CHM122: GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behaviour of inorganic and organometallic
compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon based, which are the
subjects of organic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry,
including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels,
and agriculture.

The Periodic Table

The arrangement of elements in a table known as Periodic Table is one of the most important
classifications in chemistry. In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in
increasing order of their atomic numbers.

The Periodic Law, which is the assumption behind the modern Periodic Table states that ‘The
properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers’.

The Periodic Table is built up systematically according to the regular distribution of electrons
in the different electron shells of atoms. The arrangement of the elements in the Periodic
Table makes things easier because studying chemical and physical properties of one element
in a group enables us to predict the properties of other elements in that group.

Different Groups of the Periodic Table

In the Periodic Table, the elements arranged vertically are called GROUPS. There are 8 groups
in the Periodic Table. These groups constitute their own chemical families named as follows:

Group 1 Alkaline metals

Group 2 Alkaline earth metals
Group 3 Boron Family
Group 4 Carbon Family
Group 5 Nitrogen Family
Group 6 Oxygen Family
Group 7 Halogen Family
Group 8 or 0 Noble gases

All the elements in a group contain the same number of electrons in their outermost shells
known as Valence Shells. For example, all the elements in Group 1 have one electron in their
outer energy shell. This group include Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr. They are very reactive and are
never found uncombined in the earth’s crust. Because of their reactivity with air and water,
they are stored under oil.

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They all have low Melting Points, Boiling Points and densities compared with other metals.
They are also good conductors of heat and electricity.

In the Periodic Table, the elements arranged horizontally from left to right are called
PERIODS and each element in a period has the same number of electron shells and an atomic
number one unit greater than the preceding element e.g Period 2 contains the following
elements:

Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
No. of electrons 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

There are seven periods in all and this is why we have seven shells i.e K, L, M, N, O, P and Q
shells. The first period in the periodic table is the shortest period with only two elements i.e
hydrogen and helium.

Groups I and II elements are known as the s-block elements because those elements have
their outer electrons in the s-orbital.

Groups III-VII elements are known as p-block elements because those elements have their
outer electrons in the p-orbital. The p-block elements also include the group O or 8 elements
or the noble gases. They have 8 electrons in the highest energy level with exception of He
which has two.

The Transition elements are d-block elements and they occur between the alkaline earth
metals and the boron family in the Periods 4 – 6. The Lanthanides and Actinides are called f-
block elements and these are known as Inner Transition series.

The elements of Groups I-III i.e Na, Mg and Al show metallic character by ionizing with
electron loss but the metallic character weakens in the direction Na Mg Al.

From Groups IV-VII, the non-metallic character is well pronounced. There are some elements
that occur at the boundary line and they are known as METALLOIDS. They are elements like
Si, Ge, As, and Sb. They resemble metals in some of their properties but non-metals in others.

Fundamental Properties of Periodic Table

The fundamental properties of the Periodic Table are:

1. Atomic radius
2. Ionic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity

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Periodicity is the variation of the above properties down the Group and across the Period of
a Periodic Table.

1. Atomic Radius: This is half the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded
identical atoms. It is also a measure of the size of the atoms. Since the electron cloud
of an atom has no definite limit, the size of an atom cannot be defined easily.
The two factors that determine the radius of an atom are:
i. The attraction of the positively charged nucleus for the electrons
ii. The screening effect of the outer electrons from the nucleus by those electrons
in the inner shell.

In any Group of the Periodic Table, the atomic radius increases as the atomic number.
On descending any Group of the Periodic Table, the number of electrons in the outer
shell is the same but the shells increase in number and the outer shells are further
away from the nucleus and this makes the volume to be much bigger.

Across the Period, i.e from left to right of the Periodic Table, the atomic radius
decreases. In this case, all the electrons are in the same outer shell but the nuclear
charge increases from left to right. This increased nuclear charge resulting from
addition of the proton tends to draw all the electrons closer to the nucleus and thus
decreases the size of the atom

2. Ionic Radius: This is a measure of the space occupied by an ion in any direction of an
ionic solid. When a metal atom loses an electron, a positive ion is formed and the
whole of the outer shell electron (s) is/ are removed. The positive ion formed is much
smaller than its neutral atom. Since outer electrons have been removed, there is an
overall positively charged ion and the electrons are attracted more strongly to the
nucleus. For example, with Na+, there are 11 protons attracting 10 electrons and this
brings greater charge effect on the ion and the electrons are pulled in. The opposite
effect takes place with negative ions which are larger than their neutral atoms. The
negative ion is formed when a non-metallic atom gains one or more electrons and the
effective nuclear charge is reduced.

