub- Recommends septage management as an
Management, 2013 plan as part of CSP. essential component for citywide sanitation

National Urban Faecal Sludge Recognition of faecal sludge and septage Focused on areas with no sewers, emphasis
and Septage Management Policy, management as a sanitation solution. on onsite and offsite sanitation systems
2017 need to exist in tandem.

Plan

Swachh Bharat Mission, 2014 Prioritizes ODF, and also emphasizes upon Focus on ending open defecation with a
provisions of containment system with proper little focus on the treatment of septage and
dimensions. wastewater.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna, Provision of houses with a toilet, with no focus No mention of integration of standard
2015 on any of the components of the sanitation designs for OSS.
value chain.

Guidelines

Environment Impact Assessment Clearance for scheduled development Key sources of pollution like wastewater and
(EIA), 1994 projects that are likely to result in significant septage are not considered.
environmental effects.

Urban and Regional Development Proposed land use for the bifurcation of different Provides a relatively wide scope under the
Plans Formulation and urban centres. CSP by talking about septage management
Implementation (URDPFI) and wastewater.
Guidelines, 2014

Model building by-laws, 2016 Tool used for construction and design aspects of Clearance by ULBs, with standards reference
buildings in a development area. from the BIS codes.

Act

The Water (Prevention and Provides provisions for prevention and control of No dedicated mention of septage
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 water pollution and for maintaining or restoring management.
and Environment Protection Act, wholesomeness of water in the country.
1986

Agency for defining standards

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Provides standards for building materials and Provides the standards for building of
their components. a septic tank along with user interface
description.
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

Resource recovery
Faecal sludge has always been considered a social taboo. So the conventional
thinking has been to dispose it of as quickly and secretly as possible. But there
is another way of looking at septage. It can be seen as a resource containing
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus and, in some cases, varying amounts
of micro-nutrients such as boron, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and
zinc.19 Urine contains 90 per cent nitrogen, 50–60 per cent phosphorus and
50–80 per cent potassium, which are very valuable in agricultural applications.
Septage can reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and in combination with
them, it can meet the requirements of nutrients for crop production. In some

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Table 4: Characteristics of septage in tropical countries

Parameter Faecal sludge from public Septage from household septic
toilets tanks

Characterization Highly concentrated, mostly Faecal sludge of low concentration,

fresh faecal sludge, stored usually stored for several years, more
for only a few weeks at stabilized than faecal sludge from public
maximum toilets

COD mg/l 20–50,000 < 15,000

COD/BOD 5:1 to 10:1 5: 1 to 10: 1

NH4-N mg/l 2–5,000 < 1,000

TS mg/l ≥ 3.5 % <3%

SS mg/l ≥ 30,000 7,000 (approximately)

Helminths eggs no./l 20–60,000 4,000 (approximately)

Source: Policy Paper on Septage Management in India, CSE, 2011

experiments, septage has also been used to generate energy through biogas
systems and bio-methanization process. The methane thus produced can be
used as fuel for cooking or for generation of electricity. Resource recovery has
been highlighted in Section 4.7 of this report.

Health and environment implications

Septage contains elements that may produce bad odour, risk public health and
create serious environmental hazards. Since septage is highly concentrated,
discharging it into a water body may cause immediate depletion of dissolved
oxygen and increase nutrients levels in the water, leading to eutrophication
and increase in the number of pathogens, thus creating risk of health hazards.
Knowledge of septage characteristics and variability is important in determining
acceptable disposal methods. In the absence of adequate information on
septage characteristics in India, typical characteristics of the septage in tropical
countries like Argentina, Ghana (Accra), Philippines (Manila) and Thailand
(Bangkok) may be useful (see Table 4: Characteristics of septage in tropical
countries).20 Septage from both septic tanks in households and public toilets is
highly concentrated and hazardous for water bodies.

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3. Septage management: How to start?

Septage management is a process and requires attention at every stage of

the sanitation chain. It needs to be comprehensive and requires a step-wise
approach, beginning from systematic planning to ensuring availability of
infrastructure and human resources for collection, transportation and treatment
of septage (see Figure 7: Steps for planning septage management). It has to be
sustainable and must take into consideration the socio-economic aspects of
the region. Safe disposal or end use in a scientific manner is the main goal of
septage management.

3.1 Stakeholder identification and engagement

All interested parties, be they individuals, groups, organizations or entities, are

stakeholders. Relevant stakeholders like representatives of ULBs, public health
and engineering departments and pollution control boards, as well as sanitary
inspectors, masons, vacuum truck operators, media, farmers etc. should
be identified for the target area. Once identified, stakeholders are supposed
to be analyzed based on the interest and influence chart, as shown in Figure
8: Stakeholder engagement strategy. The analysis includes understanding
their profile, their interests, their position (for or against), and their ability
to influence septage management practices. Stakeholders are then engaged
through different strategies.

Stakeholder engagement is a key prerequisite for successful implementation of

septage management. If the city already has a sanitation task-force, as notified
in NUSP, then it should deliberate about septage management, starting with
collection and analysis of baseline data. The ‘stakeholder analysis tool’ can be
used to identify, analyze and understand possible ways of engaging a particular
category of stakeholders. This tool can be downloaded from http://www.
fsmtoolbox.com/stakeholder_analysis_tool/.

Figure 7: Steps for planning septage management

Define the issue

Identify the key stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement

Collect baseline information

Analyze collected data

Design strategy for each stage

Implement

Monitor

Source: CSE, 2016

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Figure 8: Stakeholder engagement strategy

High influence High influence

Low interest High interest
Influence on septage management

n in
y-i sta
Bu Su

ne
ea
lo
p ort
av Sup
Le

Low influence Low influence

Low interest High interest

Interest in septage management

Source: CSE, 2016

Figure 9: Stakeholder analysis tool webpage

Source: http://www.fsmtoolbox.com/stakeholder_analysis_tool

3.2 Assessment of baseline information

The next stage of septage management is collection of baseline data from

secondary sources like Census, state surveys, detailed project reports of
previous projects and primary surveys, wherever necessary, for spatial
information. It is important to understand how many households are using
OSS. Spatial distribution of the houses in the area should be qualitatively
mapped. Preliminary surveys of households that are depended on the onsite
sanitation system must be done to prepare comprehensive management plans.
Table 5: Essential baseline data to plan septage management enlists the basic
but crucial information needed to plan septage management.

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Table 5: Essential baseline data to plan septage management

Baseline data Details and possible source of data

Base maps of the target area Available with government agencies. Can also be prepared using
Google Earth software.

Water supply Information on source of water supply, level of groundwater, and

per capita water supplied is essential.

Spatial distribution of Secondary data sources like Census, surveys by NGOs, and
households dependant on the published reports. This might not be available for small- or
OSS medium-sized towns and cities and, therefore, primary surveys are
essential.

Type of OSS Information on type of OSS—with their average capacity,

desludging frequency, fate of liquid waste (effluent) that is
overflowing from the OSS

Mode of emptying the OSS and Whether emptying services are provided by government or private
transporting the produce operators. Information on the number of service providers,
infrastructure like number of trucks and labourers

Treatment and disposal of Whether there is any treatment of the septage collected, where is
septage it disposed of
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2016

‘Sanitab’ is an android-based application which assists in performing a

household- or property-level sanitation survey for creating a database on OSS.
This tool can be used by city councils and can be downloaded from http://
www.fsmtoolbox.com/sanitab/.

Once the baseline data is in place, the next step is assessment of the initial
situation of the target area, i.e., community, ward, zone or city. There are
several tools available to help the practitioner analyze the collected data.
One such tool is called an excreta or shit flow diagram (SFD). It is an easy-to-
understand advocacy and decision-support tool that summarizes and presents
what happens to the excreta of the whole city or town through the sanitation
chain. Figure 12: Shit flow diagram of a sample city clearly shows that there is
dependence on onsite systems and the septage generated is not being treated,

Figure 10: Sanitab webpage

Source: http://www.fsmtoolbox.com/sanitab/

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What is an SFD?

An excreta flow diagram or SFD is a tool to readily understand and communicate visualizing
how excreta physically flow through a city or town. It shows how excreta is or is not contained
as it moves from the point of defecation to disposal or end-use—thus the fate of all excreta
generated. An accompanying report describes the service delivery context of the city or town.

IT IS IT IS NOT
• A tool for engineers, planners and decision- • Based on actual volumes/mass
makers – these are determined by other
• Based on contributing populations and an related factors
indication of where their excreta (septage or • A representation of public health risk
sewage) goes (risk = hazard x behavior)
• A representation of public health hazard • A precise scientific analytical tool
• An effective communications and advocacy tool
• An overview from which to develop sanitation
priorities

hence excreta of 64 per cent population is not being managed safely. The SFD
turns out to be a good advocacy and monitoring tool. To learn how to make an
SFD visit www.sfd.susana.org.

There is another tool that can be used for situation assessment. This tool is
an excel-based data entry form which contains questionnaires reflecting
institutional, regulatory, financial, technical, advocacy, capacity-building, and
monitoring aspects of septage management along the service delivery pathway,
i.e. containment, emptying, transportation, treatment and end-use. This tool
can be accessed from http://www.fsmtoolbox.com/sattool/.

Figure 11: SFD susana website

Source: www.sfd.susana.org

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Figure 12: Shit flow diagram of a sample city

Containment Emptying

Offsite
sanitation WW contained: 28% WW contained delivered to treatment: 22%

FS contained - not emptied: 10%

Onsite
FS contained - emptied: 52%
sanitation FS contained: 62%

FS not contained: 9%

Open
defecation

1% 9% FS not 40%
Open defecation contained del
tre

Local area Ne

Key: WW: Wastewater, FS: faecal sludge, SN: Supernatant

Produced with support from the SFD Promotion Initiative

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Transport Treatment

17% WW treated

10% FS contained
not emptied

FS delivered to 9% FS treated
treatment: 11%

36%
40% FS not 6% 3% FS not 6%
delivered to WW not treated WW not

64%
treatment delivered to treated
treatment

Neighbourhood City

Safely managed Unsafely managed

Source: sfd.susana.org

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Table 6: Roles and responsibilities of institutions in the development of FSSM plans

Institution Lead role towards septage Supportive role
management

Ministry of Urban Technical and planning support to states Formulation of state- and city-level FSSM strategies and
Development and ULBs implementation plans

Ministry of Drinking Water Technical and planning support to peri- Formulation and implementation of plans for rural India
and Sanitation urban and rural areas

Ministry of Environment, Enforce compliance of the relevant Support and build capacity of state pollution control
Forest and Climate environmental laws and rules during boards towards enforcement of relevant laws and rules
Change the collection, transport, treatment, and
disposal of faecal sludge and septage

Ministry of Social Justice National-level awareness campaign Help states and ULBs eliminate manual scavenging and
and Empowerment through monitoring and evaluation rehabilitate manual scavengers

Ministry of Women and ---- Gender mainstreaming in information, education and

Child Development communication (IEC) material for FSSM across the country

State governments Develop state level FSSM strategy and • Technical, financial and administrative support to ULBs
implementation plan • Encourage coordination and cooperation among ULBs
• Regulate and help ULBs set up systems to ensure
financial sustainability in provision of FSSM services
• Implement municipal by-laws.

Urban local bodies Design, develop, plan and implement ULB Create enabling environment for NGOs and private
level FSSM strategy initiatives to achieve safe and sustainable FSSM

Households Maintenance of septic tanks through Engage with decision-makers at state and ULB level to
scheduled desludging regular maintenance ensure that they receive good quality FSSM services
and monitoring of septic tanks
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

3.3 Suggested institutional framework

In India, there are few institutions at the city- and state-level which take care
of septage management. This section enumerates the suggestions under the
National Urban FSSM Policy, which highlights that each state and city needs
to formulate its own FSSM strategy and integrate the same in their respective
state and city sanitation plans in overall conformity with the national policy
(see Table 6: Roles and responsibilities of institutions in the development of
FSSM plans; a more detailed table on the roles and responsibilities has been
provided in the Appendix 3).

3.4 Current economics and business model

3.4.1 Current economics behind septage management

In the present scenario, septage management is primarily in the hands of private
operators. The operators charge for emptying services provided to different
stakeholders. Emptying points can be individual households, residential
colonies, commercial establishments, institutions, toilet complexes, offices etc.
Generally, the operators are called for emptying only when the containment is
full. The fee for emptying varies widely. Due to absence of dedicated disposal
sites, private emptiers practice illegal dumping of septage into water bodies,
utterly disregarding the threat posed to health and environment. They run their
business without paying any fees to government authorities which means that
despite high charges collected from the customers, no revenue is generated by
government authorities from the emptying business. Farmers in whose fields the
collected septage or faecal sludge is disposed of also pay the private operators.
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3.4.2 Business model

Case study 1: Sewerage Act, 1993—Malaysia
A business model is a reflection of not only the financial spending of an
institution
Background
towards better septage management, but also illuminates the return
onUntil
investments. A business modelsystems
consists of fourwere
interlocking elements. 24
1990, the predominant containment in Malaysia bucket latrines and emptying was handled by local authorities.
•• Sludge
Customer
collectedvalue proposition:
was not Products
treated and directly thatincreate
deposited value
open land for abodies.
or water targetTocustomer
overcome this issue, the government of
•• Malaysia
Cost structure: All
formulated the costs Services
Sewerage incurredAct,in operating
1993 (Act 508). the business model
•• Profit formula: Revenue streams from each component
•• Septage
Key resources:
management Most critical activities required for the business
In 1994, Malaysia moved towards privatization using the new Act. The government adopted a new process and employed Indah Water
Konsortium
For (IWK), amodel
a business private service
of any provider, for 28 yearsworking
institution to regulate in
the the
septage sector. Regulations
spectre of septage under the Act prioritized 1. Public
health, 2. Protection of water resources, and 3. Environment
management, the four elements mentioned above should create and provide
value to customers. The value propositions can be divided into multiple
Provisions under the Act:
segments, but in this guide, we are enumerating only five types as follows:
• Federalization and privatization of sewerage and septage management
•• • Investment
Value proposition 1—Access to toilets and treatment for end use: Providing
in refurbishment and upgradation of operations
an improved sanitation
• Catchment planning and reservation service to communities through access to toilets
and recovery
• Developer of and
guidelines nutrients or energy
specifications through treatment of FS.
to be compiled
•• • Ensuring
Value proposition
that containments2—Emptying and transportation
are as per standards and are inspected of FS: Providing a timely
sanitation service for emptying pits and septic tanks at an appropriate
frequency.
Role of private organizations:
•• IWKValue proposition
provides 3—Treatment
sewerage services in 87 out of the of
144FS for
local disposal:
authorities A healthier
in Malaysia. and safe
IWK is responsible for providing sewerage services,
operating and maintaining over 5,605 public sewage
environment through appropriate treatment of FS. treatment plants, and 14,700 km networks of sewerage pipelines, as well as the
desludging and septage management of one million individual
•• Value proposition 4—End use through nutrient recovery: Producing septage tanks. IWK covers most parts
high- of Malaysia for operation and
maintenance whilst providing technical expertize to the remaining non-serviced areas.21
quality compost as a soil conditioner.
•• Value proposition 5—End use through energy recovery: Improving access
to energy.25 CAPEX funding mechanism

SEWERAGE CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Depending on the value proposition offered by the business, its customer
segment will vary. For a business providing emptying and transportation
services, the customer segment is individual households, community toilet,
and institutions.
GOVERNMENTA generic
FUNDEDbusiness model canvas is described
CONCESSIONAIRE FUNDED in Appendix 4. FUNDED
DEVELOPER
The government could charge for the following activities by private operators
and septic tank owners to generate revenue for sustainably-run septage
management programmes.
a. Permits and their renewal for private operator through a registration process.
b. Charges to repair the faulty design through registered masons or plumbers.
c. Fine on defaulters (private operators or containment owners) for not
•following
5 years National Plans
instructions • Soft
of government Loan & Capital Markets
agencies. • Part of Land & Property
• Sewerage Capital Contribution • Built into Tariff Structure • Major Contributor of Sewerage

3.5 Monitoring and grievance redressal systems

At each stage of the sanitation chain, monitoring is essential. Any lapse in

monitoring means avoidable delays in achieving the goals of the programme
and, in extreme cases, may result in the goals of the programme not being
achieved (see Table 7: Monitoring septage programmes).

When any services are offered, there are always some issues and challenges
associated with them. Customer satisfaction should be the main objective of
service providers. In septage management, many stakeholders and beneficiaries
are involved. It may not be possible to ensure that every one of them is satisfied
with the services. Therefore, for appropriate disposal of the complaints with
septage management, a complaint redressal system must be put in place before
the services are offered. The mode of the redressal system should vary according
to the size of the target area, from a simple register to complex information
technology-based systems. Nodal officers must be appointed to dispose of the
Source: Indah Water Konsortium, 2017

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Case study 2: Warangal—India

Background
Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation (GWMC) addressed the need of introducing FSM regulation
and septage management guidelines for an effective monitoring process in compliance with national
level guidelines and regulations. The objective of the initiative was to promote a comprehensive and
integrated approach to septage management covering the entire sanitation chain.

