Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management Perspectives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tmp

It's all in the recipe: How to increase domestic leisure tourists' experiential T
loyalty to local food
Janine Williamsona, Najmeh Hassanlib,
⁎

a
University of South Australia Business School, Australia
b
University of Technology Sydney Business School, Centre for Business and Social Innovation, PO Box 123, Broadway NSW 2007, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This study examines experiential loyalty in the context of local food consumption by domestic leisure tourists. A
Experiential loyalty conceptual framework is developed to understand factors which increase tourists' propensity to exhibit ex­
Centrality periential loyalty. Relationships between independent factors and the dependent variable of experiential loyalty
Satisfaction are examined using a binary logistic regression model. The centrality of local food to tourists is the most im­
Cultural motivation
portant factor in increasing experiential loyalty, although cultural motivation and satisfaction are also pre­
Domestic leisure tourists
Food Neophobia scale
dictors. The results provide insights for government and private tourism enterprises, with practical re­
COVID-19 commendations outlined.

1. Introduction destination planners. Consequently, as tourists may exhibit loyalty to

local food but not to destinations, further understanding of experiential
Loyalty research in tourism commonly applies a homogenous ap­ loyalty in this context would be beneficial.
proach (McKercher, Denizci-Guillet, & Ng, 2012), seeking to under­ Further, there has predominantly been a focus on inbound tourists
stand factors which influence tourists' re-visit intentions (Antón, within studies examining local food (Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2013; Mak,
Camarero, & Laguna-García, 2017) or willingness to recommend Lumbers, Eves, & Chang, 2017). Given the inherent differences between
(Adongo, Anuga, & Dayour, 2015). But given the distinctive features of domestic and international markets, specifically domestic tourists' so­
tourism (McKercher et al., 2012), it is argued that loyalty concepts need cial-cultural familiarity with a country's local food and their accessi­
refining (Dolnicar & Ring, 2014; McKercher & Guillet, 2011). Hence, bility to food production regions (Kim, Park, & Lamb, 2019), this gap in
experiential loyalty to preferred holiday styles, where tourists transfer the literature has consequences for tourism stakeholders. The im­
their loyalty for preferred activities to new destinations, is considered portance of understanding the domestic tourist market is further
as an alternative in tourism loyalty discourses (McKercher et al., 2012; highlighted following the COVID-19 pandemic with countries closing
Pearce & Kang, 2009). However, limited research has examined ex­ their borders to international tourists, resulting in an increased focus on
periential loyalty, with empirical testing required to further understand domestic travel (Hall, Scott, & Gössling, 2020).
the concept (Cohen, Prayag, & Moital, 2014). Within Australia, the geographical location of this study, the
Local food consumption is considered an essential element of the monthly average loss, post-March 2020, in tourism receipts from all
tourism experience (Hjalager & Richards, 2002) and provides economic inbound markets as a result of the pandemic is estimated at $2b on a
benefits to local economies (Madaleno, Eusébio, & Varum, 2018; per month basis (Tourism and Transport Forum, 2020). Hence, there
Zepeda & Nie, 2012). Despite the growing number of research papers has been a focus on increasing spending in the domestic market. As
examining local food consumption within the tourism literature (Ellis, domestic tourists have an increased propensity to travel to regional
Park, Kim, & Yeoman, 2018), and the significance of experiential loy­ destinations (Tourism Australia, 2019), local food enterprises are po­
alty (Murray & Kline, 2015; Zopiatis, Theocharous, Kosmas, Webster, & sitioned to benefit from the domestic market. However, there is a
Melanthiou, 2016), a current gap in understanding experiential loyalty dearth of knowledge related to the consumption of local food by Aus­
in the context of local food exists. Since tourists seek experiences in new tralian domestic tourists (Robinson & Getz, 2014), highlighting the
destinations to satisfy the need for novelty (Pearce & Lee, 2005), this need for studies which focus specifically on this market.
knowledge gap has implications for local food producers and To contribute to the identified gaps, this empirical paper makes