As we move across the Period, the cationic radii decreases from Na to Al while anionic
radii increases from P to Cl

3. Ionization Energy: Ionization occurs when an electron is removed from or gained by

an atom or ion. Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an
electron completely from a gaseous atom. It is expressed in kilojoules of energy per
mole of atom ionised. The greater the ionization energy the more difficult it is to

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 remove an electron. The Noble gases in Group 0 have the highest first ionization
energies in every period.

Down the group there is always a decrease in ionization energy as the atomic number
increases. The number of shells increases and the outermost shell moves far away
from the nucleus and this reduces the nuclear effect. It is therefore easier to remove
an electron from a larger atom because the outer shell is farther away from the
attractive force of the nucleus.
Within a period, the first ionization energy tends to increase as atomic number
increases. Factors affecting ionization energy are:
i. The distance of the outermost electron from the nucleus. Across the period,
as the atomic number increases, the atomic radius decreases because more
electrons are added into the same shell. The decrease in atomic radius makes
the uttermost electrons move closer to the nucleus and the attraction of the
positive nucleus for the electron will increase. Greater energy will be needed
to remove the outermost electron.
ii. Size of the positive charge: When the nuclear charge increases, there will be
more attraction for the outermost electrons and so more energy will be
needed to remove the outermost electron. So, ionization energy increases.

4. Electron Affinity: The electron affinity is the change in energy when one mole of
electron is added to one mole of gaseous atoms to form a univalent element of
negative ion. Down the group the electron affinity increases because atoms with
larger atomic radius tend to have weaker attraction for electrons and so form negative
ions less readily. Across the electron affinity decreases from left to right.

5. Electronegativity: This is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to

itself. Non metallic elements which can attract electrons easily have high
electronegativity but metals which lose electron easily have low electronegativity.
Down the group electronegativity decreases because the effect of the larger atomic
radius is greater than that of the increased nuclear change. Across the period,
electronegativity increases because of the decrease in atomic radius. The most
electronegative elements on the periodic table is fluorine. When elements with very
different electronegativity such as Na in Gp I and Cl in Gp7 combine they form
electrovalent bonds because chlorine is sufficiently electronegative to remove
electron completely from sodium atom.

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen has the simplest atomic structure of all the electrons it consists of a nucleus
containing one proton with charge of +1 and one electron orbiting the nucleus with a charge
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of -1. Electron structure is 1s1, the only electron residing in the s orbital of the first main
shell.
Atoms of hydrogen may attain stability in 3 different ways:
1. By forming an electron pair through covalent bonding with another atom eg H2,
H2O, HCl(gas) CH4.
2. By ionizing an electron to form H+
3. By gaining an electron to form H-
Crystalline solids such as LiH contain the H- in and one formed by highly
electropositive metals (all of Group I and some in Group II). However, H- ions are
uncommon since hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.1. It may use any of the
three methods but the most common way is forming covalent bonds.
Position in the Periodic Table
It is the first element in the PT and is unique. There are only two elements in the first period
Hydrogen and Helium. While hydrogen is quite reactive helium is inert.
1. The structure of hydrogen atom is in some ways like that of the alkali metals because
they all have just one electron in their outermost shell, but they tend to lose the
electron in reactions and form positive ions, M+. Though H+ are known, hydrogen has
a much greater tendency to pair the electron and form a covalent bond.
2. The structure of the hydrogen atom is in some ways like that of the halogen (Group
17), since both are one electron short of a Noble gas structure. In many reactions the
halogens gain an electron and form a negative ion, X-. Hydrogen does not typically
form a negative ion, although it does form ionic hydrides M+H- (eg LiH and CaH2) with
a few electropositive metals.
3. In some ways the structure of the hydrogen atom resembles that of Group IV
elements, since both have a half filled shell of electrons.

Abundance of Hydrogen:
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe. Some estimates are that 92% of
Universe is made up of hydrogen. However, the abundance of hydrogen in the earth’s
atmosphere is very small. This is because the earth’s gravitational field is too small to hold
so light an element, though some hydrogen is found in volcano gases. In contrast, hydrogen
is the tenth most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It also occurs in vast quantities as
water in the oceans. Compounds containing hydrogen are very abundant particularly water,
living matter (carbohydrate and proteins), organic compounds, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum
and natural gas), ammonia and acids.