Septage management
a. Operative guidelines adopted for septage management:
1. Designing and construction of septic tanks
2. Conversion of insanitary latrines into sanitary latrines
3. Septic tank pumping and desludging every three years
4. Septage transportation
5. Treatment, disposal and end use of septage
6. Information, education and communication
7. Training programmes
8. Record keeping and reporting
9. Helpline for septage management (s-line)
10. Operationalizing the FSM regulations

b. Sanitation-line or S- line: A helpline setup by GWMC to support citizens on all aspects of septage
management (such as request for new toilets, septic tank designs, approval process, methods of
construction, contact details of masons and desludging operators).
1. Information, education and communication: Provision of printed material on design of toilets—
three-chamber septic tanks for households, advanced septic tanks and decentralized wastewater
treatment (DWWT) systems.
2. Extensive promotion of the s-line
3. Consultation meetings with members of resident welfare associations to educate them about
the importance and legal requirements related to scheduled desludging
4. Establishment of a formal process for empanelment of desludging operators and issuance of
license to operate (five-year validity, with yearly renewal)
5. Fitting global positioning systems (GPS) in licensed trucks used for monitoring by GWMC

Innovative processes such as support call centres and co-treatment as examples from Warangal are
being scaled up in the entire state of Telangana.22

Case study 3: Manila—Philippines

Background
Philippines is one of the few countries in Asia that has a national policy on septage management
under the mandate of local governmental units (LGUs) and water service providers under the Clean
Water Act, 2004.

Septage management
•• Maynilad Water Services Inc works in the west zone of Manila, Philippines.
•• It is involved in performing desludging activities.
•• The Clean Water Act of 2004 makes it compulsory for LGUs and water districts to build septage
management programmes in those areas which are deficient in sewerage systems.
•• Private service providers in the metro city of Manila also participate in the collection and treatment
of septage for profit.
•• The city has adopted a decree of septage management and constructed septage treatment
facilities (oxidation ponds) with a capacity of 450 cum per day.23
•• Manila Water Company works on the east zone of Manila, Philippines
•• The company has 78 vacuum trucks and is involved in the empting and treatment of septage

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complaints for each stage of septage management.

Nodal officers should review the complaint and take appropriate action.
However, in case the complaint is not addressed or the user is not satisfied, there
should be provisions to take the complaint to higher authorities or institutions
(e.g. pollution control boards) for appropriate action (see Figure 13: Flowchart
of complaint redressal system for septage management).

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Table 7: Monitoring septage programmes

Stage Monitoring

Containment •• Construction as per prescribed standards by BIS or CPHEEO

•• Construction of the containment by licensed masons and plumbers
•• Overflow from containment is not diverted in open areas or drains
•• Census of the OSS and retrofitting of faulty containment is done. If not done
within a timeline, defaulters should be charged

Emptying •• Safety standards are followed

•• Legislative provisions like Manual Scavenging Act, 2013 are followed
•• Fixed charges are collected by private or government operators

Transportation •• Vehicles are registered with ULBs with transparency

•• Vehicles are well-maintained
•• All vehicles are GPS-enabled so that the route followed and point of disposal
can be monitored
•• Septage is disposed in designated disposal or treatment sites

Treatment •• Septage characteristics are determined to design the treatment system

•• In case of co-treatment at STPs, design parameters to take additional septage
load is checked
•• Effluent resulting from dewatering is treated as per discharge standards
•• Independent septage treatment plants have adequate provisions for vehicle
parking
•• Sludge drying beds are emptied regularly

Disposal and •• Legislative provisions like water pollution and environment protection acts are
end use followed
•• Defaulters are charged or fined as per provisions
•• Quality checks of end products is done before end use
•• Rates of end products are reasonable
•• Treated wastewater overflowing from containment meets prescribed
standards of end use for designated purposes
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

Figure 13: Flowchart of complaint redressal system for septage

management

C
Complaint
User segment in
sanitation chain

Interface Review
Addressed
register (IT address by
E by higher
based) nodal officer
authority

Complaint disposal
R

C-Containment, E-Emptying, T-Transportation, R-Reuse

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

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4. Stages of septage management

Septage management is a process that requires attention at every stage of the

sanitation chain, as explained in Section 2.2. Safe disposal or end use in a
scientific manner is the main goal of septage management. The important
calculations in septage management can be understood through an example of
a sample City X.

Example 1—City X

Assuming example of City X which has following characteristics

• Population: 150,000
• No. of households: 30,000
• No. of household dependent on onsite sanitation systems: 20,000
• Average volume of a household containment system: 3,000 litres
• No. of community toilets and public toilet blocks: 40
• Average volume of containment systems of community toilets and public toilets: 10,000
litres

4.1 Containment system

Two main types of systems exist in urban areas for the management of faeces:
1. Offsite sanitation systems, which carry the wastewater collected from
user interfaces to a single point of collection and treatment or outlet to water
bodies. 2. Onsite sanitation systems (OSS), where faecal waste is collected in
a containment system and may or may not be treated. As this is a guide on
septage management, our focus is on OSS. Figure 14: Sanitation systems in
India elucidates the difference between the two systems.

The terms OSS and containment systems have been used interchangeably in
this document. Prevalent OSS or containment systems have been explained in
the following sections.

4.1.1 Scenario in India

India, like any other developing country, significantly depends on OSS.
Prevalent and upcoming urban onsite sanitation systems have been highlighted
in Table 8: Urban containment systems in India, along with the required

Figure 14: Sanitation systems in India

Lined
containment

Onsite sanitation

Unlined
Urban sanitation containment

Piped sewer system

Offsite sanitation
Open /covered drain

Source: CSE, 2017

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Table 8: Urban containment systems in India

Urban sanitation systems

Type of Containment Containment system System name Standards to be

system system type used as per 2011 followed
Census of India
Onsite Lined Septic tank with soakpit Septic tank Bureau of Indian
sanitation containment Septic tank without soakpit Standards
system
Collection tank
Bio-toilet Other technology Defence Research
Bio-digester Development
Organization
(DRDO) and SBM

Unlined Pit latrine or ventilated Pit latrine SBM containment

containment improved pit guidelines
Twin-pit latrine
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

standards. Figure 15: Sanitation technologies and corresponding percentage of

population addresses the distribution of containment systems in India as per
the 2011 Census. Lined tanks with open bottoms should be considered unlined
containment systems.

Description of containment technologies prevalent in India

In practice, the septic tanks are not constructed according to the Indian Standard
(IS) code and, hence, the efficiency of the system is not up to the mark. This also
affects the emptying frequency and quality of effluent and septage recovered
from these tanks. These systems are generally constructed by local masons
according to the space available and the financial status of the user. The masons
often create bigger pits than required. Often, the bottom of the tanks is not
lined, to decrease the frequency of emptying. See Table 8: Urban containment
systems in India for an overview of the ongoing containment practices in India.
Refer to Appendix 5 for a brief description of containment systems prevalent in
India and also the output expected from such systems.

Figure 15: Sanitation technologies and corresponding percentage of

population

Night soil disposed

into open drain
Without slab/ open pit

With slab/ ventilated

improved pit
Other system

Septic tank

Piped sewer system

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Percentage of population

Note: Public toilets are assumed to be connected to septic tanks.

Source: Census of India, 2011

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Figure 16: Standard septic tank design

Inlet chamber Baffle Penstock

Scum baffle
Outlet
W

150 150

300 500
1,500
Opening 150 Deflector
L L/2

Penstock
Slope 1 in 10

All measurements in millimetres (mm)

Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment—Part A: Engineering. CPHEEO, 2012

4.1.2 Septic tank

BIS provides a code of practice for installation of septic tanks (IS-2470 Part-1,
1985). It illustrates design criteria to construct septic tanks based on certain
assumptions. It provides details to design installations for small and large
areas considering the population. Comprehensive design standards on OSS are
provided in part-A of the Manual on sewerage and sewage treatment published
by CPHEEO, the research wing of MoUD. The standard designs for prevalent
and safe onsite sanitation technologies have been described in the section (see
Figure 16: Standard septic tank design).

Table 9: Recommended sizes of septic tank

No. of users Length (m) Breadth (m) Liquid depth (cleaning interval of) (m)

1 year 2 year

5 1·5 0·75 1·0 1·05

10 2·0 0·90 1·0 1·40

15 2·0 0·90 1·3 2·00

20 2·3 1·10 1·3 1·80

Note 1: The size of septic tanks is based on certain assumptions (liquid discharge), while choosing the size of septic tanks,
exact calculations shall be made. For information on the same, please refer to BIS: 2470 (Part 1), 1985.
Note 2: A provision of 300 mm should be made for a free board.
Source: IS: 2470 (Part 1) - 1985

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Specifications of a septic tank

• Rectangular: Length to breadth ratio—2:1 to 3:1
• Depth: Between 1.0 to 2.5 m
• If two-chambered: First chamber two-thirds of the total length
• If three-chambered: First chamber half of the total length
• Manholes above each chamber
• A watertight, durable and stable tank

Capacity of a septic tank

The capacity of the tank helps calculate the duration for desludging. Following
are some key points useful to measure the capacity of a septic tank:
• Sedimentation: An area of 0.92 m2 is required for every 10 l/min peak flow
rate to support adequate sedimentation of suspended solids. Generally, the
depth of the sedimentation zone is 0.3 m.
• Sludge digestion: The capacity of the digestion zone works out to be 0.032
m3 per capita.
• Sludge and scum storage: For an interval of one year of sludge cleaning,
storage capacity of (2 x 10-4) x 365 = 0.073 m3/capita is required.
• Free board: At least 0.3 m

Types of septic tanks

Septic tanks are classified according to the number of chambers, intensity of
treatment, and complexity of the system.

Conventional system
a) Single-chambered septic tank
b) Two- or three-chambered septic tank

Improved system
a) Two-chambered septic tank with filter
b) Anaerobic baffled reactor with filter

Figure 17: Single chambered septic tank

Concrete roof or
removable pre-cast slab Gas vent
Ground level

Inlet pipe
from home Scum
Outlet
Liquid level

Clear water

Sludge

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

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Figure 18: Two-chambered septic tank

Concrete roof or
Ground level Gas vent removable pre-cast slab

Inlet

Scum
Liquid level Outlet

Settling chamber 1

Settling chamber 2

Sludge

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

Conventional system
a) Single-chambered septic tanks
Single-chambered septic tanks are tanks in which anaerobic digestion takes
place. This type of OSS requires frequent emptying as the rate of digestion
of solids is comparatively low. This conventional type of septic tank is not
suggested as an OSS because of its low efficiency and high maintenance
requirements (see Figure 17: Single-chambered septic tank).26

b) Two-chambered septic tanks

Two-chambered septic tanks have two chambers. The first chamber is at least
twice the size of the second chamber. Maximum solids settle down in the first
chamber and the partition between the chambers prevents scum and solids
from escaping with the effluent. A T-shaped outlet pipe further reduces the
amount of scum and solids that are discharged. Generally, these septic tanks
have to be emptied every three years (see Figure 18: Two-chambered septic
tank).27

Improved system
a) Two-chambered septic tanks with filter
This type of system incorporates two chambers with a single filtration chamber
resulting in improved treatment (see Figure 19: Two-chambered septic tank
with filter). As wastewater flows through the filter, particles are trapped and
organic matter is degraded by the active biomass that is attached to the surface
of the filter material. Commonly used filter material includes gravel, crushed
rocks, cinder, or specially manufactured plastic pieces. Typical filter material
sizes range from 12–55 mm in diameter. Ideally, the material will provide
between 90–300 m2 of surface area per m3 of reactor volume. By providing
a large surface area for the bacterial mass to work, there is increased contact
between the organic matter and active biomass, effectively degrading the
organic matter. Suspended solids and BOD removal can be as high as 85–90
per cent, but is typically between 50–80 per cent. Nitrogen removal is limited,
and normally does not exceed 15 per cent total nitrogen.28

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Figure 19: Two-chambered septic tank with filter

Concrete roof or
Gas vent removable pre-cast slab

Ground level

Inlet Scum
Filter
Outlet

Sludge

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

Figure 20: Anaerobic baffled reactor with filter

Access covers
Ground level Gas vent

Inlet T
Baffle
Inlet
Outlet

Sedimentation
zone

Sludge Filter
support

Filter

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

b) Anaerobic baffled reactors with filter

An ABR with filter is an improved septic tank (see Figure 20: Anaerobic baffled
reactor with filter). ABRs incorporate one or more baffles which force the sewage
to flow from the bottom to top until it starts to flow into the next chamber. The
upflow chambers catalyze the sedimentation of solids and digestion of organic
matter.29 BOD may be reduced by up to 90 per cent, which is far higher a
percentage than a conventional septic tank. The filter chambers typically remove
50–80 per cent BOD as sewage flows through them.30

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Table 10: Specifications for designing of a twin-pit

Type of pit Number of users

Five Ten Fifteen

Diameter Depth Diameter Depth Diameter Depth

Dry pit 900 1,000 1,100 1,300 1,300 1,400

Wet pit 1,000 1,300 1,400 1,400 1,600 1,500

Note: Depth from bottom of pit to invert level of incoming pipe or drain (all dimensions in mm)
Source: Manual on sewerage and sewage treatment part A : Engineering. CPHEEO; 2012.

4.1.3 Twin-pit system

It consists of a superstructure (toilet) and treatment units (two chambers). The
two underground chambers (pits) are provided to hold faecal sludge. There are
two alternating pits generally connected to a pour-flush toilet. Only one pit is
functional at a time while the other is allowed to rest as the liquid leaches out
of the pit. Pathogenic germs are absorbed into the soil while solids dry inside
the pit.

Specifications for designing a twin-pit

Twin pits are normally offset from the toilet and should be at least 1 m apart
from each other. A single pipe leads from the toilet to a small diversion
chamber, from which separate pipes lead to the two underground chambers.
The pits should be lined with open jointed brickwork. Each pit should be
designed to hold at least 12 months’ accumulation of faecal sludge. Wastewater
is discharged to one chamber until it is full of faecal sludge. Discharge is then
switched to the second chamber. Just before the second chamber is full of faecal
sludge, the contents of the first pit are dugout, which have been reduced by an
anaerobic process. Sizes of twin pits as per size of family and number of users
have been provided in Table 10: Specifications for designing of a twin-pit (see
Figure 21: Latrine with twin-pits).

The capacity of a twin pit is guided by the sludge accumulation rate (see Table
11: Sludge accumulation rate). Sludge accumulation rate is a function of a wide
range of variables, including water table, pit age, water and excreta loading
rates, microbial conditions in the pit, temperature and local soil conditions,

Figure 21: Latrine with twin-pits

115
Note:
115 115 The holes in honey comb should be 50 mm wide;
in sandy soil, or where there are chances of
damage by field rats, or where a sand envelope is
980

600

provided, the width of the holes can be reduced

750

225
to 12–15 mm

900
12 mm thick cement plaster in1:6 on both faces of
1130 partition wall
Outlet to be opened
alternately 115

Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment—Part A: Engineering. CPHEEO, 2012

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Table 11: Sludge accumulation rate

Material Effective volume in cum per capita per year*
used
Pit under dry Pit under wet conditions
for anal
conditions
cleansing With successive desludging intervals

Two years Three years

Water 0.04 0.095 0.067

Soft paper 0.53 0.114 0.8

*Effective volume is the volume of the pit below the invert level of pipe or drain.
Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment–Part A : Engineering. CPHEEO, 2012.

and the type of material used for anal cleansing.31 The SBM guidelines may
be referred for the further understanding at http://www.Swachhbharaturban.
in:8080/sbm/content/writereaddata/sbm_guideline.pdf
4.1.4 Bio-digester (anaerobic)
Bio-digesters advocated by the SBM are widely used to provide 80 per cent
treatment of black water from individual and cluster households, or institutional
buildings where there is no sewerage network (see Figure 22: Working of a bio-
digester).32 The technology has been developed by DRDO.

Specifications of a bio-digester
The bio-digester technology has two key components:
• Anaerobic microbial consortium
• Specially designed fermentation tank

The microbial consortium has been created by acclimatization, enrichment and

bio-augmentation of cold active bacteria collected from Antarctica and other
low-temperature areas. It is composed of four clusters of bacteria belonging
to hydrolytic, acidogenic, acetogenic and methenogenic groups with high
efficiency of bio-degradation. A fermentation tank made of metal or fiber glass-
reinforced polymer (FRP) has the capacity to immobilize bacteria in large
numbers. A bio-digester’s construction has the following specifications:33
• Land requirement—25 sq ft
• Internal dimensions of the tank—1,336 mm x 1,036 mm x 900 mm
• Diagonal partition walls of 8 mm thickness (adequately stiffened by ribs)
• The tank is buried 600 mm deep and anchored by 300 mm long stainless
steel (SS-316) anchor bolts at the corners
• FRP tanks are of 8 mm thickness

Image of a bio-digester

Source: DRDO Zero waste. Available

at http://dbma.org.in/About_
BioToilet_BioDigesters.aspx

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Figure 22: Working of a bio-digester

Anaerobic digestion inside bio-digester tank

Gas vent pipe

Chamber 1 Chamber 2 Chamber 3 Chamber 4 Water collection tank

Waste or soakpit
Water outlet
inlets

No scum

Clear water rich in

nutrients

Charged bacteria colonies Minimal sludge formation

Source: DRDO Zero waste. [Internet]. available from: http://dbma.org.in/About_BioToilet_BioDigesters.aspx

Capacity of a bio-digester (for five or six users):

• Total capacity: 700 litres (1,000 mm x 700 mm and 1,000 mm depth). Where
space is a constraint, the depth of the tank can be increased to 1.5 m
• Volume of the anaerobic compartment (30 per cent total capacity): 210 litres

Tank can also be constructed with masonry.34

4.1.5 Bio-toilet (aerobic)

Bio-toilets make use of aerobic digestion involving multiple strains of bacteria
that break down waste matter through oxidization (see Figure 23: Bio-toilet
representation).