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Williamson), [email protected] (N. Hassanli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100745
Received 20 April 2020; Received in revised form 1 September 2020; Accepted 2 September 2020
Available online 15 September 2020
2211-9736/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

theoretical and practical contributions to the discourse of re-examining (McKercher et al., 2012). Unlike vertical or horizontal loyalty, experi­
loyalty concepts in tourism (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018; ential loyalty is neither enterprise nor destination specific, with tourists
Cohen et al., 2014; McKercher et al., 2012) by identifying factors which transferring loyalty to an experience or preferred style of holiday to
increase domestic leisure tourists' experiential loyalty to local food. The new destinations (McKercher et al., 2012). Understanding experiential
paper begins with a review of relevant literature, before presenting loyalty benefits both enterprises and destinations that may not attract
details of the methodology applied. The results section highlights the repeat tourists from outside of a region (Murray & Kline, 2015), assists
key findings of the exploratory factor analysis and binary logistic re­ in strategic decision making at macro and micro levels (Pearce & Kang,
gression analysis. The paper concludes with a discussion of the findings 2009), and helps with the development of loyalty schemes (Zopiatis
and recommendations for future research. et al., 2016). As tourists may exhibit loyalty to local food, but not to
destinations, further understanding of experiential loyalty in this con­
2. Theoretical background text would be beneficial.