Preparation of Hydrogen
1. Hydrogen is manufactured cheaply and in large amounts by passing steam over red
hot coke. The product is water gas, which is a mixture of CO and H2.
1000°C
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 C + H2O CO + H2
(water gas)

2. In the steam process, light hydrocarbons such as methane is mixed with steam and
passed over nickel catalyst at 800°C - 900°C
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + 4H2

3. In oil refineries, when natural hydrocarbon mixtures of high molecular weight such as
naphtha and fuel oil are cracked to produce lower molecular weight hydrocarbons
which can be used as petrol, hydrogen is produced as by-product.

4. By electrolysis of water or solutions of NaOH and KOH in a cell with nickel anodes and
iron cathodes. In the anode, 2OH- H2O + ½O2 + 2e-
In cathode, 2H2O + 2e- 2OH- + H2
H2O H2 + ½O2
This is the most expensive method

5. The usual laboratory preparation is the reaction of dilute acids with metals or of an
alkali with aluminium.
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 2H2

Properties of Hydrogen (H2)

1. Hydrogen is the lightest gas known, and because of its low density, it is used instead
of helium to fill balloons for meteorology.
2. It is colourless, odourless and almost insoluble in water.
3. It forms diatomic molecules, H2, with the two atoms joined by a strong covalent bond
(bond energy = 435.9 kJ mol-1).
4. It is not very reactive under normal conditions. The reactivity is related to the H-H
bond. An essential step in the H2 reacting with another element is the breaking of the
H – H bond to produce atoms of hydrogen. This requires 435.9 kJmol -1.
5. It burns in air or dioxygen forming water liberating large amounts of energy.
6. It reacts with halogens. With fluorine, it reacts violently even at low temperatures.
With chlorine, it reacts slowly in the dark but catalysed by light (photocatalysis) and
becomes faster in daylight and explosive in sunlight.
H2 + F2 2HF
H2 + Cl2 2HCl

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 7. It reacts with a number of metals to form hydrides. The reactions are not violent, and
usually require a high temperature.

GROUP I ELEMENTS (Metals)

The Group I elements are known as alkali metals because they form alkaline solutions
when they react with water. The elements in this group are Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr. They
have similar physical and chemical properties. They have only one electron in their
outermost shell. They are very electropositive and ionise to form univalent positive ions.
They are good conductors of electricity and good reducing agents. The elements are all
soft metals with low densities.

Elements Symbol Electron Configuration Ionization Atomic

Energy radius (nm)
Lithium Li 1s22s1 520 0.123
Sodium Na 1s22s22p63s1 500 0.157
Potassium K …..3s23p64s1 420 0.203
Rubidium Rb …..4s24p65s1 400 0.216
Caesium Cs …..5s25p66s1 380 0.285

The atoms of these elements increase in size as we move down the group. Most of the
compounds of the alkali metals are soluble in water. The reactivity of these elements
increases down the group because the outer electron is progressively more easily lost.

Sodium, Na
Sodium is very reactive and does not occur naturally as a pure metal. It occurs mainly as
common salt (Sodium chloride). It also occurs as deposits e.g sodium chloride (rock salt),
sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) and sodium trioxonitrate (V) (Chile salt petre).

Extraction
Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride by using the Down cell.
This cell is a large vessel with a volume of about 5 m 3. It is lined inside with fire bricks. The
anode is a graphite rod while the cathode is a steel cylinder surrounding the anode.
During electrolysis, the fused sodium chloride breaks down to give metallic sodium and
gaseous chlorine. The sodium metal is held in the region of the cathode. The chlorine is
liberated at the anode and can be collected liquefied and stored in cylinders.
At the cathode, Na+ ions receive an electron each and become reduced to metallic sodium.
Na+ + e- Na
At the anode, the Cl- gives up an electron and becomes oxidised to atomic chlorine, which
then pairs up to form chlorine gas:
Cl- Cl + e-, Cl + Cl Cl2
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Physical Properties of Sodium
1. Sodium is a soft silvery white metal.
2. It has a melting point (M.P) of 97.5 °C and a boiling point (B.P) of 890 °C
3. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical Properties of Sodium

1. It tarnishes in air through the following reactions
a) It reacts with oxygen of the air to form sodium oxide.
Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O(S)

b) The oxide normally absorbs water from the air to form sodium hydroxide

Na2O + H2O 2NaOH

c) The sodium hydroxide then reacts with the carbon(IV) oxide in the air to form
trioxocarbonate(IV) and water.