Specifications of bio-toilets
Bio-toilets are constructed with a multi-chambered bio-tank for the storage of
waste. The waste is slowed down as it flows from one chamber to another by a
special process in the bio-tank, such that the multi-strain bio-media present in
the tank can digest the waste and convert it fully into non-toxic neutral water.35

The bio toilet system consists of:

• Bio-digester tank (bricks and mortar or FRP or steel)
• Superstructure (bricks and mortar or FRP)
• Indian pan or WC
• Size: 4 x 4 ft tank base, 4 ft high tank, 6 ft high superstructure
• Maximum usage recommended: 30 defecations per day per bio-toilet (no
limit on urination)
• Land requirement: 16 sq ft

Site suitability of the containment system

Before choosing a containment system, it is necessary to assess the physiological
conditions of the site (see Table 12: How to choose a suitable containment
system).

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Figure 23: Bio-toilet representation

Toilet pan
Bio-digester tank
Tank cover
(above ground)

Ground level

Bio-digester
tank (below
Inner partitions
ground)

Source: Swachh Bharat Mission Guidelines—Delhi: Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, 2014

Table 12: How to choose a suitable containment system

Ground water Ground water Soil strata Soil strata – low
Various Preferred containment
table is shallow table is deep –- permeable permeability
possibilities system
(less than 10m) (more than 10m) (sandy, silty etc.) (rock, clay etc.)

Any lined containment,

without soakpit and effluent
Option 1 √ √
conveyed to nearest treatment
plant through shallow sewers

Option 2 √ √ Same as above

Option 3 √ √ Same as above

Twin pit latrines(in case of pour

Option 4 √ √ flush) or lined containment
with soakpit

Note: The soakpit/soak away/twin pit should be located at least 8 m away from drinking water source if connected to pour flush toilets and 20 m if connected
to flush toilets
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017.

4.1.6 Suggested action

Census of OSS: It is essential that a census of OSS is carried out for target areas
by the technical staff responsible for the sanitation management. It is essential
to ensure that the OSS constructed is best suited to the local condition of the
target area.

Enforcement of bye-laws: Municipal bye-laws for construction of containment

systems should be enforced for new constructions. Penalty should be accrued
upon defaulters.

Retrofitting of faulty systems: The relevant agencies must provide sufficient

time and support to retrofit OSS with faulty design. Households willing to
upgrade faulty systems can be provided financial incentives.

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Capacity building of masons and plumbers: Construction of containment

is mainly done by masons and plumbers. Only skilled and experienced
labourers can construct functional systems. Training and capacity building of
workforce can prove to be a significant contribution towards improved septage
management.

Effluent needs further treatment: The effluent or supernatant from a septic tank
needs further treatment only if construction of a soakpit or soak-away is not a
feasible option. The effluent can be conveyed through small bore or solid-free
sewer to the nearest trunk sewer line, if there is any STP in the town with spare
capacity. If there is no STP, then the effluent should be conveyed to the nearest
decentralized wastewater treatment (DWWTs). Different types of DWWTs are
discussed in detail in Section 4.6.

4.2 Septage quantification

Quantum of septage generated depends on a number of factors including

number of users, number of toilets connected to a septic tank, the volume of
water used for flushing and ablution. The tank cleaning frequency increases if
other sources of wastewater are connected to the septic tank (kitchen, bathrooms
etc.). In general, the capacity of a septic tank in India ranges from 1–4 m3 for
houses; 5–15 m3 for septic tanks of community or public toilets; and 10–100 m3
for commercial places. There are two ways to calculate the septage generation
rate for a given city.
• Septage production method
• Septage collection method

Septage production method: There is no study of septage generation rate in

India yet, but we have data from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) manual. An estimate based on septic tank design mentioned
in IS code suggests 100–120 litres per capita per annum considering the septic
tank is periodically de-sludged. Table 13: Estimate of septage generation
summarizes quantum of septage that can be expected from household with an
average size of five.

Septage collection method: The volume of septage that is collected by private

operators or government vehicles can be mapped to calculate the quanta of
septage that is collected from a particular region. Another method to perform
the calculation is by collecting data like average capacity of containment
systems and average frequency of desludging, which would eventually help us
to calculate the average volume of septage that should be collected every day.
The volume calculated by this method is more realistic. The calculations based
on this method can be understood with an example.

Table 13: Estimate of septage generation

120 litres per year per
230 litres per year per capita
Septage generation capita (based on the IS
(based on USEPA manual)
code)

Average household size Five members Five members

Septage generation per household 1,150 litres or 1.15 cum per year 600 litres or 0.6 cum per year

Source: Compiled by CSE. 2017

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Example 2

Question: Calculate the total septage to be collected per day from the city considering household septic tanks (onsite sanitation
systems) are emptied once in every three years and the community toilets and public toilet septic tanks are emptied once in three
months. Assume the emptying service is provided for 285 days in a year and septage generated per day from non-house establishments
would be 5 per cent of the septage generated from households.

Answer:
Volume of septage generated from household septic tank (V1):

V1 = ((HHOS * VHH)/(3*285))

= (20000*3000)/(3*285)
= 70175 litres or 70.175 KLD

Volume of septage generated from CTPT (V2):

V2 = ((PT * VPT * 365)/(90 * 285))

= ((40*10000*365)/(90*285))
= 5692 litres or 5.7 KLD

Volume of septage generated from non-house establishments (V3):

V3 = 0.05*V1

= 3509 litres or 3.509 KLD

Total Volume of septage to be collected per day (VD)

VD = V1 + V2 + V3

= 70175 + 5692 + 3509

= 79376 or 79.38 KLD

Case study 4: Black gold, Sulabh International, New Delhi—India

Background
Seepage pits are unlined pits where accumulated effluent seeps into Twin-pit design proposed by Sulabh
the soil and only sludge in retained. These may be a direct source of
International
groundwater pollution in many areas. Sulabh International studied
the risks of contamination and offered design innovations that
were accepted by CPHEEO. Their innovation is the cheapest septage
management option available, provided it is designed for suitable
locations (taking into consideration soil, groundwater level etc).

Septage management
The effluent seeps out through the walls of the seepage pit while the
sludge remains inside. After a while, almost all pathogens—viruses,
Toilet

bacteria, protozoa and Helminths eggs— die off in the seepage pit Twin pits
or in the surrounding soil, but not Ascaris Lumbricoides (the large
human round-worm), particularly if the leach pit is wet. In a little
more than a year, it becomes safe to use the contents of the pit as
manure. Sulabh International designed the twin-pit system such that
the pit is filled in three years and can be used alternately. One pit is
used at a time for a duration of three years while the other pit is left
undisturbed. During this time, the excreta in the other pit degrades
to form an odourless, pathogen-free compost that can be dug out
and used as manure. The manure so formed is termed as “Black
Gold” by the organization’s workforce.36 Source: SBM Guidelines, 2015

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4.3 Emptying

Emptying of containment systems is done both mechanically and manually. At

the end of a fixed time period, ideally two–three years, a containment system
should be emptied of septage. The scheduled emptying should be done in order
to facilitate treatment of faecal matter in the OSS. There are many benefits of
regular desludging of OSS. These include:
1. Increased efficiency—septic tanks perform well when detention time in the
tank is maximized. As accumulated sludge reduces available tank volume,
the resulting decrease in detention time impacts the tank’s function and
ability to separate heavier solids from lighter fats and oils.37

2. Better discharge quality—septage has a much higher concentration of

pollution constituents than septic tank effluent. The concentration of BOD
and total suspended solids is much lower in effluent compared to sewage
or septage. The quality of the effluent reduces with time.

4.3.1 The scenario in India

In India, a prevalent practice is to construct a large containment system to avoid
frequent emptying. The focus is on saving money needed for emptying. Outlet
pipes connect the containment systems to open drains or sewerage network,
wherever present. Once the effluent enters the open drains, it poses a serious
environmental and health hazard.

The Prohibition of Employment of Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation

Act, 2013 prohibits employment or engagement of manual scavengers, however
many locations which are inaccessible to mechanical emptying continue to
employ manual scavengers.38

Other than manual emptying, mechanized methods include use of vacuum

tanker or tractor-mounted vacuum tankers. These are used for emptying of
containment systems. Mechanized systems are usually accompanied by a driver
and a helper (sometimes two helpers). No personal protective equipment (PPE)

Unsafe practices during emptying operations—placing the suction pipe with bare hands
exposes workers to septage
Amrita Bhatnagar / CSE

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Need for the use of PPE—use of PPE helps in preventing workers from direct contact with
septage

Anil Yadav / CSE

is used by the operators while emptying the tanks or pits, posing a health risk.
Private emptying operators lack proper knowledge of the business, and
sometimes presume that it is a relatively easy business requiring only the
acquisition of a couple of trucks and half a dozen labourers. This lack of
information is worsened by the absence of a regulatory framework. Charges for
emptying vary between Rs 500–3,000 across the country. The wide variance in
rates is due to the informal nature of the sector.

4.3.2 Procedure for emptying

1. Check vehicle (vacuum truck or tanker mounted on a tractor) and equipment
a. Check engine oil
b. Check air pressure in tyres
c. Check pumping equipment
2. Check PPE
All employees should carry PPE such as gloves, boots, a hard hat and face
masks. Use of bare hands should be strictly prohibited by the governing
authority.
3. Have the service requester take the crew to the OSS. Open the access covers
and inspect the interior and exterior of the tank and check:
a. The level of water or sludge up to the flow line of the outlet pipe—a
water level below the flow line of the outlet pipe indicates leaks.
b. Tank construction to look for cracks in the concrete. Use of a mirror on
a long rod can help inspect the interior of the tank.
c. If there is more than one compartment, locate and remove lids from all
compartments. Each compartment will require pumping out.
d. Seek information from local sources about the water table. Be cautious
when pumping out material from tanks because if the water table is
high, an unsecured tank may crack.
4) Position the truck near the building with safety cones, stoppers and hand-
break to avoid any friction during to pumping pressure.
5) Check hoses for cracks, and wear and tear:
Proper fitting is required for operation, therefore twine, tyre tube and plastic
should not be used for hose connections as they may cause leaks. Hoses,
clamps and fittings should be used to connect the main hose to the tanker
and the hoses to each other are critical for proper suction and pressure
operations.
6) Check the depth of the tank with the help of the hose. This will provide a
fair indication on the volume of the sludge and time it will take to empty

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Incorrect connecting of a hose— cloth and

twine are not appropriate friction busters,
as they might come off, spilling septage
Bhitush Luthra / CSE

on the workers and posing as a health

hazard

Friction fitting—Clamp fitting should be

used to screw in the pipe, which also
helps in avoiding breaking of pipe during
breaking of hardened solids in case of back
pressure

David Robbins
it. This can be done by slowly lowering the hose in the tank; as it moves
down, and it becomes harder to push it further, the sludge viscosity can be
estimated.
7) Connect the hose to the truck tank. In case of hardened sludge, back pressure
may be required to break the sludge mass. Clamp fittings should be screwed
in such cases. The fitting might come off due to high pressure, and expose
the workers to safety hazards.
8) Engage the pump or vacuum equipment. The operator will:
a. Make sure there is suction and that the pump is operating
b. Use the hose to break up sludge and scum masses as much as possible.
c. The operator should closely monitor the level gauge on the vehicle.
In case, there is less space, the operator should monitor level gauge
closely.
d. Check for water flowing back from outlet pipe, this is indicative of
a clogging problem and should be reported to the building owner or
requester
9) Upon completion of emptying through the suction system, the operator
should check if there are rocks or clogged mass which needs to be broken
or can be pumped out. This can be done either by pumping 200–300 litres
of septage back into the tank. Fresh water can also be pumped in instead of
septage.
10) Never pump out the entire contents of a tank during periods
Septage spills should be disinfected using
when the water table is high. If the groundwater is higher than lime or bleach
the bottom of the tank, the tank may float out of the ground.
In such conditions, leave enough contents in the tank to serve
as a stabilizer.
Amrita Bhatnagar / CSE

11) Upon completion of emptying, wash the pipes with water

directed to OSS.
12) Replace clean hoses back in the truck toolbox and place lids
over the tank.
13) Spills should be cleaned and disinfected using lime or
bleach.39

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Precautions to be taken during emptying

• Proper PPE should be used to avoid transmission of pathogens to the operator providing desludging
services.
• Some amount of septage or sludge should be left in the septic tank to ensure retention of necessary
micro-organisms responsible for anaerobic digestion.
• Due to anaerobic digestion processes, flammable gases are formed in septic tanks. While opening
the chambers for desludging, they escape into the atmosphere. Hence, it is recommended not to
light a fire nearby.
• Because of the sensitivity of septic systems due to presence of bacteria that speeds up anaerobic
digestion process, care should be taken not to clean the septic tank using strong chemicals which
may kill the bacteria.

4.3.3 Suggested action

Fixed charges for emptying: The charges to empty septage vary widely across
the country, according to the urgency shown by the customer to get the
containment emptied. ULBs should fix the fees charged by private operators,
taking into consideration fuel costs, salary, and profit for the operator, with
provisions of revising the fees as and when required.

Regulating and licensing of private emptiers: ULBs should regulate private

emptiers by licensing them, which would help in streamlining of the process
and checking faulty septic tanks, as well as inhibit environmental pollution.

Awareness campaigns: Awareness about the need to empty containments

regularly is very essential. Frequent advisories on appropriate use of chemicals
and detergents in cleaning the bathrooms and toilets should be provided to the
owners of OSS. Benefits of regular desludging should be conveyed through mass
awareness campaigns, IEC material distribution, electronic media etc. NGOs
operating in a city should be consulted or hired for the awareness campaigns.

Sensitization of private operators: Most private operators in this business are

not aware about adverse impacts of unsafe disposal of the septage. To limit
illegal and unsafe disposal of septage, local authorities should train private
operators on correct transportation and disposal methods, and understand
challenges faced by them so that they can be addressed properly.

Record keeping: Keeping accurate records regarding tasks and volume

pumped is important for billing compliance and forms an integral part of any
comprehensive septage management programme.

Scheduled desludging: ULBs should ensure that containment systems are

desludged as per schedule.

4.4 Transportation

Transportation is a very vital stage in the sanitation value chain and so are
safety measures involved in it. Vehicles that carry septage act as mobile sewer
networks for OSS. Ideally, an ultimate discharge point of collected septage is
an STP or septage treatment plant.

The two main types of vehicles used in India are:

1. Truck-mounted vacuum tankers
2. Tractor-mounted tankers

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A truck-mounted vacuum tanker Tractor-mounted vacuum tanker

Graphic: Sunny Gautam / CSE

Truck-mounted vacuum tankers

These trucks have vacuum pumps with sizes based on lift elevation, pumping
distance, volume of sludge to be removed, and volume of the tank. Their
capacity varies between 3,000–10,000 litres.

Tractor-mounted vacuum tankers

These vehicles are locally made across India, but their capacity is similar to that
of vacuum trucks. The motor, the tank and the tractor are assembled according
to the complimenting capacity of each module.

4.4.1 The scenario in India

As mentioned in Section 4.1.1, there is a high percentage of OSS in India,
generating demand for both private and public emptiers. Predominantly, mini-
trucks, tractors and indigenously developed vehicle mounted with pumps
are used. The capacities of tanks attached to transportation vehicles, mostly
indigenously made, vary from 500–10,000 litres. The vehicles cost between Tanker on tempo having 1,000
Rs 5–20 lakh each. Vacuum trucks are rare in India due to insufficient litre capacity (Puducherry)
funds and lack of manpower to operate them. Private emptying services
dominate in cities. They run informal businesses and use factory-fitted
tractor-mounted vacuum tankers. At present, no safety standards or traffic
rules are followed by these vehicles and they ply on the roads at all times.

4.4.2 Suggested action

Calculating the number of vehicles required: It is essential to determine
the number of vehicles required to cater to the needs for transporting
Vacuum tanker with 3,000 litre
sludge in a target area. The advisory issued by the MoUD on septage capacity (Alwar)
management in urban India provides a calculation sheet to arrive at the
number of vehicles required to fulfil the requirements in a given area.

Route planning for transportation: One of the important issues in the

transportation of septage is the cost of fuel. Most private operators illegally
discharge septage at the nearest point, they can, from the point of collection.
Routes to be taken should be fixed to reduce the cost of transportation as
well as minimizing the effects on health and environment. It should be
ensured that transporters follow these fixed rules. Appropriate fines should
Photographs: Bhitush Luthra / CSE

Vacuum tanker with 5,000

be slapped on violators. The money thus collected can be used by the ULBs litre capacity (Trichy)
to fund the sustainable septage management programme.

The following points need to be considered for safe transportation of

septage:
• Registration of septage transportation vehicles with ULB.
• Schedule for cleaning OSS and shortest routes for septage transportation
to be determined by responsible organizations.

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Case study 5: Call center—Senegal

Background
In 2011, the National Sanitation Office of Senegal (ONAS) decided to restructure the mechanical empyting sector with new technical
and administrative organizational forms to be adopted in an inclusive and participatory manner. To this end, development of a
call center was seen as an effective method for improving services by facilitating better a relationship between clients and service
providers. The process of developing and designing the call center took two years, as care was taken to ensure the participation of
all relevant stakeholders.