2.1. Loyalty 2.2. Local food and tourism

Tourism loyalty research has grown since the early 1990's As an important element of the tourism experience, local food
(Oppermann, 2000), and reflects an individual's commitment to re- consumption provides entertainment and opportunities to learn about
purchase a product (Oliver, 1999). Oliver's loyalty framework (1999) the local culture (Hjalager & Richards, 2002; Suhartanto, Chen, Mohi, &
theorized that consumers become loyal through stages following a Sosianika, 2018). Local food covers all food types including fruit, meat,
cognition-affect-conation pattern. However, it is only in the final stage milk, preserves, wine and beer, confectionery or pastries (Hall &
that consumers not only prefer to re-purchase the product but also Sharples, 2003), which tourists can engage with during local food ex­
overcome barriers to do so. Oliver (1999) further conceptualised how periences such as wine and food tasting events, cookery classes, or food
loyalty can be sustained with the inclusion of a social dimension to and wine pairing demonstrations (Robinson & Getz, 2014). In addition,
loyalty, with loyalty to a product strengthened as consumers connect tourists have opportunities to purchase local produce from farm shops,
with those who share similar consumption values and behaviours, and farmers' markets, independent butchers, bakers and artisan food outlets
at the highest level the product becomes part of their self-identity. (Pearson & Bailey, 2012). Visits to wineries, breweries or distilleries are
Within the tourism literature, the dominant approaches to con­ also classified as local food experiences (Murray & Kline, 2015).
ceptualising tourist loyalty are behavioural loyalty and attitudinal Whilst tourism provides tourists with an opportunity to engage with
loyalty, although composite approaches have been applied (Bilgihan, local food (Ellis et al., 2018), the conceptual and geographical bound­
Madanoglu, & Ricci, 2016; McKercher & Tse, 2012; Oppermann, 2000). aries of what counts as ‘local’ are fluid and contested (Wittman, Beckie,
Behavioural loyalty bases loyalty on past purchase behaviour, with & Hergesheimer, 2012). According to Coderre, Boivin, and Eaabaa
word of mouth referrals and repeat purchase used as measures (Adongo (2010), although the terms ‘local’ and ‘regional’ food are used inter­
et al., 2015; Camarero, Garrido, & Vicente, 2010; Gartner & Ruzzier, changeably, there is no consensus on their actual definition. Never­
2011). Alternatively, attitudinal loyalty reflects tourists' internal dis­ theless, close geographical proximity between production and con­
position to a product (Gounaris & Stathakopoulos, 2004), with purchase sumption areas is an important criterion in defining local food
decisions based on perceptions of product attributes and associated (Feldmann & Hamm, 2015; McEntee, 2010). As a tourist resource
benefits (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011; Im, Kim, Elliot, & Han, 2012). The (Montanari & Staniscia, 2009), local food adds value to the image of a
attitudinal approach considers attitudinal loyalty to result in beha­ tourist destination and attracts more visitors to the region, contributing
vioural loyalty (Bilgihan et al., 2016), and is a useful approach for to regional diversification and development (Green & Dougherty, 2008;
marketing managers in markets were purchase behaviour is inter­ Sánchez-Cañizares & López-Guzmán, 2012). Thus, tourism provides
mittent (Bennett & Rundle-Thiele, 2002). However, attitudinal loyalty opportunities for local food producers to target new markets or di­
measures are more complex to apply in surveys than behavioural versify their product range (Di Domenico & Miller, 2012; Hjalager &
measures, although they can be evaluated by intention to return (Antón Johansen, 2013; Zepeda & Nie, 2012).
et al., 2017; Bilgihan et al., 2016; Oppermann, 2000). In addition to the lack of clarity on what constitutes local food, there
Yet the distinctive features of tourism (McKercher et al., 2012), is a lack of consensus on the validity of food tourism, and thus food
including infrequency of purchase and high substitutability of products tourists as a viable market segment (Hall & Sharples, 2003; McKercher,
(Pearce & Kang, 2009; Pike, 2005) and tourists' inherent desire to seek Okumus, & Okumus, 2008). Similar to other forms of special interest
novel experiences (Pearce & Lee, 2005), have led authors to highlight tourism (Ashwell, 2015; McKercher, 2002), concerns have been raised
the need to refine loyalty concepts in tourism (Dolnicar & Ring, 2014; that segmenting tourists based on simply the purchase of local food may
McKercher & Guillet, 2011). Previous research has largely focused on lead to over-estimates of demand (McKercher et al., 2008). This is
single units of study (McKercher et al., 2012), such as destinations particularly significant in relation to food tourism, as tourists com­
(Alrawadieh, Alrawadieh, & Kozak, 2019), festivals (Kim, Suh, & Eves, monly engage in food and drink activities at the destination (McKercher
2010; Wan & Chan, 2013), museums (Camarero et al., 2010) and World et al., 2008). Indeed, studies have identified that for the majority of
Heritage sites (Antón et al., 2017). Within the context of local food, tourists, consuming local food is not a primary motivation for visiting
single unit studies have also examined the impact of local food ex­ regional destinations (Frisvoll, Forbord, & Blekesaune, 2016; Sánchez-
periences on destination loyalty, discovering significant relationships Cañizares & López-Guzmán, 2012), although for a ‘niche’ market of
between satisfaction and willingness to recommend or revisit (Adongo tourists, local food still plays an important role (Kim et al., 2019;
et al., 2015; Folgado-Fernández, Hernández-Mogollón, & Duarte, 2017; Robinson & Getz, 2014). Thus, to develop a comprehensive under­
Ji, Wong, Eves, & Scarles, 2016; Stone, Migacz, & Wolf, 2019). standing of tourists' local food consumption, studies need to explicitly
Despite the extensive loyalty research in tourism, limited studies identify if participants are purposeful food tourists who travel primarily
have examined the diverse types of loyalty such as vertical, horizontal or secondarily for food experiences, or general leisure tourists (Kim
or experiential (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018; McKercher et al., et al., 2019).
2012). Tourist loyalty to different levels of the tourism system, for ex­
ample a travel agent and an airline, is termed vertical loyalty. Alter­ 3. The conceptual framework
natively, horizontal loyalty is exhibited to various suppliers for the
same product such as different destinations (Almeida-Santana & Whilst loyalty research commonly focuses on re-visit intentions or
Moreno-Gil, 2018; Dawes, Romaniuk, & Mansfield, 2009) or airlines willingness to recommend (Adongo et al., 2015; Camarero et al., 2010;