Because of these reactions sodium metal is kept in oil to prevent it from tarnishing.
2. When sodium is heated in air or oxygen it burns with a brilliant yellow flame to form
sodium peroxide, 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)

3. Sodium reacts with ammonia to form sodamide and liberate hydrogen in the process,
2Na(s) + NH3(g) NaNH2(s) + H2(s)

4. Reaction with non metals

a) Sodium reacts with halogen to form sodium halides. It reacts with chlorine and
bromine to form sodium chloride and bromide respectively
2Na + Cl2(g) 2NaCl
2Na + Br2(g) 2NaBr

b) It reacts with phosphorus to form sodium phosphide

6Na + 2P 2N3P
c) It reacts with sulphur to form sulphide
2Na + S Na2S

5. Reaction with water: sodium reacts violently with cold water and releases a lot of
heat. Hydrogen is evolved and sodium hydroxide is produced.

Na(s) + 2H2O 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

6. It dissolves in mercury to yield sodium amalgam and this can be used as a reducing
agent.
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 Na(s) + Hg(l) Na/Hg(s)
7. Reaction with acids it reacts vigorously with dilute acids to form hydrogen and salt.
(this must not be done in lab)

Na(s)+ 2HCl NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Oxides of sodium

Sodium oxide (Na2O)

Preparation:

Prepared when sodium is burned in a limited supply of air or by heating sodium peroxide
gently with excess sodium Na2O2(s) + 2Na(s) Na2O(s)

Properties:

1. It is a white solid which reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
2. It reacts with dilute acids to produce salts and water
Na2O(s) + 2Hcl 2Nacl + H2O

Sodium Peroxide (Na2O2)

Preparation:

Prepared when sodium is burned with excess oxygen

2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2

Properties:

1. It is a pale yellow solid which change to sodium hydroxide and sodium

trioxocarbonate (IV) on exposure to the atmosphere.

Na2O2 + CO2 Na2CO3(s) + O2(g)

2Na2O2 + 2H2O 4NaOH + O2(g)
(it must be stored in air tight containers so that it will not react with air)

2. It is a strong oxidising agent and is used in the production of drugs.

3. It reacts with ice cold water to produce hydrogen peroxide.

Na2O2 + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2O2

(ice cold water)

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Uses of Sodium Peroxide (Na2O2)

1. it is used as air purifier in submarine and portable breathing apparatuses.

Hydroxides of Sodium

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (also called caustic soda)

Preparations:
1. It is prepared by heating excess slaked lime with about I0% sodium trioxocarbonate(IV)
soln.

Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)

2. It is industrially prepared by electrolysis of brine in the diaphgram call/using graphite

anode and iron steel cathode.

Properties:

1. NaOH is white solid at room temperature

2. Melting point is 320 oC
3. Readily dissolve in water with evolution of heat
4. It is a strong alkali. It neutralizes acids to form salts
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
5. When it is heated with ammonium salts e.g ammonium chloride, ammonia gas will
be produced.

Uses

1. It is commonly used in the laboratory as a strong alkali

2. It is used in the manufacture of soap
3. It is used for the refining of petroleum
4. It is used for the bleaching of cotton textile
5. It is used in the manufacture of crayon

Halides Of Sodium

Sodium Chloride NaCl:

Sodium chloride occurs naturally in the form of rock salt. It can also be obtained from the
underground deposits containing rock salt and by solar evaporation of sea water.

Prepared in the lab neutralizing sodium hydroxide with dilute acids

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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 Properties: 1) Forms white anhydrous crystals which melts at 801°C and boil at 1420 °C
2) It is very soluble in water

TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Transition elements can be defined as an element in which at least one of its simple ions or
atoms has an incomplete inner shell of d-electrons. They are found in the d-block of the
Periodic Table between Groups II and III. They are in three rows with ten elements each.