Septage management
• ONAS engaged with Water and Sanitation for Africa and Innovations for Poverty Action for technology interventions.
• Initially, a pilot project was launched to assess the viability of the plan.
• An awareness campaign on the launch of call center was launched.
• Training of truck operators was performed.
• Geo-referencing of trucks was done.
• The call center provides each requirement for emptying as an auction which is sent through SMS as an update.
• The business from call center applies to each truck and not individual businesses.
• Trucks have been segregated area-wise, therefore, bids are sent to the individual trucks plying in that area.
• When an auction is provided, it calls for bids from individual trucks.
• At the end of the bidding period, the lowest bidder is notified.
• In the event that a customer reports on poor quality of service, the relevant operator is penalized in future bids, whereby the offer
made is marked up with a fixed penalized amount of CFA Francs 2,000 (US $3.5), which would make the offer less competitive.

Progress of the initiative

• In July 2014, the call center had 138 trucks registered and it had emptied 499 septic tanks.
• The call center model has resulted in a significant decrease in emptying fees. For example, in the Commune of Sicap Mbao, between
July 2013 and December 2014, emptying fees had declined by 14 per cent (from US $57 to US $49). The call center service has
expanded to the entire city and, on an average, the emptying fee is about CFA francs 24,047 (US $50), with a minimum fee of CFA
francs 16,500 (US $35).
• Since the launch of the call center, there has been an increase in the volumes of sludge delivered to treatment plants.
• The model could support, in particular, low-income households struggling with emptying fees, while high-income households might
continue personally contracting emptiers, to control who is entering their premises.40

Example 3

Question:
In City X, 70 per cent of households dependent on onsite systems are accessible by medium-sized (5,000 litres) vacuum trucks but 30
per cent of households are inaccessible to such trucks, hence smaller Vacutugs (1,000–2,000 litres) or gulpers are required. The utility
needs to buy vehicles of two sizes 1,000–2,000 and 4,000–5,000. Calculate the minimum number of trucks needed for each size only
to provide service to the household septic tanks. Assume one truck is able to do three trips a day and Vacutugs are able to do four trips
a day and the emptying service is provided 285 days a year.

Answer:
Volume of septage generated or to be collected from households (V1) = 70,175 litres/day.

Assuming 70 per cent of the septage can be collected by the 5,000 litres capacity truck

Number of 5,000 litres capacity trucks = (V1* 70)/(100 * Average volume of septic tank * number of trips)
= (70,175 * 70) /(100* 3,000 *3)
= 5.45 or six trucks
Rest 30 per cent of the septage would be collected by the 2,000 litres capacity Vacutug.

Number of 2,000 litres capacity Vacutugs

= (V1* 30 * Number of trips per septic tank)/ (100* Average volume of septic tanks * number of trips)
= (70,175*30*2)/(100 * 3,000 * 4)
= 3.508 or 4 Vacutugs

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Example 4

Question
For septic tanks of commercial places and public or community toilets, calculate the number of vacuum trucks of 10,000 litres capacity
required in City X?

Answer:
Volume of septage generated or to be collected:
V2 = 5,692 litres per day
V3 = 3,509 litres per day

Since the minimum size of the septic tank is 10,000 litres, scheduled desludging of public toilets can be done every alternate day, and for
commercial places it needs to be done every third day, hence if the utility can buy two trucks, there will always be a backup for emergency.

Case study 6: Septage collection service by Mysuru City Corporation, Mysuru—India

Background
Mysuru City Corporation (MCC) is active in providing services related to septage collection, which serves as an initial step in septage
management. This case study depicts an example of active participation by the municipal authorities to manage septage and avoid the
menace that it may cause.

Septage management
• MCC undertakes cleaning of septic tanks; it is done mechanically using suction pumps.
• MCC clears septage by engaging vacuum tankers on request, with a fixed fee of Rs 500 per hour. For this, it provides a dedicated
helplines called civil service centre.
• The sewage systems in all wards within the limits of MCC are being maintained by Vani Vilas Water Works and Karnataka Urban
Water Supply, and include all work like periodical repair of collapsed manholes, cleaning blocked manholes etc.
• There are three vacuum tankers with the MCC for septage removal, which is disposed of in the existing STPs. The sludge is
transported to an STP for further treatment and used for manufacturing compost. The sludge is sun dried in an open area after
which it is used as manure in agricultural fields.
• The interval of cleaning is two–three years, but in some cases the cleaning is done once every five years. It is estimated that
around 750 septic tanks get cleaned every year.41

• All safety procedures must be followed.

• Vehicles transporting septage should be able to ply on the roads only during
select hours of the day.

4.5 Septage treatment

Septage collected from various points in the city needs to be disposed of at

an appropriate treatment facility. The treatment methods can be conventional
or non-conventional. Non-conventional improved methods are recommended
for countries where septage management is non-existent. Effluent from septic
tanks as well as septage needs treatment.

4.5.1 The scenario in India

In India, septage treatment is not given due attention. Septage is often disposed
of untreated in storm-water drains, nullahs, canals, vacant plots, and agricultural
fields. Untreated septage is harmful for environment and adversely affects the
health of people who come in contact with it.

India has experimented with treatment of septage. A few pilot projects have
been tried. Some attempts, like the faecal sludge treatment at Devanahalli,
Bengaluru, have succeeded while others, like the one at Musiri, Tamil Nadu

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Case study 7: Private emptying service, Bengaluru city—India

Background
In absence of a sewerage network in the conurbation areas, the green belt and rural areas in Bengaluru, OSS, like septic tanks, are
common.42 Due to lack of regulations and resources, the municipal authorities are unable to meet the demand of septage collection or
management. This is where the private service providers and farmers in Bengaluru step in to provide an economical model for septage
management.

Septage management
A private mechanized truck for emptying septic tanks charges Rs 1,500 per trip and can do five trips a day. One truck can service a
population of 20,000, assuming a two year pit emptying cycle. Farmers in Bengaluru provide land (compost pits dug by them) to these
private trucks for disposal, and in lieu get free compost in three months.43

Land application of septage at the outskirts of Bengaluru

Photographs: S. Vishwanath

Case study 8: Innovative desludging vehicle (Vacutug), Dhaka—Bangladesh

Background
WaterAid, Bangladesh introduced a pilot project in December 2000 for collection and transportation of septage in Dhaka.

Septage management
• The responsibility of operation and management was delegated to a regional partner Dushtha Shasthya Kendra, which is also
responsible for establishing a partnership with the Dhaka Water and Sewerage Authority for the discharge of collected faecal
sludge into the main sewer line.
• Vacutug system, that was first used in Kenya, was redesigned and manufactured locally to offer flexibility and mobility without
losing the capacity to collect a substantial volume of faecal sludge within one operation. A larger 1,900 litre and a small tank of
200 litre capacity were manufactured. This new Vacutug system was mounted on wheels and could be attached to other vehicles.
It became operational in July 2001.44 The tank takes 10–20 minutes to fill. One complete operation is completed in 90 minutes,
which includes preparation and cleaning of the Vacutug after use.
• The Vacutug system garnered interest from other areas as well. Apart from providing services to households in slums and squatter
settlements, the facility also responds to demands from households in middle and higher income neighbourhoods, schools and
other institutions and factories that are located in other parts of the city.

As a result, within a few months after the commencement of the project, the monthly revenue generated from the Vacutug services
was enough to cover the staff salary and maintenance expenses.45

have failed due to local socio-economic issues. Land spreading is another

method that is practiced in India. Septage is disposed on farm lands for sun
drying and the compost prepared is either used locally or sold to other farmers.
In the following section, the focus would be on septage treatment. Effluent

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Figure 24: Sanitech tool—treatment technologies webpage

Source: http://darpan.cstep.in/sanitech/

separated from septage after dewatering and from septic tanks should be treated
further, as discussed in Section 4.6. Septage can be treated in various ways, e.g.,
it can be co-treated with sewage, treated at a dedicated septage treatment plant,
or co-composted with municipal solid waste.

4.5.2 How to choose the best treatment?

To choose the best combination of technologies, the existing scenario of a
city has to be discussed among the stakeholders. Variables like population
density, water usage, type of OSS common in the city, soil strata, water table,
land availability, and topography of the city, as well as characteristics of the
septage, demand for the end product, capital and operation costs should be
considered before deciding on the combination of technologies to be used. A
decision-making tool called sani-tech can be used to identify the most suitable
combination. This tool can be accessed at http://darpan.cstep.in/sanitech/. It
also provides a rough estimate of the costs involved in the implementation
of various technologies (see Figure 24: Sanitech tool—treatment technologies
webpage).

4.5.3 Co-treatment with wastewater

Co-treatment simply means treating septage along with wastewater at a
wastewater treatment plant. It is an option which can be considered in India,
provided the characteristics of the septage are known, it is diluted with sewage
to avoid shock load, and the STP has enough capacity to take the extra load.
Broadly, co-treatment can be carried out in two ways:
1. Septage directly mixed with sewage
2. Septage treated with the sludge of an STP

Septage directly mixed with sewage flows: Since most STPs are underutilized,
adding septage into existing STPs can be a quick solution to the safe management
of septage. Septage can be added to the trunk sewer line either through sewage
pumping stations or through a sewer hole adjacent to the STP. Septage can
also be mixed with incoming sewage at the STP, right before the screening.
The following aspects must be considered while thus mixing faecal sludge or
septage:

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Figure 25: Different treatment technologies based on their function

Solid–liquid Settling-thickening ponds

separation

Imhoff tank
Stablilzation Anaerobic digester Deep-row entrenchment

Dewatering / Mechanical dewatering Unplanted drying bed

drying
Planted drying beds Co-composting

Pathogen Storage and further drying Pelletization

removal
Black soldier flies
Source: Tilley et al, 2014

a) The quality, and not just the quantity, of the sludge, must be evaluated.
Most biological wastewater treatment plants are designed and operated
based on solid content, BOD, COD and pH.
b) It must be ascertained beforehand whether the septage and sludge contain
any toxic chemicals that can destroy biological communities. The presence
of trash, grit, and trade and industrial sludge can be toxic and impact
biological processes.
c) Consistent compliance of STPs might be an issue.

Septage co-treated with STP sludge: This is a better option because most
STPs have land for sludge drying and dewatering. Sludge dewatering sites
needs to be improved a bit by designing proper sludge drying beds. Geobags
to dewater the septage or sludge can be developed as an alternative option to
sludge drying bed. The liquid fraction from sludge or septage can be directed
to the STPs. This is a much better option than directly mixing septage into the
liquid stream of STPs. Septage, after dewatering, and sludge from STPs can be
treated together through co-composting, pyrolysis etc. This solution is feasible
only in STPs in the vicinity of the target city, otherwise, sludge transportation
cost will be prohibitive.

4.5.4 Septage treatment plant

The four main functions of septage treatment are: the solid–liquid separation,
stabilization, dewatering or drying, and pathogen reduction (see Figure 25:
Different treatment technologies based on their function). Potential end-uses
are in fertilizers, as fuel (biogas) etc. Collected septage can be passed through a
screen to remove unwanted solid wastes which might interrupt in the treatment
process.

It is important to understand that in order to achieve complete treatment, a

combination of two or three technologies is ideal. A brief description of the
technologies is given as follows.46

Settling-thickening (solid–liquid separation)

Settling-thickening technologies thicken and dewater septage. Solids settle to
the bottom as the septage flows from one end of the pond or tank to the other
(see Figure 26: Settling-thickening pond). The liquid (effluent) flows through
the outlet and requires further treatment. Some solids (for example, fats, oil and
grease) float to the top and form a layer of scum. Examples of these technologies

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Figure 26: Settling-thickening pond

Baffle
Ramp for desludging Scum
Supernatant Liquid outlet

Thickened sludge
Screen

Grit chamber

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

include settling-thickening tanks or ponds, settlers, Imhoff tanks and septic

tanks. Settling-thickening technologies operate semi-continuously. They often
include two lined ponds or tanks, while one is in operation, sludge thickens in
the other. Septage is then pumped out for further treatment. Septage is removed
every month to every few months. Other than pumping, settling-thickening
technologies require low amount of energy.47

Mechanical dewatering
Mechanical dewatering technologies include belt-filter press, frame-filter
press, screw press and centrifuge. Mechanical forces dewater septage (for
example, centrifugal force). Conditioners are often added to the septage before
mechanical dewatering. Conditioners are products that help dewater the sludge
more efficiently. Mechanical dewatering is fast (takes only minutes or a few
hours) and requires less space, but it uses large amount of energy.48

Deep-row entrenchment (stabilization)

Deep-row entrenchment is a method of disposal and soil modification which
consumes little energy. Its design and operation ensure that groundwater is
not contaminated. The length and depth of a trench depends on the highest
groundwater level and quantity of faecal sludge. A trench can be lined with
clay and other material to reduce the risk of groundwater contamination.
Entrenchment is done in batches. Untreated faecal sludge is placed in trenches
and covered with soil. Trees can be planted on top or next to the trench.49

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Anaerobic digester (stabilization)

Input sludge undergoes solid–liquid separation beforehand. The stabilized
(digested) sludge needs further drying and pathogen removal. There is a solid
retention time of about 10–15 days. Organic matter is thus converted into biogas.
This process ensures effective sludge digestion and stabilization. Removal of
accumulated solids from the digester remains a challenge.50

Unplanted drying bed (dewatering)

The main objective of the energy-saving unplanted drying bed method is
dewatering. The bed is filled with filter material, usually gravel at the bottom
and sand on top. The bottom is sloped and lined with perforated pipes to drain
away the effluent. Unplanted drying beds are operated in batches. Sludge is
placed on the surface of the bed and the liquid flows through the sand and gravel
for a period of days. The majority of the solid portion of the sludge stays on the
surface. The remaining water in the sludge is removed by evaporation. The
dewatered sludge is then removed from the surface manually or mechanically,
once every few weeks or months.51

Figure 27: Unplanted drying bed

Ramp for desludging

Drainage layer

Outlet
Drainage water, to treatment

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

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Figure 28: Planted drying bed Ventilation pipe

Sludge Plants

Wall

Screen

Grit chamber

Sand
Mesh

Drainage layer

Gravel rocks Outlet

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

Planted drying bed (dewatering and stabilization)

The main objective of the energy-saving planted drying bed method is
dewatering and stabilization. The bed is filled with filler material, usually
gravel at the bottom and sand on top. Plants selected for a specific climate grow
in the filter media. The bottom of the bed is sloped and lined with perforated
pipes to drain away the effluent.

Planted drying beds operate semi-continuously. Faecal sludge is placed on the

surface of the bed and the liquid flows through the sand and gravel. The majority
of the solid portion of the sludge stays on the surface. Some of the remaining
water in the sludge is removed by evapo-transpiration. Sludge can be loaded on
the beds without removal for a period of one–three years. Dewatered sludge is
stabilized. Dewatered sludge is removed every few months to years. Plants are
harvested according to their growth cycle.52

Lime stabilization
Lime stabilization is the process by which hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide)
is added to septage to form a product that can be disposed of on land for use
as a fertilizer. The process requires approximately 12–20 kg of hydrated lime
for every 4,000 litres of septage. Once the lime and septage are mixed, the pH
is raised to 12 and kept thus for a minimum of 30 minutes. This kills any
pathogens present. The material can then be more easily handled for final
disposal. Several readings of pH during the mixing process must be taken to
determine the exact amount of hydrated lime required.53

There are two common ways to perform lime stabilization:

1. Adding lime directly to a vacuum truck. Lime can be added either before or
after the septage is pumped out. The pump in the truck can then be used to
mix the lime and septage. This method only works in case of stainless steel
tanks.
2. Adding lime to the septage pit daily or weekly. The frequency of adding
lime depends on the quantity of septage; if it is under 20,000 litres per
week, adding lime weekly is sufficient; if it is over 20,000 litres per week,
lime should be added daily.

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A simple earthen pit works well for lime stabilization. Typical pits are 4 x 3 x
1.5 m (height, width and depth), and have a capacity of 40,000 litres. Two pits
are recommended for a long-term operation, to be used alternatively. Typically,
the pits would be lined, but if the soil contains sufficient amount of clay, it may
be compacted to prevent seepage and save the cost of lining.

Composting
Composting is a popular method of treating septage. Composting may be
defined as the stabilization of organic material through the process of aerobic,
thermophilic decomposition. During the composting process, organic material
undergoes biological degradation to form a stable end product. Approximately
20–30 per cent organic solids are converted to carbon dioxide and water. As the
organic material in the septage decomposes, the compost heats to temperatures
in the range of 50–70°C and harmful pathogens are destroyed. The resulting
humus-like material is suitable as a soil conditioner and source of nitrogen and
phosphorus.54

Septage can be composted directly. The basic procedure for composting is as

follows:
1. Septage or wastewater solids are mixed with a bulking agent, (e.g. wood
chips, sawdust) to decrease the moisture content of the mixture, increase
porosity, and assure aerobic conditions during composting.
2. The mixture is aerated either by the addition of air (aerated static pile) or by
mechanical turning (agitated) for about 28 days.