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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011), the models developed have not been suc­ consumption within Australian homes (Bianchi & Mortimer, 2015;
cessfully transferable to many tourism and hospitality organisations Birch, Memery, & Kanakaratne, 2018; Carson, Hamel, Giarrocco,
(Morais, Dorsch, & Backman, 2004). Indeed, it is argued that due to the Baylor, & Mathews, 2016). Consequently, four dimensions were iden­
features of tourism - highlighted in previous sections - tourists may be tified. The first dimension, Culture, reflected leisure tourists' desire for
inherently disloyal, and new models of loyalty are required which focus authentic and unique local food experiences. However, it differed from
on the tourist rather than the destination or enterprise (McKercher earlier studies (Kim et al., 2013; Kim & Eves, 2012, 2016; Madaleno
et al., 2012). As dimensions and measures need to be aligned to the et al., 2018) by also highlighting domestic tourists' motivation to sup­
context of loyalty studies (Boo, Busser, & Baloglu, 2009), a compre­ port local economies. Similar to inbound tourists, the social benefits
hensive review of the literature was undertaken to develop a conceptual gained from local food consumption were evident within the Inter­
framework. personal dimension. Extending earlier studies (Kim & Eves, 2012) and
similar to Murray & Kline's study of American domestic tourists (2015),
3.1. Centrality of the experience the Interpersonal motivation further highlighted the importance to do­
mestic tourists of connecting with local food enterprises and commu­
Centrality reflects how relevant the purchase decision is in relation nity. Within the Health & Taste dimension, the sensory appeal and
to an individual's goals, values, and self-concept (Zaichkowsky, 1985). health constructs from Kim and Eves' study (2012) were combined. The
The centrality of local food varies between general leisure tourists fourth-dimension Emotion included feelings resulting from consumption
(Frisvoll et al., 2016; McKercher et al., 2008), influencing their will­ of local food.
ingness to participate in local food tourism experiences (Kim et al., Emerging studies have examined how tourists' motivation influ­
2010). Although local food studies suggest centrality affects beha­ ences loyalty (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Thus, as motivation influences
vioural loyalty (Kim et al., 2010), research has yet to examine the re­ consumption of local food (Kim & Eves, 2012), and is a significant
lationship between centrality and experiential loyalty. Therefore, this predictor of behavioural loyalty to local food experiences (Murray &
study proposes: Kline, 2015; Suhartanto et al., 2018) this study proposes:
H1. The centrality of local food affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty. H2. : Cultural motivation affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty.
H3. : Interpersonal motivation affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty.
3.2. Motivation
H4. : Health and taste motivation affects leisure tourists' experiential
loyalty.
Due to its impact on consumer behaviour, motivation to consume
local food has been widely researched (Kim et al., 2013; Kim & Eves, H5. : Emotional motivation affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty.
2012, 2016; Madaleno et al., 2018; Mak et al., 2017; Suhartanto et al.,
2018). Whilst the majority of these studies focus on inbound tourists
(e.g. Ji et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2013; Kim & Eves, 2016; Madaleno et al., 3.3. Satisfaction
2018; Mak et al., 2017), studies are emerging which examine motiva­
tion to consume local food within domestic markets (see for example Satisfaction has been inextricably connected to loyalty (Oliver,
Kim et al., 2019; Robinson & Getz, 2014; Suhartanto et al., 2018; 1999) and has been found to be a significant predictor of behavioural