The first transition series comprise of Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn whose electron
configuration are:

Scandium 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2

Titanium [Ar] 3d24s2
Vanadium [Ar] 3d34s2
Chromium [Ar] 3d54s1
Manganese [Ar] 3d54s2
Iron [Ar] 3d64s2
Cobalt [Ar] 3d74s2
Ni [Ar] 3d84s2
Copper [Ar] 3d104s1
Zinc [Ar] 3d104s2

The number of d-electrons increases by one across the period. The irregularities occur at
chromium and copper when all the five 3d orbitals are singly or doubly filled and this makes
them to be more stable than expected. The 3d and 4s energy levels are very close.

Physical Properties of Transition Metals

1. Have high Melting and Boiling Points
2. They are so hard, dense and lustrous. They are much harder and
stronger than s-block metals
3. They are also good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They are malleable and ductile.

Chemical Properties of Transition Metals

For the s-block and the p-block, the chemical properties differ considerably across the period
i.e from left to right because the electrons are added progressively to the outermost orbitals.
This does not happen with the Transition Metals because electrons are added progressively
to the inner d-orbitals. The T.Ms are moderately reactive and the reactivity falls across the
period.

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Features that distinguish T.Ms from the s-block metals are:

1. Variable Oxidation States: Due to the little difference in energy between the 3d and
4s orbitals, the elements can easily lose electrons from the 3d and 4s orbitals, so they
can form compounds with a number of oxidation states. For example, manganese
with electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2 can lose the two 4s electrons to
give a +2 oxidation state as in MnO. It can also lose 2 4s and 2 3d electrons to give a
+4 oxidation state as in MnO2, 2 4s and 4 3d electrons to give +6 oxidation state as in
MnO42-.

2. Formation of coloured ions: The T.Ms give coloured ions because of the presence
of unpaired 3d electrons. Zinc and scandium ions are colourless since they do not have
unpaired electrons. When white light shines on a T.M compound, the unpaired
electron (s) absorb some of the energies of these colour components resulting in the
excitation of the 3d electrons. The remaining light now lacks of its colour components
and no longer appears white. The transmitted colour becomes the colour of T.M ion.
Scandium and Zinc do not give coloured ions because their ions have no unpaired 3d
electrons which could experience transition to give colours.

3. Catalytic Properties: T.Ms and their compounds are used extensively as catalysts
particularly in industrial processes. For e.g. in the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) to oxygen and water, the catalyst used to speed up the reaction is
manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2).
MnO2 catalyst
2H2O 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
For industrial preparation of ammonia by Haber Process, finely divided iron
catalyzes the combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Finely divided Fe catalyst
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Other examples are:

Ni catalyst
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
The catalytic action of the metals is probably due to the ability of the atoms on the
metal surface to form bonds with the reactant molecules because of the availability
of the large number of the 3d and 4s electrons.

4. Magnetic Properties: Most of the T.M ions are paramagnetic i.e they attract
magnetic lines of forces. This is due to the presence of unpaired electron spins in the
ion. Ti is 3d24s2 and Ti3+ is a 3d1 ion is paramagnetic.

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 5. Complex Formation: A complex ion has a central positive ion linked to several other
ions or molecules called ligands. The ligands donate a lone pair of electrons to empty
metal orbitals in a sort of coordinate covalent bonding.

For example in [Fe(H2O)6]3+, Fe3+ ion is surrounded by six water molecules disposed in
a octahedral fashion around the ion. Each water molecule use a lone pair on an oxygen
to form a coordinate bond.

REDOX REACTIONS
Redox means oxidation – reduction reactions. It describes all chemical reactions in which
there is a net change in atomic charge. It is a class of reactions that include:
▪ Formation of a compound from its elements.
▪ All combustion reactions
▪ Reactions that generate electricity
▪ Reactions that produce cellular energy
Note: Oxidation is (i) Loss of electrons: Oxidising agent is the specie that accepts the
electron
(ii) Increase in oxidation number (oxidation state), which is the charge
the atom would have if electrons were not shared but were
transferred completely.
Reduction is (i) Gain of electrons: Reducing agent is the specie that donates the
Electron.
(ii) Decrease in oxidation number
For an atom in its elemental form (Na, O etc) oxidation number is zero.
For a monoatomic ion, O.N = ion charge
The sum of O.N values for the atoms in a molecule or formula unit of a compound is
zero
For Group I O.N = +1 in all compounds. Also For Gp II, O.N = +2 in all compounds
Hydrogen O.N = +1 in combination with non-metals; O.N = -1 with metals & boron.
Fluorine O.N = -1 in all compounds.