The most common agitated method is windrow composting in which the

mixture of septage or wastewater solids and bulking agent is pushed into long
parallel rows called windrows, about 1–2 m high and about 2–4.5 m wide at
the base. The cross-section is either trapezoidal or triangular. The mixture is
turned over several times a week. Although specialized equipment has been
developed for windrow composting, it is possible to use a front-end loader to
move, push, stack, and turn the mixture.

Factors affecting the composting process include moisture (40–60 per cent) and
oxygen (5–15 per cent) content; temperature (must reach 55–65°C); pH (6–9);
and carbon–nitrogen ratio (30:1).

For the operation to be smooth, there should be sufficient laboratory equipment

to monitor these parameters during the compost process. Moisture can be added
and turning can be increased based on monitoring results. The operator should
measure temperature at least once every day by placing a thermometer into
the mixture at various locations. Maintaining temperatures of 50–60°C for the
compost period assures destruction of pathogens.

Co-composting
Co-composting is composting of septage along with the organic fraction of
municipal solid waste (see Figure 29: Co-composting of septage with organic
waste). The organic fraction includes food waste, paper, yard waste (e.g. leaves
and branches) cut or removed during landscaping. Co-composting is done
in batches. Septage and other organic material are placed in piles or rows.
Various parameters need to be controlled to ensure an optimal composting
process, including temperature, moisture, carbon–nitrogen ratio and oxygen
concentration. Co-composting takes several months and needs low amount of
energy. The process produces compost, a dark, rich soil-like material which can
be used as a soil conditioner.55

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Figure 29: Co-composting of septage with organic waste

Sludge + Organics

Sludge Organics

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

Aishwarya Varadharajan / CSE

Black soldier fly larvae

Black soldier fly larvae eat septage, and in doing so they reduce the volume and
stabilize the sludge. Black soldier fly larvae are rich in fat and protein. They are
fed to livestock as a source of protein. Black soldier fly larvae treatment is done
in batches or semi-continuously. Septage is placed in a container
with black soldier fly eggs or larvae. Other organic waste streams Black soldier fly larvae
can be added as well to be co- treated. The larvae are harvested
periodically to be fed to livestock. Larvae digest septage in days.
The technology needs low amount of energy.56

Pelletizing
Dewatered sludge is processed into pellets by pressing it through
a nozzle or plate. Pellets are dense, consistent in composition, and
relatively easy to store, transport and market. Pelletizing can be
used to enhance drying, for example, with the bio-burn process
that can process pellets at 50 per cent moisture that can dry to 90
per cent without additional thermal energy. Pelletizers dewater
or dry sludge when they are combined with other technologies, Source: http://farmerfredrant.blogspot.in/2010/06/
such as thermal dryer in the LaDePa technology. Other pelletizing what-are-those-bugs-in-my-compost.html

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technologies require that the sludge is first dried, and then compressed into
pellets with a binder. Pelletizing takes seconds and requires a low amount of
energy, which varies with the technology used.57

Lagoon
The simplest septage treating lagoon consists of two earthen basins arranged in
series (see Figure 30: Lagoon technology). The first or primary lagoon (may or
may not be lined, depending on the local geological conditions) receives raw
septage. The supernatant liquid from the primary lagoon, which has undergone
some clarification and possibly anaerobic digestion, is transferred into the
second lagoon, or percolating pond, where it is allowed to infiltrate into the
ground. It is also possible to have multi-celled lagoon systems with either
surface discharge or land application of effluent.58

Geotube bags
Geotubes, containers and bags are made from porous tubular containers
fabricated with high strength woven geo-textiles (polyethylene material) mainly
used for dewatering sludge. Geotubes have high durability, low maintenance,
low energy or fuel consumption, and they do not require additives. These
bags are all-weather and environment-friendly and trap all solids in FS.59 The
solids collected can then be transported to a landfill site for disposal or sent for
recovery of nutrients and then used as a soil conditioner. Geotubes significantly
reduce the operation and maintenance costs.60 A list of possible technologies,
with reference to requirement of land, money, energy and performance is
attached as Appendix 6.

4.5.5 Suggested actions

Septage characterization: Currently, there is negligible information about the
characteristics of septage desludged from containment systems of different
agro-climatic regions of India. Academic research institutions or accredited

Pelletization—dewatered slugde broken down into smaller pieces as shown in the picture are
used as fuel, compost etc. These are light in weight and easy to transport

Source: JAEE, 2002

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Figure 30: Lagoon technology

Septage

Primary
lagoon Percolation
pond

One cell lagoon with percolation pond (controlled discharge)

Septage

Primary
lagoon Secondary
lagoon Percolation
pond

Two cell lagoon with percolation pond (controlled discharge)

Source: USEPA, Handbook: Septage treatment and disposal, 1994

laboratories in India should be consulted to determine septage characteristics.

This will help in selecting the appropriate technological option that suits the
local and regional conditions.

Site selection and land allocation: Instead of one big piece of land, smaller
pockets should be identified for establishment of decentralized septage
treatment plants. The sites should be selected considering the spatial spread of
OSS in the city. One of the main objectives is to reduce the distance covered by
vacuum trucks and, eventually, the cost of conveyance.

Pilot projects: ULBs can take up pilot projects under various programmes
sanctioned by the government of India. Pilot projects should be implemented
by ULBs with minimum support from consultants. ULBs should own these

Geotube bags—these bags are extremely useful in dewatering of sludge, as shown below a
geotube bag bloated with septage

Source:http://www.tencate.com/apac/geosynthetics/product/dewatering-technology/dewatering-container.aspx

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Case study 9: Treatment system at Bansberia, West Bengal—India

Background
The project was initiated by a concerned citizen of Bansberia city located in West Bengal, India. The main aim was to handle septage
which was being discharged into River Ganga. The project is a joint venture between Bansberia Municipality and Greenery Biocompost
and Animal Farming Pvt Ltd. The private company receives septage from the entire city and then converts it into poultry waste through
bio-composting.

Septage management
Septage management pictures depicting
Capacity of the treatment plant: 1,500 metric tonnes per year
composting process at Bansberia
Area of the facility: 2.75 hectares
Technology used: Sludge drying beds
Daily septage received: 12,000 litres
Treatment process:

Step 1: Septage is spread on sludge drying beds and dried for two–three weeks
until maximum water evaporates. This excreta consists of 1 per cent nitrogen. In
order to increase the nitrogen content, poultry excreta (with 3 per cent nitrogen
content) is mixed with it.

Step 2: Lime is added to the sludge in order to kill the pathogens and increase the
rate of composting. It takes around three weeks to dry this sludge. Once dried, it is
stored in bags for two weeks.

Step 3: This dried sludge is then spread out in a small area and kept for it to receive
rainfall for at least a year. Due to its high nitrogen content, it becomes suitable for
plant growth and the plants help in maintaining the pH of the sludge at around
6.5–7.

Step 4: A three layer compost is prepared to form one half of the bio-compost.
The above mentioned dried sludge forms the first layer. Leather ash forms the next
layer on top of this. Leather ash, which is high in nitrogen and potassium is the
remnant which is formed after boiling slaughterhouse leftovers such as animal skin.
Photographs: Aishwarya Varadharajan / CSE

Step 5: “Kheri”, as it is called in Hindi, forms the third layer on top of the leather
ash. Animal blood from slaughterhouses and coconut peel mixed with husk forms
Kheri. This layer is rich in iron, calcium and nitrogen. All three layers are mixed well
and kept aside. This forms the faecal compost.

Step 6: Alongside the faecal sludge treatment, Vermicomposting of cow dung

and kitchen waste also takes place separately. Vermicompost is mixed with faecal
compost and is sieved well. The final product is called bio-compost. In order to
enhance the quality of the biocompost, neem seed powder may be added to it.
Each biocompost sack (weighing 50 kg) sells at Rs 850.

projects. The implementation and results should be systematically documented

for up-scaling the implementation and replicate it in other parts of country.

Pre-feasibility studies, including EIA: Pre-feasibility studies and an EIA should

be performed before setting up a septage treatment plant.

4.6 Effluent treatment

There are two types of effluents:

1. The effluent or supernatant which drains out of the septic tank.
2. The effluent which is separated out from the septage after dewatering.

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Case study 10: Gravity-based biological septage treatment plant, Devanahalli—India

Background
Devanahalli town has a population of around 23,406 people. Most households depend on septic tanks and soakpits for sewage
disposal. There are about 5,110 septic tanks as per the municipal council. There is neither an underground sewerage connection nor
any organized septage treatment facility in the area, which leads to washing of septage into existing open drains. The objective of this
project was to establish a pilot independent septage treatment unit and treat sewage as per the prescribed standards.

Septage management
Gravity-based biological treatment technology in an area of 650 sq m has been used. The plant is mostly underground, completely
covered and odourless. For treatment, septage passes through five different units: 1. A feeding tank with a screen chamber is the first
unit which traps large solids. Screened septage enters the biogas settler (BGS), where it gets settled and liquid supernatant is formed
on the top. 2. Sludge accumulated in the BGS moves to a stabilizing tank and the stabilized sludge is disposed of into sludge drying
beds for dewatering. This dried sludge can be used as a soil conditioner. 3. The liquid supernatant from the BGS moves to a DWWT
system which consists of two chambers of a settler, five chambers of an anaerobic baffled reactor, and one chamber of an anaerobic
filter. After this, it is finally treated through a planted gravel filter bed. This treated liquid can be end used for gardening.61

Devanahalli septage treatment plant

Photographs: Bhitush Luthra / CSE

Case Study 11: Nonthaburi septage treatment facility—Thailand

Background
The Nonthaburi septage treatment facility is an example for its public outreach as a service
provider, spreading awareness in the community about the facility, and generating revenues by
selling fertilizer.

Septage management
• The septage collected from the septic tanks first undergoes anaerobic digestion, after which
the digested sludge goes to a drying bed. The liquid portion filters through sand beds from
Source: USAID, 2010

the sludge drying beds and goes into an oxidization pond.

• The treated septage (both liquid and solid) is then used as a fertilizer in the city’s public parks
and surrounding green areas.
• The plant also has its own collection vehicles.
• There is a growing demand for both septage collection and fertilizer in the area which has
influenced Nonthaburi to expand its facilities. Nonthaburi septage treatment
• The Ministry of Public Health has formulated policy and technical guidelines to collect and facility
treat septage.
• The Public Health Act (1992) has commissioned local government authorities for septage management.62

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Case study 12: Dumaguete—Philippines

Background
Dumaguete’s Septage Management System Site picture, Dumaguete, Philippines
demonstrates what small cities with good
governance can do to protect their groundwater
resources through low cost and simple technologies
in the absence of a sewerage system.

In 2006, the city government of Dumaguete, with

technical assistance from the USAID adopted a
septage management programme in a joint venture
with the Dumaguete City Water District, the local
water utility company.

To legitimize the proposed programme, the

government adopted an ordinance mandating the
establishment of a city-wide septage management
system with provisions on the proper design,
Source: Local government financed city-wide septage management system, Philippines
maintenance, regular de-sluding of septic tanks,
treatment of septage and ‘user fee’ to recover
capital and operating costs.

Septage management
The city has constructed a septage treatment plant which uses stabilization ponds composed of anaerobic, facultative and maturation
ponds. A planted gravel filter and wetland is used for polishing operations.

At first, the incoming septage passes through a set of anaerobic lagoons, where majority of BOD and total suspended solids (TSS) are
removed. The anaerobic lagoon is 3 m deep and provides a 60 day detention period, thereby removing 60–75 per cent BOD and TSS.

Next, the effluent flows into the facultative lagoon where both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria consume much of the remaining organic
material present.

The final lagoon cells provide effluent polishing so that the effluent can be directly discharged into the Ocoy River. Although sewage
lagoons are relatively inexpensive to construct and operate, they require more land than mechanized septage treatment facilities.
Hence, in areas where land is abundant and inexpensive, sewage lagoons can be considered a good option for septage management.63

Case study 13: Integrated septage treatment facility—Indonesia

Background
An integrated septage treatment facility has been constructed with the assistance of the Bremen Overseas Research and Development
Authority in Aceh, Indonesia. The treatment system became operational on 22 June 2006, and it treats up to 60 cum of septage sludge
every day and receives most of the waste from the cities of Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar with a total population of 250,000.

Septage management
This treatment facility combines and utilizes several technologies such as anaerobic digestion, biogas generation, sludge drying and
constructed wetlands for septage treatment and end use.

There are a series of steps followed to treat the septage sludge. The first step involves extraction of biogas from the waste. This gas is
utilized for cooking.

The second step involves the sludge passing through drying beds. A large amount of this sludge is converted into compost, which is sold
and used for farming. The remaining effluent is treated in a series of anaerobic reactors, through a gravel filter followed by a maturation
pond. The final effluent can be safely discharged into the sea.64

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Example 5

Question:
Assuming that the peak load of septage in City X any given day is less than 80 m3. Calculate the number of treatment plants and
design one treatment plant with unplanted drying beds, providing the size and number of beds required, given that average total solids
content of septage is 20 g/l and maximum height of septage in one bed cannot exceed 30 cm.

Answer:
The number of treatment plants, their capacity and site location is a site-specific question. The treatment plants should be strategically
located so that the distance from the area with onsite sanitation dependence is minimized.

If we assume that onsite systems are prevalent all over the city, three treatment plants of 30 KLD each should be enough.

To design a plant based on unplanted drying bed, we should understand the sludge load and average total solids content of the
septage.
SL = TS x Q x N
Where,
SL is sludge load (in kg TS/year)
TS is average total solids content (in kg/m3)
Q is incoming septage per day (m3/day)
N is number of delivery days (days/year)
SL= 20 x 30 x 285
= 171,000 Kg TS/year

Sludge loading rate (SLR) of 200 kg/m2/year is recommended

Hence total area required for drying bed would be:
Total bed area = SL/SLR = 171,000/200 = 855 m2

Volume of septage delivered is 30 m3 and maximum depth allowed is 0.3 m.

Area of one bed assuming all the load for one day would be discharged in one bed only.
Area of 1 bed = 30/0.3 = 100 m2
Total no. of beds required = 855/100 = 8.55 or nine beds

If the septage is delivered five days a week and the time taken in dewatering is approximately two weeks, then it would be better to
have ten beds of 100 m2 each with a working depth of 30 cm, so that 30 m3 of septage can be discharged to one bed every day. The
dewatered sludge should be removed for further processing.

Both types of effluent need further treatment to meet the end use or discharge
standards. The former can be tackled in following three ways:
a) Discharged into a soakpit or soak-away: This option can only be used if
there is enough land available at the household level and the water table is
low (more than 10 m deep) throughout the year. Four or five septic tanks
can be connected to a common soak pit as well.
b) Conveyed to the nearest trunk sewer via small bore or solid free sewer:
Effluent from septic tanks of a community or society can be conveyed using
a small bore or solid free sewer to the nearest trunk sewer. This option can
only be used if there is an existing STP with spare capacity.
c) Conveyed to the DWWTs: Effluent from septic tanks of a community
or society can be conveyed using a small bore or solid-free sewer to a
decentralized wastewater treatment plant. The treated water can be end
used for horticulture, toilet flushing, car wash etc.

To decide on the type of effluent treatment to be undertaken, see Figure 31:

Flowchart to select suitable effluent disposal method.

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Figure 31: Flowchart to select suitable effluent disposal method

Effluent from septic tanks

Go for a soakpit or combined Is the water table low

soakpit for four–five septic tanks and soil permeability
high?

Yes

No

Yes Does the STP have

adequate capacity to
Yes Is a trunk sewer passing
nearby connected to
take additional load? the STP?

No No

Go for a small-bore sewer Go for a small-bore sewer to convey

which can convey effluent effluent to DWWTs so that treated
to the sewer water can be reused locally

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

4.6.1 Soakpit or soak away Figure 32: Design of a soakpit

Inlet
A soakpit, also known as soak
away or leach pit, is a covered,
porous-walled chamber that
allows water to slowly soak into
Infiltrate
the ground (see Figure 32: Design
of a soakpit). 65 Effluent from
septic tanks is discharged into an
underground chamber from where
it infiltrates into the surrounding
soil. These pits can be lined with
semi-permeable walls or can be
unlined and filled with rocks.

4.6.2 Small-bore sewer Infiltrate

A small-bore or solids-free sewer
is a network of small-diameter Source: Tilley et al, 2014

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Example 6

Question: Designing a soakpit

Answer:
To calculate the area of the soakpit that does not include the base.
WA = DF / SIR
e.g. WA = 540 L / 50 L/m2 = 10.8 m2
WA = Wall area
DF = Daily flow
SIR = Soil infiltration rate

To calculate pit dimensions below inlet pipe.

D = WA / π x PD
e.g. D = 10.8 / 3.14 x 1 = 3.4 m
D = Depth in meters
PD = Pit diameter in meters.
π = 3.14

Add depth of inlet pipe or 0.5m whichever is the highest.66

pipes that conveys pre-treated and solids-free wastewater (such as septic tank
effluent) to a treatment facility for further treatment, or to a discharge point
(see Figure 33: Solids-free sewer or small-bore sewer). As solids are removed,
the diameter of the sewers can be much smaller than for conventional sewers,
the recommended pipe diameter is 75 to 100 mm. They can be installed at a
shallow depth, at least 300 mm, and do not require a minimum wastewater flow
or slope to function. Thus, construction costs are lowered. Solids-free sewers
can be built for new areas or where soil infiltration of septic tanks effluents
(e.g. via leach fields) is not appropriate anymore (i.e., densely populated areas
or clogging of sub-surface). Although solids-free sewers require a constant
supply of water, less water is needed compared to conventional sewers because
self-cleansing velocity is not required.67 The differences between small-bore
systems and large-bore systems have been enumerated in Appendix 7.