Williamson & Hassanli, 2020). loyalty to food tourism experiences, including craft breweries (Murray
Studies examining tourists' motivations to consume local food, & Kline, 2015) and food festivals (Kim et al., 2010). Despite studies
identify motivation as a multi-dimensional construct (Mak et al., 2017). confirming that satisfaction predicts loyalty in local food contexts, such
Kim and Eves (2012) constructed a scale identifying five underlying studies commonly examine loyalty in terms of re-purchase behaviour
motivational dimensions: cultural experience; interpersonal relations; (Murray & Kline, 2015) or intention to recommend (Adongo et al.,
excitement; sensory appeal; and health concern. Whilst the scale de­ 2015). However, in the context of a winery, Brandano, Osti, and Pulina
velopment followed a rigorous process based on past studies (Kim & (2019) identified that satisfaction increased intentions to visit other
Eves, 2016), the authors recommended that “research with samples wineries outside of the regional area.
from other populations, and replications would enable the conclusions Satisfaction reflects the extent to which a product satisfies tourists'
to be validated in other cultural groups and give evidence of general­ needs and perception of the quality of the experience (Lockshin &
izability” (Kim & Eves, 2012, p. 1466). Thus, the scale has been applied Spawton, 2001). A number of factors have been identified as affecting
in alternative studies examining inbound tourists from different coun­ satisfaction, including motivation (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). The unique­
tries (Kim et al., 2013; Kim & Eves, 2016; Madaleno et al., 2018), and ness of the local food product and its capacity to connect tourists with
whilst the variables and underlying constructs are similar between the local community have also been identified as influencing satisfac­
tourist groups, differences in the main motivation to consume local food tion with local food experiences (Murray & Kline, 2015). In addition,
have been identified (Kim & Eves, 2016). increasing tourists' knowledge of local food available at a destination
Within studies examining domestic tourists' motivation to consume prior to arrival has a positive impact on future satisfaction (Lee, Lin,
local food, a range of motives have been identified. Studies have ex­ Lee, Yeh, & Lee, 2015). Given the impact of satisfaction on loyalty in
amined purposeful food tourists with Kim et al. (2019) examining the local food contexts, the following hypothesis is proposed:
motivations of Japanese food tourists to visit a food tourism destina­ H6. : Satisfaction with previous local food affects leisure tourists'
tion. Exposure to information via multiple media sources; perceived experiential loyalty.
sensory appeal; increased authenticity of product; escapism; and pres­
tige and self-enhancement increased domestic motivations, with posi­
tive memories of prior experiences increasing motivation to re-visit. 3.4. Food-related personal traits (food neophobia and neophilia)
Alternatively, Williamson and Hassanli (2020) examined Australian
domestic tourists' motivation to consume local food. Following re­ Kim, Eves, and Scarles (2009) suggest that food-related personality
commendations from Kim and Eves (2012) on refining their food mo­ traits may influence tourists' purchase of local food. Food neophobia
tivation measurement scale to meet the context of study, and ac­ describes individuals' avoidance of new food, whilst food neophilia
knowledging that the tourism experience is not abstract from everyday reflects individuals' desire to experience new food (Wolff & Larsen,
life (Stylianou-Lambert, 2011), the scale by Williamson and Hassanli 2019). Previous studies have examined the influence of these food-re­
(2020) incorporated additional items from studies examining local food lated personality traits on food choice (Ji et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2013;