Exercise:
Determine the O.N of each element in these compounds:
1. CaO ii. KNO3 iii. NaHSO4 iv. CaCO3 v. N2 vi. H2O

Chemistry Of Iron (Fe)

Iron is the most important element in the industry. It is the second most abundant element
in the earth’s crust after aluminium. It seldom occurs as a free metal.

Occurrence

Iron occurs commonly as haematite. It also occurs as impure Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3), magnetite
or magnetic iron(FeO4), siderite or spathic iron ore (FeCO3), iron pyrites (FeS2) and limonite
(Fe2O3.3H2O). It is widely present as trioxosilicate(IV) in clay.

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Extraction

The most common ore used in the extraction is an impure oxide called haematite (Fe2O3).

The ore is first roasted in air during which impurities like carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are
oxidised to their gaseous oxides and expelled – leaving the silica (sand) impurities which
cannot be removed at the initial stage.

The roasted hematite is then mixed with coke and limestone and introduced into a blast
furnace from the top (1) while a blast of hot air is introduced into it from the bottom through
small pipes known as Tuyeres (2).

The reactions taking place in the blast furnace is complex. The temperature ranges from 200-
2000 °C near a tuyere.

Iron(III) oxide + Coke ….(1)

Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2 …….(5)

Waste gases 800 °C

SiO2 + CaO CaSiO3….(7)

CO2 + C 2CO …..(4)

1000 °C

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

…..(6)
C + O2 CO2 ….(3)

Hot air (2) 180 °C

Molten slag

Molten Iron

In the lower part, the white hot coke is oxidised by the oxygen in the hot air blast to liberate
carbon (IV) oxide (3). This is an exothermic reaction, hence a lot of heat is evolved.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

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The carbon(IV) oxide produced moves up the furnace and reacts with more coke to form
carbon(II) oxide (4)

CO2 + C 2CO

Near the top of the furnace, the iron ore is reduced to iron at 1000 °C by the carbon(II) oxide
(5).

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2

(Pig iron)

The iron formed above is impure and is called ‘Pig iron’ or ‘cast iron’ which is melted by the
hot furnace and moves to the bottom of the furnace.

The limestone which has been introduced together with the ore is first decomposed at this
high temperature to yield calcium oxide and carbon(IV) oxide (6).

CaCO3 CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The calcium oxide now reacts with silica impurities to form calciumtrioxosilicate(IV) called
slag (7).

CaO(s) + SiO2 CaSiO3(s)

The slag melts as it passes down the tower and floats on top of the liquid iron due to its lower
density. It can then be drawn off and used for road making or in cement manufacture.

Types of Iron
Pig Iron:
• This is obtained directly from the blast furnace.
• It is impure form of iron with many impurities like phosphorous, sulphur,
silicon and manganese in varying proportions depending on the ores
used and the operating temperature.
• It is hard and brittle.

Cast Iron:

• This is obtained from pig iron which has been remelted and run into
moulds.
• It has low melting point than pure iron.
• It contains lower percentage of impurities than pig iron.
• At 1200 °C it can be melted and used to produce castings which do not
have to bear much strain such as kitchen stores, drain pipes, bunsen
burner, retort stand bases as well as radiators.
• It is brittle and can be welded.
Wrought Iron
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 • It is obtained by heating cast iron in a furnace with haematite (Fe2O3) in
a process called ‘puddling’
• It is the purest form of iron
• It is malleable and can be welded
• It is tough and fibrous and can withstand some strain.
• It is used to make iron nails or gates, ornamental works, horse-shoes
and agricultural implements.

Physical Properties of Iron

• Pure iron is a grey metal with a density of 7.8 g cm-3
• It melts at 1535 °C and boils at 2800 °C
• It is malleable and ductile
• It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
• It can easily be magnetized

Chemical Properties of Iron

• Reaction with air
Iron burns in air to form reddish hydrated Iron(III) oxide of variable
composition.
4Fe(s) + 3O2 + H2O 2Fe2O3 . XH2O
• When finely divided iron is heated in air, it burns at high temperature to
form magnetic iron oxide.
• Reaction with steam:
When steam is passed over red hot iron filings, tri iron tetraoxide and
hydrogen are produced and the reaction is reversible.
Fe(s) + 4H2O Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
• Reaction with non-metals:
Iron combines with non-metals like sulphur, chlorine, carbon,
phosphorous and silicon. It forms iron(III) chloride with chlorine and
iron(II) sulphide with sulphur.

Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
• Reaction with acids:
Iron metal readily reacts with dilute mineral acids producing hydrogen
and the appropriate iron(II) salt.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

Chemistry Of Copper, Cu

Copper was one of the first metals to be discovered and used by man. It is a stable metal
readily obtained from its compounds.

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Occurrence:
Main ores are copper pyrites (CuFeS2), malachite (CuCO3Cu(OH)2), chalcocite
(CuS2) and cuprite (CuO).

Extraction:
Copper pyrites (CuFeS2) is the ore usually used for the extraction of copper which is in three
stages.
• The ore is concentrated to remove impurities by first crushing the ore
and then mixing with water. A frothing agent such as vegetable oil is
added and air is blown through the mixture. The particles of copper are
floated in the froth while the earthly materials and waste rocks sink.
• The concentrated ore is roasted in a limited supply of air to oxidise the
iron and some of the sulphur in the ore to iron(II) oxide and sulphur(IV)
oxide, respectively.
CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s) + FeO + 3SO2(g)
SO2 gas escapes from the top of the furnace while FeO is removed by
heating in the absence of air with silicon(IV) oxide. Iron(II)
trioxosilicate(IV) is formed as a slag which floats on top of the molten
copper(I) sulphide and is removed.
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3
• The copper(1) sulphide that remains is finally reduced to the metal by
heating in a regulated supply of air.
Cu2S(s) + O2(g) 2Cu(s) + SO2(g)
The copper produced is between 98-99% pure. In a case where pure
copper is required, the impure copper produced will be purified by using
electrolytic method.

Physical Properties of Copper

• It is a heavy reddish brown metal
• It has a density of 8.95 g cm-3
• It is very malleable and ductile
• It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
• It has a high melting point of 1083 °C and a boiling point of 2300 °C
• It forms alloys very easily.

Chemical Properties of Copper

• Reaction with air:
Copper is resistant to pure dry air but over a long period of time in a
moist impure atmosphere it becomes coated with green, basic
copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI), CuSO4.

• Effect of Acids:
Copper is lower than hydrogen in the electrochemical series, hence it is
not capable of displacing hydrogen from dilute acids.

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 • Action on Halogen
Copper is attacked by the halogens to form both copper(I) and copper(II)
halides.
2Cu + Cl2(g) 2CuCl(s)
(white solid)
Cu + Cl2(g) CuCl2(s)
(dark brown)
Uses of Copper
• It is used in wires and cables for conducting electricity because of its
high electrical conductivity. It is second only to silver and it is much
cheaper.
• It is used to make water pipes and boilers because of its resistance to
chemical attacks.
• It is also used in producing a wide range of important alloys such as
bronze (Cu, Sn), brass (Cu, Zn) and cupronickel (Cu, Ni).
• Finely divided copper is used industrially as a catalyst in the oxidation of
methanol.
• It is used for ornamental work as it is not attacked by air.

GROUP VII ELEMENTS, HALOGENS

Group VII elements on the Periodic Table constitute the chemical family called the halogens.
They include F, Cl, Br, I and At. They have seven electrons in the outermost shell. They are
very reactive non-metals. They react with most metals to form electrovalent salt-like
compounds and this why they are named ‘halogens’. Meaning ‘salt-producers’.

Chemistry of Fluorine, F:
This is the first element of the series. It is too reactive to be safely prepared in the
laboratories. It reacts with almost every element or substance with which it comes into
contact, even the glass in which the reaction takes place.

Due to its reactivity, it does not occur in the free state in nature. It is mainly found in
compounds like cryolite (NaF, AlF3) and fluorspar (CaF2). It is the most reactive halogen.

Preparation of Fluorine

So far, the only way of preparing F is by electrolysis. The electrolyte is solution of potassium
fluoride in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride. The anode is carbon atom while the cathode is steel
vessel.