Figure 33: Solids-free sewer or small-bore sewer

Inspection chamber

Settling tank

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

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Figure 34: Decentralized wastewater treatment system

Planted filter bed

Pond

Settler + ABR
Primary treatment Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment

Source: Adapted from Tilley et al, 2014

Septic tanks have to be emptied periodically so that no solids enter the small-bore
sewer. The network should also be flushed once a year for smooth operation of
the sewers.

4.6.3 Decentralized wastewater management

Instead of having one big conventional STP in the outskirts of a city, many small
STPs can be developed within the city. Grey water can also be treated along
with the effluent from septic tanks. The main advantage of such an approach is
that sewage is not supposed to be conveyed or pumped to long distances and
the possibility of end use of treated water increases manifold. The level of end
use should decide the level of treatment. These systems generally range from a
capacity of 5 KLD to 1 MLD and should be installed at septage treatment units
as well, to take care of the effluent after dewatering. Details of case studies can
be found at http://CSEIndia.org/node/3798.

Decentralized wastewater treatment system

DWWTS is a combination of different systems such as a settler or biogas
digester, anaerobic baffled reactor, planted gravel filter bed (horizontal or
vertical) and polishing pond or vortex system (see Figure 34: Decentralized
wastewater treatment system). These systems are based on natural wastewater
treatment techniques and are designed in accordance with different parameters
such as the characteristics of wastewater, quality of treated wastewater to be
achieved, and site and technical specifications. In these systems, both aerobic
and anaerobic treatment processes occur. DWWTS applications are based on
four basic treatment processes:
1. Primary treatment includes pre-treatment and sedimentation in settlers
or septic tanks
2. Secondary anaerobic treatment in baffled reactors
3. Tertiary aerobic or anaerobic treatment in planted gravel filter beds
4. Aerobic treatment in polishing ponds

Refer to Case Studies 14 and 15.

Phytorid wastewater treatment technology

The phytorid treatment system, developed by National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), is a sub-surface flow type in which
wastewater is discharged into a cell or system filled with porous media
such as crushed bricks, gravel and stones (see Figure 35: Phytorid treatment
technology). The hydraulics are maintained such that the wastewater does not
rise to the surface by retaining a free board at the top of the filled media. The

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Figure 35: Phytorid treatment technology

Wetland plants

Inlet

Sedimentation tank Phytorid bed Treated water tank

Source: NEERI, 2016

system consists of the following three zones: (i) an inlet zone comprising of
crushed bricks and different sizes of stones, (ii) a treatment zone consisting
of the same media as the inlet zone with plant species, and (iii) an outlet
zone. The reduction in the treated effluent for the TSS varies from 70–80 per
cent, BOD from 78–84 per cent, nitrogen from 70–75 per cent, phosphorus
from 52–64 per cent, and faecal coliform from 90–97 per cent. The treated
effluent can be used for irrigation, horticulture and in fountains. The total
area required for a system with a capacity of 20 KLD is approximately 35 sq
m.68

Soil biotechnology
Soil biotechnology (SBT) is a terrestrial system for wastewater
treatment which is based on the principle of trickling filter (see
Figure 36: Schematic of an SBT plant). This technology has been
developed by Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai. SBT engages
three fundamental processes of nature: photosynthesis, respiration and
mineral weathering. Suitable mineral constitution, culture containing
native micro-flora and bio-indicator plants are the key components of the
system. It is also known as constructed soil filter. SBT systems are constructed
from reinforced cement concrete, stone-masonry or soil bunds. It consists

Figure 36 : Schematic of an SBT plant

VF VR

Green VF
Media cover Media

Trench

impervious
layer
Storage tank
Ground level

Source: Toolkit on Decentralized Wastewater Management, CSE, 2013

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of a raw water tank, a bioreactor containment, a treated water tank, piping

and pumps.69

Electro-mechanical or packaged sewage treatment plants

Space constrained ULBs can go for energy-intensive small-scale STPs,
based on up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), sequential batch reactor
(SBR), membrane bioreactor (MBR), moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR),
activated sludge process (ASP), etc. Generally, these systems are able to
meet discharge standards. These systems occupy less space but are capital-
intensive. Their operation costs are also high because they consume large
quantities of energy.

Constructed wetland
A constructed wetland is a large gravel and sand-filled horizontal or vertical
sub-surface channel that is planted with aquatic vegetation (see Figure 37:
Horizontal flow constructed wetland). As wastewater flows through the channel,
the filter material sieves out particles and attached micro-organisms degrade
organic material. The water level in a horizontal sub-surface flow constructed
wetland is maintained at 5–15 cm below the surface to ensure sub-surface
flow.70 Horizontal flow constructed wetlands (CW) are relatively inexpensive
to build where land is affordable and they can be easily maintained by the
local community as they require no high-tech spare parts, electrical energy or
chemicals. It has been established that a horizontal filter bed area of about 2

Case study 14: Decentralized waste water treatment system at Banker’s Colony,
Bhuj, Gujarat—India

Background Banker's Colony site photograph

The Banker’s Colony in Bhuj, Gujarat lies
below the level of the main sewer line
passing near the area. Therefore, it was not
possible to connect the sewer line of the
colony to the main line.

Wastewater management
• A 30 KLD DWWT was constructed
in 2006. The treated wastewater
is used to irrigate a green belt in
the colony. With support from
the Bhuj Municipality, Hunarshala
Foundation, in association with
Kachchh Navnirman Abhiyaan,
undertook this project to
implement the system.
• The system has been designed
keeping in view optimized use of
space. Overflow from the system
is diverted to a storm-water drain
and ultimately discharged into
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/indiawaterportal/sets/72157603997548941/
the city lake called Hamirsar, in
the centre of the city.
• Controlled discharge of treated wastewater from the colony, which was otherwise not possible due to local topographical
constraints, has been achieved.
• Reduction in concentration of key indicators in the treated water: BOD—91 per cent, COD—81 per cent; and TDS—98 per
cent.71

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Figure 37: Horizontal flow constructed wetland

Inlet pipe and gravel for
wastewater distribution Effluent outlet (height
variable)

Wetland plants
(macrophages)

Wet well
and cover

Inlet

Liner Rhizome Small gravel

network

Source: Tilley et al, 2014

m2 per person equivalent is sufficient for the complete secondary and tertiary
treatment of wastewater, including the removal of pathogenic germs.72

4.7 Resource recovery

Goal 6.3 of Sustainable Development Goals encourages to increase recycling

and safe end use globally. Goal-6.3 is interlinked to the Goal 2.3 which talks
about increasing agricultural productivity.73 The safe use of septage or faecal
sludge and wastewater in agriculture (i.e. implementing Goals 6.3 and 2.3)
would help in meeting “Goal 1: Eliminate extreme poverty and hunger”
and “Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability”. The use of excreta
in agriculture can help communities grow more food and decrease use of
precious water and nutrient resources. However, it should be done safely
to maximize public health gains and environmental benefits. In 2006, the
World Health Organization (WHO) provided guidelines on safe end use of
wastewater, excreta and grey water.74

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Case study 15: Decentralized wastewater treatment system at Varunalaya,

Delhi Jal Board—India

Background
The DWWTs at Delhi Jal Board’s head office is a model project Schematic of DWWTs at DJB
that showcases treatment of wastewater to obtain reusable water.
Inaugurated in 2015, the DWWTs has been designed to treat
Storage tank
8,000 litres per day to cater to horticultural requirements inside the
campus.

Wastewater management
• Toilet waste from Phase-I office building is treated through Planted
various treatment units that include a settler, an anaerobic gravel filter
baffled reactor and a planted filter bed. bed
• Treatment technology:
¾¾ Wastewater enters a two-chambered settler for removal
of suspended solids, and then flows into an ABR
¾¾ The ABR at the site is five-chambered, facilitates
anaerobic degradation of organic impurities, and reduces ABR Settler
about BOD and COD levels by 60–70 per cent.
¾¾ The treated water is further improved as it passes through
the planted gravel filter (PGF) bed. The PGF at the site has
Canna and Typha plantations. Treated water is stored in
a collection tank.
¾¾ The system does not require any electricity for the Building
treatment process as it is designed to have a natural Varunalaya, Phase 1
gravity flow, thereby reducing cost of operations.

Performance
8,000 litres of wastewater is treated and end used every day. The Source: CSE, 2016
quality analysis result show that the efficiency of the system is about
80 per cent in terms of BOD and COD removal. Various water quality parameters tested before and after treatment are shown in the
table below:75

Treatment efficiency of the DWWTs DJB DWWT site

Parameters Before After

pH 7.4 7.5
BOD (mg/L) 110 23
COD (mg/L) 344 96
Total suspended solids (mg/L) 376 97
Chhavi Sharda / CSE

Ammonia (mg/L) 30 20
Phosphate Traces Nil
Faecal coliform (per 100m) 3,600 93
Source: CSE, 2016

End use of septage refers to the safe and beneficial use of human excreta, i.e.
faeces and wastewater from OSS. Considering the nutrients, organic matter and
energy contained in septage, it can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in
agriculture, gardening, aquaculture or horticultural activities (see Figure 38:
Closing the loop). Other uses include use as a fuel source, building material or
for protein food production. Closing the loop would not only help in reducing
fresh water and chemical fertilizer demand but also prove to be a source of

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Case study 16: Soil biotechnology at Naval civilian housing colony in Mumbai,
Maharashtra—India
Background
Naval Civilian Housing Colony is a residential housing neighbourhood for officers and their families situated in Kanjurmarg, Mumbai,
India. The colony has 20 blocks of buildings with residential facilities, a mess, a hospital, a sports complex, a market area and
administrative offices. The SBT-based DWWTs treats wastewater generated from seven residential building blocks—each building
having 24 apartments.

Waste water and effluent management

SBT is a green technology for water purification using a natural and novel high-efficiency oxidation process at competitive costs.
Features:

Natural processes-based wastewater treatment with a capacity to treat 50 KLD.

Minimal energy consumption (40–50 kWh per MLD to pump the wastewater for distribution over the reactor bed)

The DWWTs creates an alternate resource of water that is used to maintain the green area inside the residential premises.76

Raw water collection tank: Raw Soil filter bioreactor: Effluent collection tank: The treated
sewage, after screening, is collected Sewage is then pumped sewage gets collected in this tank and
in the tank from where it is directed and distributed over the is (re)circulated in order to achieve the
towards the trench filled with gravel. reactor bed. desired quality of treated wastewater.

Schematics of SBT and the bioreactor showing different layers of filter materials

Wastewater inlet

300-400 mm thick soil containing

native microflora, geophagous
Collection tank 1 worms and minerals

5-10 mm thick layer of river sand

Bioreactor
100 mm thick layer of coarse sand
with particle size 5 mm

100 mm thick layer of sand particle

Pumped for of size 25 mm
recycling
250 mm thick layer of stone particle
of size 100 mm

Collection Discharge
tank 2 Underdrain

revenue, in other words, an all-round improved business model.

Septage contains nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium as well

as micronutrients like sulphur and organic matter that can be recovered. Septage
and domestic wastewater (sewage) have traditionally been used in agriculture.
They are still being used in agriculture to this day, but the practice is often
carried out in an unregulated and unsafe manner in developing countries.

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Figure 38: Closing the loop

Food

Grey water Black water

Grease trap
Energy recovery

Soil conditioning

Soakpit
Septage desludging
and transport

DWWTs
Secondary
treatment
Irrigation or horticul-
ture

Manure or Treatment
fertilizer

Source: Introduction to preparation of CSP, GIZ-CSE, 2016

End use should decide level of treatment

WHO’s 2006 guidelines established a framework on how end use can be done safely by
following a ‘multiple barrier approach’.

“No higher quality of water should be used for a purpose that can tolerate a lower grade”—
UN Council Resolution 1958

The type of end use should decide the level of treatment. The degree of
treatment required for excreta-based fertilizers before they can be safely used
in agriculture depends on a number of factors; a number of barriers may be
necessary. Such barriers are selecting a suitable crop, farming method, method
of applying the fertilizer, education and so forth.77 However, health concerns
are a major challenge for such approaches. Proponents operate in fragmented
and hostile policy environments that are often weakly linked to health. They
also need to overcome negative public perceptions about the risks associated
with the use and disposal of human waste. A tool by WHO, Sanitation Safety
Planning (SSP) can help sanitation system operators maximize health benefits
and minimize health risk of their system.78 SSP takes into consideration all
steps of the chain, from sanitation waste generation (e.g. in the toilet) to the
waste’s final use or disposal. For end use in agriculture, which produces a food
product, SSP goes from ‘toilet to farm to table’.

The National Water Policy of 2012 recognizes end use of reclaimed water as an
important factor for meeting environmental objectives and suggests preferential
tariff to incentivize reclaimed water over freshwater. The National Policy on

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Application of compost made from septage

Source: SuSana website: http://www.susana.org/

FSSM, 2017 emphasizes maximum end use of treated sludge as fertilizer in

farmlands, parks, gardens and other such venues, treating wastewater to
produce energy, wherever feasible, and end use for any other productive uses.79
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation, a national flagship
programme of MoUD, has implied service-level benchmarking that at least 20
per cent of the wastewater generated in ULBs should be recycled.80 This has
also been recommended by the NUSP, 2008.

For dewatered septage or sludge to be used as a fertilizer in agriculture

applications, it should satisfy the criteria of Class-A bio-solids of USEPA: A
faecal coliform density of less than 1,000 Maximum Probable Number (MPN)/g
total dry solids. Helminths egg concentration of < 1/g total solids and E coli of
1,000/g total solids in treated septage for use in agriculture.81

Central Pollution Control Board has prescribed standards for wastewater end
use in irrigation, which is notified under [Schedule-VI] General Standards
for Discharge of Environmental Pollutants Part A: Effluent (see Appendix 8:
General standards for discharge of environmental pollutants Part-A : Effluents).
According to these rules, the effluent or supernatant generated from OSS and
after dewatering septage should be treated further to comply with the general
standards and should be end used. CPHEEO has detailed a few case studies
in its Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems on end use of
sewage. In order to ensure safe application of compost, Municipal Solid Wastes
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2016 can be followed for the application of
compost prepared from dried sludge.

In India, end use of treated septage is currently unregulated, but the 2006 WHO
guidelines and 2016 SSP tool for safe use of excreta, wastewater and grey water
provide a comprehensive framework for managing health risks associated with
the use of human wastes in agriculture and aquaculture. The guidelines and the
manual are eminently suitable for application in Indian conditions and may be
adopted.82

End use of treated septage

If septage is properly treated, it can be used for agricultural purposes, but should
not be used on food crops intended to be eaten raw, unless stringent controls

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are in place. The Department of Health Regulations of Philippines has put in

place the following regulations for reusing septage as compost for food crops:

According to USEPA guidelines for bio-solid treatment processes that

significantly reduce pathogens, if land application for food crops is to be
practiced, one of these methods must be used:
• Aerobic digestion between 40 days at 20°C and 60 days at 15°C.
• Anaerobic digestion between 15 days at 35–55°C and 60 days at 20°C.
• Air drying for at least three months, at least two months should have daily
temperatures above freezing levels
• Compost with temperatures greater than 40°C for five days. The temperature
must be greater than 55°C for four hours every day.
• Lime stabilization by adding sufficient hydrated lime to raise the pH to
more than 12 for 30 minutes.

Testing to verify the appropriate pathogen reduction is required if agricultural

end use is intended. These methods have been recognized to reduce the
number of Helminths eggs to levels that are determined to be acceptable by the
WHO for land application purposes for food crops. While a standard for the
concentration of Helminths eggs in bio-solids has not been codified into law by
the Philippines Department of Health, WHO guidance on acceptable limits of
these parasitic organisms exist, as follows:

WHO 1989 guidelines of one nematode egg per litre of treated wastewater (or
septage) used for vegetable irrigation, and an average manuring rate of two–
three tonnes per hectare per year should be followed. Testing for nematode
eggs is a relatively simple procedure that should be used to check the treatment
efficiency and acceptability of bio-solids prior to land application. This should
become an integral component of any bio-solids programme that end uses the
treated product as a soil amendment or conditioner for agricultural purposes.