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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

Mak et al., 2017; Wolff & Larsen, 2019). Tourists exhibiting food neo­ Table 1
philia traits have a desire to experience new food (Wolff & Larsen, Tourist profile.
2019) which enhances their holiday experiences (Kim et al., 2009; Variable n= %
Ritchey, Frank, Hursti, & Tuorila, 2003). Conversely, food neophobia
has a negative influence on tourists' purchase of local food (Kim et al., Male 261 50.4
Female 257 49.6
2010), with their food consumption on holiday an extension of food
Age
choices at home (Ji et al., 2016). As food-related personal traits affect 18–24 64 12.4
domestic tourists' behavioural loyalty (Ji et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2010), 25–29 68 13.1
this study considers: 30–34 72 13.9
35–44 125 24.1
H7. : Food neophilia affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty. 45–59 120 23.2
60–64 22 4.2
H8. : Food neophobia affects leisure tourists' experiential loyalty. 65–74 39 7.5
75 and above 8 8
Travel purpose
Visiting friends or relatives 89 17.2
4. Research methodology
Holiday 394 76.1
Business 26 5
In addressing the research question of what factors increase do­ Other 9 1.7
mestic leisure tourists' propensity to purchase local food in their future Travel Party
holidays, and following a comprehensive review of the literature, eight Alone 61 11.8
Partner 221 42.7
hypotheses were developed. To test these hypotheses, a survey was
Family 162 31.3
built to collect data from domestic tourists in Australia (Appendix A). Friends 46 8.9
Socio-demographic questions such as age and gender were included in Friends and family 28 5.4
addition to questions relating to the purchase of local food during their Occupation
most recent trip in Australia. A definition of local food based on pre­ Higher managerial, administrative or professional 105 20.3
Intermediate managerial, administrative or professional 124 23.9
vious research (Kim & Eves, 2012; Nummedal & Hall, 2006) was pro­ Supervisory or clerical and junior managerial, administrative or 76 14.7
vided to research participants: professional 32 6.2
Trades person 52 10
For the purpose of this project ‘local food’ is defined as food which is Retired 29 5.6
produced and purchased within the same geographical area, e.g. pur­ Student 46 8.9
chasing local cheese in the Barossa Valley (SA) or locally grown fruit in Homemaker 21 4.1
the Hunter Valley (NSW). Local food covers all food types including Retail 33 6.4
Casual, non-worker or unemployed
fruit, meat, milk, preserves, wine and beer, confectionery or pastries.
Income
Single item measures and multiple item scales were derived from Under $10 K 11 2.1
$10 k-$19,999 15 2.9
several studies. Single item measures have been used within food $20 k-$29,999 30 5.8
tourism research to measure loyalty and satisfaction (Ji et al., 2016; $30 k-$39,999 35 6.8
Murray & Kline, 2015), and are used to increase face validity and re­ $40 k-$49,99 32 6.2
duce respondent fatigue (Fisher, Matthews, & Gibbons, 2016). The $50 k-$74,999 97 18.7
$75 k-$100 k 121 23.4
dependent variable, experiential loyalty, was measured using a single
Above $100 k 151 29.2
item: intention to purchase local food during the next trip. A single item Prefer not to say 26 5
was used to measure satisfaction with the most recent purchase of local Education
food on a domestic trip, anchored by “Extremely satisfied” (1) and Less than Year 12 or equivalent 39 7.5
“Dissatisfied” (4). To measure centrality of local food to domestic Year 12 or equivalent 76 14.7
Vocational qualification 113 21.8
tourists, a self-classification approach validated as an appropriate Bachelor's degree (including honours) 160 30.9
method in food research (Ying, Wen, Law, Wang, & Norman, 2018), and Master's degree 107 20.7
applied in alternative studies (see McKercher et al., 2008; Murray & Doctorate 17 3.3
Kline, 2015) was used. The survey included a single item scale asking Other 6 1.2
Centrality of local food when travelling
respondents to rate the level of importance to purchase local food on
Extremely important 271 52.3
domestic trips, anchored by “Extremely important” to “Not at all im­ Somewhat important 232 44.7
portant”. Not at all important 15 3
To measure motivation to purchase local food, the domestic tourist
multi-item motivation scale developed in Williamson and Hassanli
(2020) study was used. The questionnaire also included the 6 item Food
Neophobia Scale (FNS) developed by Ritchey et al. (2003). The items Increasing numbers of tourism studies employ online surveys (see
within the motivation scale and Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) were for example Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018) and this was con­
measured using a 7-point Likert scale anchored by “Strongly agree” (1) sidered an appropriate data collection method due to its fast response
and “Strongly disagree” (7). To test length and readability, the survey time, high response rate and instant data entry (Hung & Law, 2011).
was piloted with ten academics and tourism specialists. Minor changes Online surveys are suitable for some target segments such as those with
were made before it was converted into online format. higher levels of education (Dolnicar, Laesser, & Matus, 2009), which
Survey data was collected via Qualtrics online panel, n = 518. An reflects the socio-demographics of food tourist segments (Getz &
email was sent to panel members to participate in the study. The first Robinson, 2014; Kim & Eves, 2012). The online survey also prevented
four questions were used to screen participants, with only Australian respondents from missing questions, thus ensuring completeness of
residents who had purchased local food during a domestic trip in the surveys (Dolnicar et al., 2009). Finally, as the purpose of the study was
previous 12 months allowed to continue with the survey. Local food to investigate the purchase behaviour of local food by domestic tourists,
could be purchased: a) direct from producers; b) through inter­ an online survey was considered appropriate in reducing the social
mediaries, e.g. cafes; or c) during participation in food tourism activ­ desirability effect (Duffy, Smith, Terhanian, & Bremer, 2005).
ities, e.g. cookery class.