At anode: 2F- F2 + 2e-

At cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2

Properties of Fluorine:
• Fluorine is a poisonous, yellow gas with an irritating smell.
• Combines directly with non-metals except N, O2, He, Ne and Ar to form
fluorides like PF5 or SF6

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 • At room temperature, it reacts explosively with hydrogen to give
hydrogen fluoride. This hydrogen fluoride produced is a fuming,
colourless, liquid with a very low boiling point, 19.5 °C
• It reacts with water to form oxygen and hydrogen fluoride.
F2(g) + H2O(l) O2(g) + 4HF(aq)
• It is such a powerful oxidising agent that it oxidises water to hydrogen
peroxide and is itself reduced to hydrogen fluoride.
OH- + F2 H2O2 + 2F-
• It is the most electronegative element in the Periodic table
• It displaces all other halogens from aqueous solutions of their
compounds. It can even react with noble gases like krypton and xenon
Xe(g) + 2F2(g) XeF4(g)

Uses of Fluorine:
• Its compounds such as CClF3, CCl2F2, CCl3F are used as refrigerants in
atomic research and as aerosol repellent.
• Tin(II) fluoride, a compound of fluorine, is used in many toothpastes to
prevent decay.
• Traces of fluoride ion, F-, in drinking water (about ppm) greatly reduce
the incidence of dental carries (tooth decay). However, F- concentration
above 2 ppm cause discoloration, the brown mottling of teeth, and
higher concentrations are harmful.

Chemistry of Chlorine, Cl2

This is the second element of the series after fluorine. It is the most important element of all
the halogens. It also has seven electrons in its outermost shell. It was first isolated by Scheele
in 1774 when he heated some concentrated HCl with manganese(IV) oxide. The gas was
named chlorine by Davy in 1810 from the Greek word ‘chloro’ meaning ‘greenish yellow’.
Being very reactive, it is not found free in nature, but in combined states as chlorides.

Preparation:
Chlorine is generally prepared in the laboratory by the oxidation of concentrated HCl. The
two common oxidising agents that can be used are:
• Manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(g) MnCl2 + 2H2O
• Potassium tetraoxomanganate(VII)
2KMnO4(aq.) + 16HCl 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g)
It is also prepared industrially by the electrolysis of (i) brine and (ii) the chloride of molten
sodium, magnesium and calcium.
The chlorine is then liquefied and stored under pressure in steel cylinders.

Physical Properties:

• It is greenish yellow gas with a choking irritating and unpleasant smell.

• It is 2.5 times denser than air
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 • It is easily liquefied under pressure and stored in iron cylinders.
• It is very poisonous gas. If inhaled to a small extent, it can damage the
mucous lining of the lungs.
• It is fairly soluble in water

Chemical Properties:
The strong electronegative character of Cl is responsible for its chemical reactivity.
• It is very reactive and with the exception of fluorine, chlorine can
displace any of the halogens from solution of their respective acids and
salts.
• It combines directly with most other elements to form chlorides
• It reacts directly with metals and non-metals to form metallic and non-
metallic chlorides.
i. Reaction with metals: Metals react readily chlorine especially when
heated to form their chloride.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2
ii. Reaction with non-metals: With the exception of the noble gases, O2,
N and C, all other non-metals burn in chlorine to produce the
corresponding chloride.
2P + 3Cl2 2PCl3
• Chlorine as an oxidising agent: Chlorine readily removes hydrogen from
its compounds to form hydrogen chloride. Chlorine behaves as an
oxidising agent by removing hydrogen from compounds like ammonia,
hydrogen, sulphide, hydrocarbon, iron(II) chloride, trioxosulphate(IV)
ion
I. With ammonia
2NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) N2(g) + 6HCl(g)
II. With hydrogen Sulphide
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) HCl(g) + S

III. With hydrocarbons

C10H16 + 8Cl2(g) 10C(S) + 16HCl(g)

IV. With iron(II) chloride solution

FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3

V. With trioxosulphate(IV) ion (SO32-)

H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g) H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl

Uses of Chlorine
• It is used in the dyeing industry as a bleaching powder where cloths,
cotton, paper, etc need to be bleached. Many textile industries use
chlorine for their bleaching purposes.

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• It is used for the manufacture of important organic solvents such as
tetrachloromethane, (CCl4), trichloroethene (C2HCl3) which is used in
paints and for removing grease.
• It is used for the manufacture of trichloroethanal (CCl3CHO) which can
also be used for the manufacture of the insecticide DDT
(DichloroDiphenylTrichloroethane)
• It is used in the manufacture of plastic, polychloroethene known as PVC
(PolyVinyl Chloride) which is used for rain coats.
• It is used for the production of hydrochloric acid when it is allowed to
combine directly with hydrogen
Cl2 + H2 2HCl
• Small amounts of chlorine is used to treat water and to destroy bacteria
which causes diseases.
• Chlorine is used in aerosol propellants.

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