Catalytic fast pyrolysis

One of the emergent end uses of septage is as biofuel. Biofuel can be obtained
using catalytic fast pyrolysis, in which septage enters the wastewater treatment
system, where the waste is dewatered, while solids are separated and dried in a
different unit. This dried waste or bio-solid is sterilized with high temperature,
which produces methane, bio-crude and char (see Figure 39: Catalytic fast
pyrolysis). The methane can be used for production of power, while bio-crude
can be processed further. The char produced from this technology can also be
processed further and converted into bio-char.83

Septage to electricity using omni-processor

The omni-processor developed by Janicki under the Bill and Melinda Gates
foundation undertakes the process of combining three different standard
procedures—solid fuel combustion, steam power generation and water
treatment. The three aspects or steps of the technology are described as below:
1. Solid fuel combustion: Bio-solids, wet waste (sludge or solid waste) enters
a dryer where moisture is evaporated and trapped. The dried waste is
transferred to burn in a very controlled fashion, reducing the solids to
dry flyash. The exhaust from the fire is conditioned and filtered to meet
regulatory emission standards before being released into the environment.
This process is extremely energy-intensive.
2. Steam power generation: Heat generated during the burning of dried waste
is used to heat water in the boiler pipes to create steam. This steam is then
fed to steam engines, which runs the generator to produce electricity. The

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Figure 39: Catalytic fast pyrolysis

Pre-treatment
Water
Wastewater CH4
Waste treatment Biogas

Power
production
Bio-solids
CO, CO2, CH4,
H2, N2
Solids
preparations and
handling
Aqueous
Dewatering In-situ phase
catalytic fast
pyrolysis Bio-crude
Drying

Soild feed

Char Direct use or fuel

processing

Bio char
Source: Catalytic pyrolysis of human faeces for biofuel production, Jeff Piscik, 2017

electricity thus produced can be used to power the entire omni-processor

and the surplus can be old or used for other purposes. Heat from the engines
is trapped and transferred back to heat the incoming wet waste or the point
where solid fuel combustion takes place.
3. Water treatment: It is the final step of the procedure. The moisture obtained
from burning the wet waste is filtered, condensed and distilled and may be
used in the omni-processor. Depending on the type of wet waste, there may
be excess water which can be further treated and made potable.84

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The way forward

This practitioner’s guide demonstrates why it is important to manage septage

generated in urban centres of the country and how to do it. It examines the
issues and challenges at each step and suggests the most suitable ways forward.

Key message from Excreta Matters: Seventh State of India’s

Environment Report

For a water-sewage secure future, cities have to think differently. Spend less to get water to cities.
Use less water so there is less to treat and dispose. Cut costs of sewage and septage transportation
and treatment. Use a mix of technology to treat sewage as a resource for agriculture and industry.

To find a sustainable solution to this persistent problem, resource recovery

and end use is the need of the hour. It is important to close the loop and not to
consider it as a chain any more. Decentralized septage management (including
effluent treatment) will help in closing the loop by utilizing end use potential
of both treated septage and effluent.

Each state should develop a septage management policy and guidelines, where
funding provisions and stringent regulations for each stage of sanitation loop
are suggested and enforced. Cities can use this guide to develop their septage
management sub-plan and incorporate the same in their CSP.

The SMPs should clearly indicate short-, medium- and long-term plans for
managing septage. Implementing SMPs in a time-bound manner will definitely
help in improving sanitation of cities, including for the urban poor.

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17 Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. 2014. The missing link in sanitation service delivery: a review of fecal sludge
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20 Rohilla, S., 2011. Policy Paper on Septage Management in India, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
21 Peter Ho, Y.C., Teik, H.T., Zakaria M.Y., Cheng, L.L., Hooi T.S., and Sasidharan, V. 2011. Landscape analysis and business
model assessment in faecal sludge management: Extraction and transportation model in Malaysia-Final report, Indah Water
Konsortium, Kuala Lumpur
22 Srinivas C. et al. 2015. Operationalizing FSM Regulations at City Level: A Case Study of Warangal, Administrative Staff
College of India, Hyderabad
23 Rohilla, S., 2011. Policy Paper on Septage Management in India, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
24 Johnson, M.W., Clayton, M.C., and Kagermann, H. 2008. ‘Reinventing your business model’, Harvard business review 86,
57-68
25 Rao, K.C., Kvarnstrom, E., Di Mario, L., and Drechsel, P. 2016. Business models for faecal sludge management,Volume-6,
International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka
26 CSE-GIZ, 2016. Toolkit on Preparation of CSP. GIZ, New Delhi
27 Ibid
28 Ibid

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29 Ibid
30 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
31 Anon 2012. Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Part A : Engineering, Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation, New Delhi
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aspx, as accessed on 17 May 2017
34 Anon 2014. Swachh Bharat Mission Guidelines, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi
35 Ibid
36 Ibid
37 Robbins, D.M. 2007. Septage management guide for local governments, available at www.rti.org, as accessed on 17 May 2017
38 Anon 2013. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, Ministry of Law and Justice,
Government of India, New Delhi
39 Robbins, D.M. 2007. Septage management guide for local governments, available at www.rti.org, as accessed on 17 May 2017
40 Rao, K.C., Kvarnstrom, E., Di Mario, L., and Drechsel, P. 2016. Business models for faecal sludge management,Volume-6,
International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka
41 Anon 2011. City sanitation plan—Mysore city, Directorate of Municipal Administration, Government of Karnataka, Mysuru
42 Anon 2008. Survey of Environment report–2008, Government of Karnataka, Bengaluru
43 Vishwanath, S. 2013. Sanitation systems without pipes, Eco-San at work? Arghyam, Bengaluru. Available at http://arghyam.
org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Honeysuckers-S-Vishwanath.pdf, as accessed on 17 May 2017
44 Rohilla, S., 2011. Policy Paper on Septage Management in India, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
45 Anon 2007. ‘Sludge Emptying, Transport, Treatment: Can Vacutug solve the downstream sanitation problems of Bangladesh’,
Bangladesh Sanitation Workshop January 2007, International Reference Centre, Dhaka
46 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
47 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
48 Strande, L., and Damir B. (eds.) 2014. Faecal sludge management: systems approach for implementation and operation,
International Water Association
49 Ibid
50 Ibid
51 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
52 Ibid
53 Robbins, D.M. 2007. Septage management guide for local governments, available at www.rti.org, as accessed on 17 May 2017
54 Ibid
55 Strande, L., and Damir B. (eds.) 2014. Faecal sludge management: systems approach for implementation and operation,
International Water Association
56 Ibid
57 Ibid
58 Anon 1999. Decentralized systems technology factsheet, Office of Research and Development, United States Environment
Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
59 Peter Ho, Y.C., Teik, H.T., Zakaria M.Y., Cheng, L.L., Hooi T.S., and Sasidharan, V. 2011. Landscape analysis and business
model assessment in faecal sludge management: Extraction and transportation model in Malaysia-Final report, Indah Water
Konsortium, Kuala Lumpur
60 Rao, K.C., Kvarnstrom, E., Di Mario, L., and Drechsel, P. 2016. Business models for faecal sludge management,Volume-6,
International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka
61 Sharda, C., 2015. Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant at Devanahalli, Bengaluru, Centre for Science and Environment. http://
www.cseindia.org/node/6210
62 Anon 2010. A Rapid Assessment of Septage management in Asia: Policies and Practices in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, Bangkok: United States Agency for International Development, Bangkok
63 Robbins, D.M., Strande L., and Doczi, J. 2012. Sludge management in developing countries: Experiences from the Philippines,
Water and Sanitation Programme, Worlld Bank

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64 Anon 2010. A Rapid Assessment of Septage management in Asia: Policies and Practices in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, Bangkok: United States Agency for International Development, Bangkok
65 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
66 Robbins, D.M. 2007. Septage management guide for local governments, available at www.rti.org, as accessed on 17 May 2017
67 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
68 CSIR-NEERI. Phytorid Wastewater Treatment Technology: National Environment Engineering Research Institute. Available
at http://www.neeri.res.in/content/phytorid-wastewater-treatment-technology, as accessed on 17 May 2017
69 Tilley, E. 2008. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology, Dübendorf , Switzerland
70 Ibid
71 Sharda, C. 2015. Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System at Varunalaya, Delhi Jal Board. Delhi: Centre for Science and
Environment. Available at http://cseindia.org/content/decentralised-wastewater-treatment-system-varunalaya-delhi-jal-
board, as accessed on 17 May 2017
72 Anon 2009. Performance Evaluation of Sewage Treatment Plant Under NRCD, Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of
Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi
73 Anon 2016. Water Sanitation Interlinkages Across the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations, Geneva
74 Anon 2006. Guidelines for the safe reuse of wastewater, excreta and grey water (Volume 1), World Health Organization,
Geneva
75 Sharda, C. 2015. Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System at Varunalaya, Delhi Jal Board. Delhi: Centre for Science and
Environment. Available at http://cseindia.org/content/decentralised-wastewater-treatment-system-varunalaya-delhi-jal-
board, as accessed on 17 May 2017
76 Sharda, C. 2015. Soil Biotechnology at Naval Civilian Colony, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Available at http:// http://www.
cseindia.org/node/6425, as accessed on 17 May 2017
77 Richert, A., Gensch, R., Jönsson, H, Stenström, T.A., and Dagerskog, L. 2010. Practical guidance on the use of urine in crop
production, Stockholm Environment Institute
78 Anon 2015. Sanitation Safety Planning: Manual for Safe Use and Disposal of Wastewater Greywater and Excreta, World
Health Organization, Geneva
79 Anon 2017. National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management, 2017. Ministry of Urban Development, Government
of India, New Delhi
80 Anon 2015. Sanitation Safety Planning: Manual for Safe Use and Disposal of Wastewater Greywater and Excreta, World
Health Organization, Geneva
81 Anon 2006. Guidelines for the safe reuse of wastewater, excreta and grey water (Volume 1), World Health Organization,
Geneva
82 Anon 2014. Swachh Bharat Mission Guidelines, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi
83 Piascik, J. 2017. Catalytic Pyrolysis of Human Faeces for Bio-fuel Production, Research Triangle Institute, North Carolina
84 Janicki Industries. How does the omni processor work? Available at https://www.janickibioenergy.com/omni-processor/
how-it-works/, as accessed on 17 May 2017

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Appendix 1: Excreta management of 27 cities from different agro-climatic reg

LOCATION OF
Ganga river TARGET CITIES

Bijnor
Delhi
Bikaner
Agra
Gangaghat Muzaffarpur
Gwalior Ramnagar Katihar
Buxar
Chunar Aizwal
Bodhgaya
Dewas Bansberia Bongaon

I N D I A Cuttack

Siddipet Karimnagar Srikakulam

Solapur
Eluru Bhimavaram

Tumkur

Kannur Kalpetta
Tiruchirappalli
Unsafe management
Safe management

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 OPEN DEFECATION OFFSITE ONSITE c regions
Srikakulam 15 7 78
Solapur 13 39 46 2
Dewas 15 9 69 7
Gwalior 6 64 16 11 3

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 85

Cuttack 11 15 7 43 24
Aizwal 0 8 42 50
Agra 7 17 30 22 24
Tumkur 7 8 45 30 10
Bikaner 5 23 41 14 17
Tiruchirappalli 5 19 40 16 20
Delhi 4 16 52 24 4

Bhimavaram 1 0 99
Eluru 0 0 100
Kalpetta 4 0 80 16
Kannur 1 0 73 26
Karimnagar 0 4 96
Siddipet 0 0 100

Bijnor 0 6 92 2
Gangaghat 14 2 84
Chunar 31 0 69
Ramnagar 13 71 16
Buxar 30 4 66
Bodhgaya 38 0 62
Bansberia 0 0 72 28
Bongaon 0 0 100
Katihar 28 0 72
Muzaffarpur 10 0 82 8
NOTE: The numbers above represents excreta in terms of contributing percentage of population

Source: Poster presentation by CSE at FSM-4 conference, Chennai, 2017

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Appendix 2: Revised Service Level Benchmarks for sanitation proposed

in FSSM policy

Current SLB indicators (Sewerage System) Proposed Sanitation Benchmark (Sewerage + Onsite systems)

1. Coverage of sewerage network services 1. Coverage of adequate sanitation system

Total number of properties with individual Percentage of households with individual or group toilets
connections to sewerage network as a percentage connected with adequate sanitation systems (sewer network/
of total number of properties in the city. septic tank / double pit system) to total households in the city

2. Collection efficiency of sewerage network 2. Collection efficiency of sanitation system

Quantum of sewage collected at the intake of the treatment Weighted average of collection efficiency of each sanitation
plant to the quantity of sewage generated (as per CPHEEO, system, weighted by share of households dependent on each
80% of water consumed is generated as sewage) sanitation system

3. Adequacy of sewage treatment capacity 3. Adequacy of treatment capacity of Sanitation System

Adequacy is expressed as secondary treatment Weighted average of adequacy of treatment plant capacity
capacity available as a percentage of normative available for each sanitation system, weighted by share of
wastewater generation. households dependent on each sanitation system.

4. Quality of sewage treatment 4. Quality of treatment of sanitation system

Quality of treatment is measured as a percentage

of WW samples that pass the specified secondary
Weighted average of quality of treatment of each sanitation
treatment standards, that is, treated water samples
system, weighted by share of households dependent on each
from the outlet of STPs are equal to or better than
sanitation system.
the standards lay down by the GoI agencies for
secondary treatment of sewage.

5. Extent of reuse and recycling of sewage 5. Extent of reuse and recycling in sanitation system

Weighted average of extent of reuse of treated wastewater

Quantity of sewage that is recycled or reused after
and sludge after adequate treatment as a percentage of
secondary treatment as a percentage of quantity
sewage and sludge received at the treatment plant, weighted
of sewage received at the treatment plant.
by share of household dependent on each sanitation system.

Source: National Policy on FSSM, MoUD, 2017

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Appendix 3: Roles and responsibilities of institutions in the development

of FSSM plans

Agency Role Responsibility

• Technical and planning support to states and ULBs
• Training and capacity-building of state level officials and those from select ULBs
• Funding through specific schemes and plans
Ministry • National level awareness and behaviour change campaign Formulation of state- and
of Urban • Support research and capacity building in the sector city-level FSSM strategies and
Development • Create enabling environment for participation of the private sector, NGOs and implementation plans
CBOs in provision of FSSM services including to the poor and marginalized
households and areas
• National-level monitoring and evaluation

Ministry of Envi- Support and build capacity of

ronment, Forest Enforce compliance of the relevant environmental laws and rules during the state pollution control towards
and collection, transport, treatment and disposal of faecal sludge and septage enforcement of relevant laws
Climate Change and rules

Ministry of Social • Elimination of manual scavenging and rehabilitation of manual scavengers Help states and ULBs eliminate
Justice and • Monitor and evaluate progress at the national level manual scavenging and
Empowerment • National-level awareness campaign rehabilitate manual scavengers
Ministry of
Gender mainstreaming in IEC
Women and
material for FSSM across the
Child
country
Development
• Develop state-level FSSM strategies and implementation plans • Technical, financial and
• Develop operative guidelines on FSSM administrative support to
• Training and capacity-building of ULB officials and others engaged in provision ULBs
of FSSM services • Encourage coordination and
• State-level awareness and behaviour change campaign cooperation among ULBs
State
• Create enabling environment for participation of the private sector, NGOs and • Regulate and help ULBs
Governments
CSOs in provision of FSSM services including to the poor and marginalized set up systems to ensure
households and areas financial sustainability in
• Funding through specific schemes and plans provision of FSSM services
• Support research and capacity-building in the sector • Implement municipal
• State level monitoring and evaluation by-laws.
• Design, develop, plan and implement ULB-level FSSM strategies
• Set up and ensure operation of systems for 100 per cent safe and sustainable
collection, transport, treatment and disposal of faecal sludge and septage
• Develop expertize, in-house and outsourced, to provide safe and effective FSSM
services
• Awareness and behaviour change campaigns to engage diverse stakeholders
Create enabling environment
• Develop training programmes for masons to build requisite skills in the
Urban local for NGOs and private initiatives
construction of quality septic tanks as per IS codes
bodies to achieve safe and sustainable
• Set up systems to ensure financial sustainability in provision of FSSM services
FSSM
• Achieve objectives of FSSM policy in a time-bound manner
• Design and implement plans to eliminate manual scavenging and rehabilitate
manual scavengers
• Funding through specific schemes and plans
• Monitor and evaluate FSSM strategies and implementation plans
• Implement municipal by-laws
• Timely and regular emptying of septic tanks through approved entities Engage with decision-makers
• Regular maintenance and monitoring of septic tanks at the state- and ULB-level
Households
• Timely payment of user fee and charges, if any, towards FSSM services to ensure they receive good
• Practice building by-laws for construction of OSS quality FSSM services
Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017
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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Appendix 4: Generic business model for septage management

Key partners Key activities Value propositions Customer relationships Customer segments

• VP1: Access to toilet

• Toilet provision • Community
and increased revenue • Direct sale of toilet
• Waste collection • Businesses
from end use

• One-on-one service
• VP2: Timely emptying
provision • Households
• FS collection and transportation
• Contracts with municipality • Businesses
of FS
• Direct or through contracts

• VP3: FS treatment for

• FS treatment healthy and • Direct compost sales • Municipality
safe environment

• Organic waste and FS • Farmers

• Municipal corporation
collection • VP4: High-quality • Municipal park department
and local authorities • Distributors
• Compost production compost (soil • Agriculture department
• Technology suppliers • Direct energy sale
• Compost – Sales & ameliorant) • Agroforestry
• Financial institutions
marketing • Fertilizer industry
• Community-based
organizations • VP5: Reliable and • Households
• Research and • Biogas production
renewable energy • Power purchase agreement • Community
development institutions • Biogas sale
service • Small businesses
(e.g., local university)
• Public sector (e.g., municipality,
• Customer relationship
ministry, etc.)
management
• Institutions

Key resources Channels

• Direct
• Appropriate technology • Municipality
and equipment • Word-of-mouth
• Labor • Brochures and other media
• Finance communications
• License and contracts
• Distributors and extension
for collecting waste
agents

Cost structure Revenue streams

• Fixed investment cost
(construction, trucks, • Sale of toilet and end use • FS disposal fees, sanitation tax
equipment, etc.) products and O&M budget support
• Operation and
maintenance cost
(labour, raw material • Emptying fees and, in
input, utilities, sales and some instances, FS • Sale of compost
marketing, license, etc.) delivery fees
• Interest payments

• Sale of Energy

Social and environmental costs Social and environmental benefits

• Potential health risk for those in direct contact with FS (can be mitigated with the • Reduced pollution of water
use of protective equipment) bodies and soils
• Improved soil and agricultural
• Improper FS treatment and disposal causing environmental and health risks for • Reduced human exposure to
productivity
citizens untreated faecal sludge
• Improved energy security • Job creation

Note: Colours indicate relevance to corresponding value proposition (VP). Beige is applicable to all VPs
Source: Krishna C. Rao, 2016 Business models for fecal sludge management, IWMI

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Appendix 5: Types of containment systems

Containment system Description Output

A septic tank with soak pit, is a decentralized wastewater treatment system.