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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

5. Results 6. Discussion

Descriptive analysis of respondents (Table 1) identified that gender As loyalty has a positive impact on tourists' purchase behaviour and
was evenly distributed, with 47.3% aged 35–59. The majority travelled willingness to recommend, it is considered a key concept in tourism
with a partner (42.7%) or with family (31.3%), primarily for the pur­ consumer behaviour research (Cohen et al., 2014). Yet limitations
pose of holiday (76.1%). Just over 52% of respondents considered local within the tourism discourse are evident, and the empirical study re­
food as an extremely important element of their trips. Similar to al­ ported in this paper responds to calls for research which re-examine
ternative studies (see Getz & Robinson, 2014; Kim & Eves, 2012) the tourism loyalty concepts (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018; Cohen
sample had higher levels of education with 54.9% holding a bachelor or et al., 2014; McKercher et al., 2012). Extending previous studies which
higher degree, had high earning with over half of the sample's annual focus on loyalty to a single destination or enterprise (Alrawadieh et al.,
salary above $75,000, and were employed in managerial roles. 2019; Murray & Kline, 2015), and emerging research examining hor­
The highest proportion of local food purchases were made in res­ izontal, vertical and experiential loyalty (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-
taurants/cafes and from Tourist Information Centres, although re­ Gil, 2018; Dawes et al., 2009; McKercher et al., 2012), this study pro­
spondents purchased from a range of enterprises including directly from vides empirical support for the concept of experiential loyalty within
providers like Farm Gates or undertook active experiences such as the context of local food consumption.
Cookery classes. Based on the socio-demographic profiles and diversity The study further contributes to the limited discussions on food
in local food experiences, the sample was considered suitable for fur­ tourism among domestic tourists (Kim et al., 2019), with a focus on
ther analysis. leisure tourists whose primary motivation may not be to consume local
To answer the research question, a binary logistic regression ana­ food during domestic trips. Furthering the emerging discourse on how
lysis was performed on tourists' experiential loyalty to local food as an tourists' motivational factors influence loyalty (Cohen et al., 2014), and
outcome with eight predictors: cultural motivation, interpersonal mo­ consistent with tourists' behavioural loyalty to local food consumption
tivation, health and taste motivation, emotional motivation, satisfac­ (Kim et al., 2010; Murray & Kline, 2015; Suhartanto et al., 2018), the
tion, food neophobia, food neophilia, and centrality. This is an appro­ study identified that the centrality of, and motivation to, consume local
priate method for exploratory studies (Mak et al., 2017), when the food affects domestic tourists' experiential loyalty. Consistent with
outcome is a dichotomous dependant variable, and has “no assumptions earlier studies (Frisvoll et al., 2016; McKercher et al., 2008), centrality
regarding the distribution of predictor variables” (Tabachnick & Fidell, of local food varied between survey respondents. The findings highlight
2013, p. 439). Before the binary logistic regression analysis was per­ that not only do high centrality tourists undertake a higher number of
formed, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the motivation food experiences within their trips, but they are ten times more likely to
scale and Food Neophobia Scale (FNS), with mean scores calculated for consume local food on their next trip compared to those who do not
further analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). consider local food important.
Principal Factor analysis with Varimax rotation was performed on Due to its influence on consumption and loyalty (Kim & Eves, 2012;
30 motivational items. The sample exceeded the minimum requirement Murray & Kline, 2015; Suhartanto et al., 2018), motivation to consume
of 150 subjects, all items correlated 0.3 with at least one other item, and local food was also considered in the study. In contrast to destination
no variables' correlation coefficients were above 0.9 (Tabachnick & and horizontal loyalty (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018), cultural
Fidell, 2013). Factors with an eigenvalue larger than 1 were retained motivation was a significant predictor of experiential loyalty. Tourists
with a cut off 0.4 applied for loadings to be salient to the factor. Four who are culturally motivated to consume local food seek new, unique