Septic tank with soak pit It is basically a sedimentation tank with chambers, which has settling and
Septage found within
anaerobic processes to reduce solids to organics, which lets out the effluent
the septic tank
content to flow into a soak pit, from where it infiltrates into water. (EAWAG,
2014)

Concrete roof or
Ground level Gas vent removable pre-cast slab

Inlet
Outlet
Septage found within
Scum
Liquid level A septic tank without soak pit has a same function as a septic tank with a
Septic tank without soak pit the septic tank and
soak pit. The only difference between the two is that effluent is let out on
Settling chamber 1 effluent let out in the
Settling chamber 2
ground/water body or open drains. (EAWAG, 2014)
Sludge
open drains

Cesspool/collection tank A reservoir or a closed tank for collection of wastewater, with no intent to Slurry from mixture of
treat or discharge any of its components. (WTE, 2014) faeces and water

Gas outlet pipe

Bio-digester is a decomposition mechanical toilet which decomposes waste
Pathogen-free water
Bio-digester toilet water in the digester tank using specific high graded bacteria further
Removable cover for
Inlet for animal wastes annual desludging

which can be used for

Collecting
tank converting it into methane and water, discharged further to the desired
agriculture purposes
Biogas tank surface. (CSE, 2013)
(1.2 - 1.6m3 per
person)
Baffle to mix influent
with tank contents

Toilet pan
Bio-digester tank
Tank cover
(above ground)

Ground level This technology is evolved around aerobic digestion - which involves a
Bio toilet
Bio-digester
different multi-strain of bacteria which breaks down the waste matter Digested septage
tank (below
Inner partitions
ground)
through oxidization.

Shelter

Slab with
drop hole

Defecation into pits dug into ground for the reception of night soil directly
Pit latrine/ vip
without flushing are reckoned as pit latrines. Faecal sludge
Earth
Pit
(Census of India, 2011)

Pit access
cover This type of system may be lined or unlined. It consists of two identical pits,
Twin pit latrine which are used alternatively, where pit is closed upon the filling up, where
Faecal sludge
Pit 1 Pit 2
anaerobic digestion of the faecal waste takes place. (Ministry of Urban
Development, 1992)

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 90
Appendix 6: Comparison of systems with respect to various parameters

System Type of System Life Applicability Performance of Energy

System name Land availability CAPEX OPEX
number system time of system the system requirement

Rs 400 per
Twin-pit, 10 5 m2 per household Rs 4,500 per
System 1 Twin-pit system Onsite system Household level - Not required household per
SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

years for pit + toilet household for pit

year

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 90

BOD, 75–85 per
IST, Rs 1,500
cent; COD, 74–78
Septic tank, 50 per household
7 m2 per household per cent; TSS, IST, Rs 75,000 per
UDB + WSP + years; soakpit, year; UDB, Rs
Decentralized Ward-, city-, or for storage + toilet; 75–80 per cent; TN, WSP, 5.7 household; WSP: Rs
System 2A co-composting + three-five years, 50,00,000/MLD/
system cluster-level WSP, 6,000 m2/ 70–90 per cent; TP, kWh/d/MLD 23,00,000/MLD; UDB:
chlorination UDB or WSP, year; WSP, Rs
MLD 30–45 per cent; 3,00,00,000/MLD
50 years 2,00,000/MLD/
coliform, 60– 99.9
year
per cent
Septic tank, 50
BOD, 60–90 per IST, INR 1,500/
AD + years; soakpit, 7 m2 per household IST, INR 75,000/HH;
Decentralized Ward-, city-, or cent; COD, 60–80 AD, 60 kWh/d/ HH/year; AD,
System 2B co-composting + three–five for storage + toilet; AD, INR 5,00,00,000/
system cluster-level per cent; TSS, MLD INR 30,00,000/
chlorination years, AD, 50 AD, 600 m2/MLD MLD
60–85 per cent MLD/year
years
BOD, 85–92 per
cent; COD, 93–94 ASP, 185.7
Septic tank, 50
Centrifugation per cent; TSS, kWh/d/MLD; IST, INR 1,500/
years; soakpit, 7 m2 per household
+ ASP + Decentralized Ward-, city-, or 75–80 per cent; Centrifugation: IST, INR 75,000/HH; HH/year; ASP,
System 2C three-five years, for storage + toilet;
vermicompostin g system cluster-level TN, > 90 per cent; 20–300 kWh ASP, 68,00,000/MLD INR 7,00,000/
UDB or WSP, ASP, 900 m2/MLD
+ ozonation TP, > 90 per cent; per metric MLD/year
50 years
coliform, 60– 90 tonne of solid
per cent

SBR, 153.7
Centrifugation Septic tank, 50 BOD, 95 per cent; kWh/d/ MLD; IST, INR 1,500/
7 m2 per household IST, INR 75,000/HH;
+ SBR + Decentralized years; soakpit, Ward-, city-, or COD, 90 per cent; Centrifugation: HH/year; SBR,
System 2D for storage + toilet; SBR, INR 75,00,000/
co-composting + system three-five years, cluster-level TSS, 95 per cent; 20–300 kWh INR 6,00,000/
SBR, 450 m2/MLD MLD
chlorination SBR, 50 years TN, 70–80 per cent per metric MLD/year
tonne of solid

MBR, 302.5
BOD, 95 per cent;
Centrifugation Septic tank, 50 kWh/d/ MLD; IST, INR 1,500/
7 m2 per household COD, >90per cent; IST, INR 75,000/HH;
+ MBR + Decentralized years; soakpit, Ward-, city-, or Centrifugation: HH/year; MBR,
System 2E for storage + toilet; TSS, >90 per cent; MBR, INR 30,000,000
co-composting + system three-five years, cluster-level 20–300 kWh INR 9,00,000 /
MBR, 450 m2/MLD TN, >90 per cent; /MLD
ozonation MBR, 50 years per metric MLD/year
TP, >90per cent
tonne of solid

26/02/18 12:15 PM
 System Type of System Applicability Performance of Energy
System name Land availability CAPEX OPEX
number system lifetime of system the system Requirement

MD + AF + CW + Treatment BOD, 50–90 per

Decentralized Ward-, city-, or 7 m2 per household AF, 34 kWh/d/ BD, INR 1,400/
System 3A co-composting + plant life, 50 cent; TSS, 50–80 BD, INR 60,000/HH
system cluster-level for storage + toilet MLD HH/year
chlorination years per cent

BOD, 75–85 per

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 91

cent; COD, 74–78
per cent; TSS, IST, INR 1,500/
MD + WSP + Treatment IST, INR 75,000/HH;
Decentralized Ward-, city-, or 7 m2 per household 75–80 per cent; TN, WSP, 5.7 HH/year; WSP,
System 3B co-composting + plant life, 50 WSP, INR 23,00,000/
system cluster-level for storage + toilet 70–90 per cent; TP, kWh/d/MLD INR 2,00,000/
chlorination years MLD
30–45 per cent; MLD/year
coliform, 60– 99.9
per cent
BOD, 90–95 per
cent ; COD, 85–90
ASP + reed bed + Sewer and ASP, INR
Networked Ward-, city-, or per cent; TSS, >90 ASP: 185.7 ASP, INR 68,00,000/
System 4 sludge drying bed treatment plant ASP, 900 m2/MLD 7,00,000/MLD/
system cluster-level per cent; TN, >60 kWh/d/MLD MLD
+ co-composting life, 50 year year
per cent; coliform,
90– 99.9 per cent

IT + CW + sludge IST, INR 1,500/

Septic tanks, 50 7 m2 per household BOD, 30–50 per
drying bed + Decentralized Ward-, city-, or IT, 45 kWh/d/ IST, INR 75,000/HH; IT, HH/year; IT, INR
System 5 years; Individual for storage + toilet; cent; TSS, 50–70
co-composting + system cluster-level MLD INR 5,00,00,000/MLD 30,00,000/MLD/
toilet, 50 years IT, 900 m2/MLD per cent.
chlorination year
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 92
System Type of System Applicability Performance of Energy
System name Land availability CAPEX OPEX
number System Lifetime of system the System Requirement

BOD, 70–95 per

ABR+ sludge Treatment ABR, INR
Networked Ward-, city-, or ABR, 1,000 m2/ cent; TSS, 80–90 ABR, 34 ABR, INR 5,00,00,000
System 6A drying bed + plant life, 50 30,00,000/MLD/
system cluster-level MLD per cent; coliform, kWh/d/MLD INR/MLD
co-composting years year
20– 30 per cent
SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 92

AF, US$350 to
US$500 per cu.m for
a treatment capacity
AF+ sludge Treatment BOD, 50–90 per
Networked Ward-, city-, or AF, 34 kWh/d/ of 10 cu.m, if the AF
System 6B drying bed + plant life, 50 - cent; TSS, 50–80 -
system cluster-level MLD is used in combination
co-composting years per cent
with other treatment
modules (e.g., in
DEWATS) [39

Belt filter press

+ CW + lime Decentralized Septic tank, 50 Ward-, city-, or 7 m2 per household
System 7 - 22 kWh/d/MLD - -
stabilization + system years cluster-level for storage + toilet
chlorination
BOD, 75–85 per
UASB + sludge cent; COD, 60–80 UASB, INR
Networked Ward-, city-, or UASB, 1,000 m2/ UASB, 34 UASB, INR 68,00,000
System 8 drying bed + > 50 years per cent; TSS, 6,00,000/MLD/
system cluster-level MLD kWh/d/MLD /MLD;
co-composting 75–80 per cent; TN, year
10–20 per cent.
BOD, 75–85 per
cent; COD, 74–78
7 m2 per household per cent; TSS, IST, INR 1,500/
MD + WSP + Septic tank, 50 IST, INR 75,000/
Decentralized Ward-, city-, or for storage + toilet; 75–80 per cent; TN, WSP, 5.7 HH/year; WSP,
System 9 solar drying + years; WSP, 50 HH; WSP, INR
system cluster-level WSP, 6,000 m2/ 70–90 per cent; TP, kWh/d/MLD INR 2,00,000/
chlorination years 23,00,000MLD
MLD 30–45 per cent; MLD/year
coliform, 60– 99.9
per cent

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 System Type of System Applicability Performance of Energy
System name Land availability CAPEX OPEX
number system lifetime of system the System Requirement
Septic tank, 50
PDB + CW +
Decentralized years; trenching Ward-, city-, or 7 m2 per household IST, INR 1,500/
System 10 shallow trenches - - IST, INR 75,000/HH
system site, five–10 cluster-level for storage + toilet HH/year
+ chlorination
years
BOD, 75–85 per
cent; COD, 74–78
7 m2 per household per cent; TSS, IST, INR 1,500/

Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 93

Geo-bags Septic tank, 50 IST, INR 75,000/HH;
Decentralized Ward-, city-, or for storage + toilet; 75–80 per cent; TN, WSP, 5.7 HH/year; WSP,
System 11 + WSP+ years; geo-bag, WSP, INR 23,00,000/
system cluster-level WSP: 6,000 m2/ 70–90 per cent; TP, kWh/d/MLD INR 2,00,000/
chlorination six–12 months MLD
MLD 30–45 per cent; MLD/year
coliform, 60– 99.9
per cent

ABR + CW + BOD, 70–95 per IST, INR 1,500/

IST, INR 75,000/HH;
System 12 sludge drying bed Decentralized Ward-, city-, or ABR, 1,000 m2/ cent; TSS, 80–90 ABR, 34 HH/year; ABR,
> 50 years ABR, INR 5,00,00,000
+ co-composting system cluster-level MLD per cent ; coliform, kWh/d/MLD INR 30,00,000/
/MLD;
+ chlorination 20– 30% MLD/year

ABR = Anaerobic baffled reactor, AD = Anaerobic digester, AF = Anaerobic filter, ASP = Activated sludge process, BD = Biogas digester, BOD = Biological oxygen demand, COD = Chemical oxygen demand, CW = Constructed
wetland, HH = Household, INR = Indian rupee, IST = Improved septic tank, IT = Imhoff tank, kWh = Kilowatt hour, MBR = Membrane bio-reactor, MD = Mechanical dewatering, MLD = Million litres per day, PDB = Planted
drying bed, SBR = Sequence batch reactor, ST = Septic tank, TN = Total nitrogen, TP = Total Phosphorous, TSS = Total suspended solid, UASB = Upflow Anaerobic sludge blanket, UDB = Unplanted drying bed, WSP = Waste
stabilization pond
Source: Technology options for the sanitation value chain, CStep, 2016
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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Appendix 7: Small-bore sewer

Cost of installing small-bore sewer with a treatment plant

Cost (in lakh Rs) Population Cost per capita
S. Pipe Maintenance Present Prospective Total Sewer
No Sewerage scheme sewer STP cost Total (2012) (2027) (2012) (2012)
Abiana Kalan and Abiana
1 123.5 73.16 19.75 216.41 2,131 2,557 9,232 5,798
Khurd, Ropar
2 Boje Majra, Ropar 91.8 59.28 17.30 168.38 1,166 1,399 12,959 7,872

3 Chitamali, Ropar 127.5 82.56 19.57 229.63 1,415 1,699 14,838 9,008

4 Bhajouli, Mohali 61.5 61.49 15.20 138.19 1,161 1,393 10,808 5,295

5 Singhpura, Mohali 88.0 55.85 15.14 158.99 822 986 17,497 10,703

6 Jaula Kalan, Mohali 127.0 59.80 17.59 204.39 1,852 2,223 10,083 6,854

Source: Innovation for scaling up to citywide sanitation, CEPT, 2012

Conventional vs small-bore sewers

S.
Parameter Conventional sewers Solids-free sewers Effect
No.

1 Excavation Deep Shallow + ve for solids-free

More (125–135 per capita LPD) Less (40 per capital LPD) is
2 Water supply + ve for solids-free
required for self-cleansing sufficient

3 Capital cost High Low + ve for solids-free

4 Individual septic tanks Not required Required + ve for conventional

Operation and
5 Very high Very low + ve for solids-free
maintenance cost

6 People's perception Preferred Less preferred + ve for conventional

Source: Innovation for scaling up to citywide sanitation, CEPT, 2012

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 A PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE

Appendix 8: General standards for discharge of environmental pollutants

Part-A: Effluents

Parameter Standards

All efforts should be made to remove colour

Odour and colour
and unpleasant odour as far as practicable

Suspended solids mg/l, Max. 200

pH value 5.5 to 9.0

Oil and grease (mg/l, max.) 10

Biochemical oxygen demand [3 days at 27 °C] mg/l max. 100

Arsenic (as As), mg/l, max. 0.2

Cyanide (as CN) mg/l Max. 0.2

(a) Alpha emitter micro curie/ml. 10-8

(b) Beta emitter micro curie/ml. 10-7

90% survival of fish after 96 hours in 100%

Bio-assay test
effluent
Source: General standards for discharge of environmental pollutants, 1993

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 SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT

Appendix 9: Important weblinks

Topic Weblink

National FSSM Policy http://amrut.gov.in/writereaddata/FSSM_Policy_Report_23Feb.pdf

Advisory note on septage management http://moud.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Advisory_SMUI06.pdf

Operative guidelines for septage management for

http://www.tn.gov.in/dtp/gorders/maws_e_106_2014_Ms.pdf
local bodies in Tamil Nadu

https://swachh.maharashtra.gov.in/Site/Upload/GR/Septage_Management_
Guidelines for septage management in Maharashtra
Guidelines_UDD_020216.pdf

Standard operating procedure for FSM in Gujarat http://umcasia.org/UserFiles/umc/file/FSM%20SOP.pdf

http://cpheeo.nic.in/WriteReadData/Cpheeo_Sewarage_Latest/PartA-
Chapter on onsite sanitation from CPHEEO Manual
HighResolution/Chapter%209.pdf

http://www.swachhbharaturban.in:8080/sbm/content/writereaddata/SBM_
Swachh Bharat Mission guidelines
Guideline.pdf

IS code for designing septic tank https://archive.org/details/gov.law.is.2470.1.1985

How to make an SFD http://sfd.susana.org/toolbox/how-to-make-a-sfd

http://cstep.in/uploads/default/files/publications/stuff/CSTEP_Technology_
Technology options for sanitation value chain
Options_for_the_Sanitation_Value_Chain_Report_2016.pdf

FSM toolbox http://www.fsmtoolbox.com/

http://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/
FSM book
EWM/Book/FSM_Book_LowRes.pdf

Case studies of various decentralized treatment

http://cseindia.org/node/3798
systems in India

Source: Compiled by CSE, 2017

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 Centre for Science and Environment
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Septage Management A Practitioner’s Guide.indd 98 26/02/18 12:15 PM