motivational factors were generated: Culture; Interpersonal; Health and and authentic local food experiences. Within such experiences, cultu­
Taste; Emotion. Measures of sampling adequacy were satisfactory, with rally motivated tourists seek opportunities to learn about local regions
the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 0.963, marvellous (Kaiser, 1974), and the Bar­ that increase their knowledge and understanding of local cultures.
tlett's test of sphericity significant. The scales were validated with Thus, cultural motivation has a negative influence on repeat visitation,
Cronbach alpha values all above 0.7 threshold (Table 2). with a single visit to a location or experience sufficient to satisfy the
Principal Factor analysis with Varimax rotation was conducted on tourist need (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2018). Consequently,
the FNS scale with two factors, food neophobia and food neophilia, experiential loyalty affects tourists' destination choice (McKercher
generated. The examination of sampling adequacy was undertaken, et al., 2012) and participation in experiences.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 0.778, middling with the Bartlett's Test of In contrast to food consumption studies examining behavioural
Sphericity significant. Cronbach's alpha values were acceptable above loyalty (Ji et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2010), personal traits in this study
the 0.7 threshold (Table 3). had no significant relationship with experiential loyalty. This finding
To test the hypotheses, logistic regression analysis was performed supports alternative studies examining the influence of food neophobia
with the model statistically significant X2(8, n = 518) =106.25, and neophilia on local food consumption by domestic tourists (Kim
p ≤0.05, indicating the predictors, as a set, significantly distinguished et al., 2019). Whilst the food neophilia trait is associated with increased
tourists with experiential loyalty. The model's percentage of correct motivation to consume novel food by inbound tourists (Ji et al., 2016;
assignment was 86.5%, with three variables predicting experiential Mak et al., 2017), these neophilic tendencies vary between contexts (Ji
loyalty (Table 4). et al., 2016). Thus, specific to Australian domestic tourists, personal
Supporting H1, the centrality of local food to tourists had the largest traits do not affect experiential loyalty which may be due to higher
positive influence on experiential loyalty, with a one-unit change in­ levels of familiarity with food offerings (Kim et al., 2019) or local food
creasing the likelihood of experiential loyalty by a factor of 5.2. Whilst consumption during trips simply being an extension of food choices at
four motivation variables were included as predictors of experiential home (Ji et al., 2016).
loyalty, only the cultural motivation dimension (H2) was statistically Finally, the study found that tourists who are extremely satisfied
significant. A one-unit change in tourists' score for cultural motivation with local food experiences are twice as likely to intend to purchase
increased the likelihood of experiential loyalty by a factor of 1.983. local food on their next trip compared to those who are somewhat sa­
Hence, H3, H4 and H5 were not supported. tisfied. This finding is consistent with research examining single units of
H6 was supported with satisfaction a significant predictor of ex­ study, for example Murray and Kline (2015) who found satisfaction
periential loyalty; a one-unit increase in the satisfaction score increased increased revisit intentions to a craft brewery. However, it also high­
the likelihood of experiential loyalty by 1.882. However, H7 and H8 lights the complexity of loyalty in tourism, with tourist satisfaction with
were not supported, with food-related personal characteristics not sig­ one local food purchase impacting future intentions to participate in
nificant predictors of experiential loyalty. local food experiences.

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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

Table 2
EFA results for motivational factors.
Factors and items Factor loadings Eigenvalue Variance explained

a
Factor 1: Culture (0.924 ) 14.489 18.463%
7.An authentic experience 0.7390
6. Increase knowledge of different cultures .7040
5. A special experience .7040
2. Unique opportunity to understand local cultures .6970
3. Discover new things .6600
1. Learn what local food tastes like .6180
4. See how others live .5760
8. Tasting in original place makes me excited .5490
21. Support local farmers and economy .460
Factor 2: Interpersonal (0.920a) 1.997 17.428%
17. Give advice about local food experiences to people who want to travel 0.7020
15. Talk to everybody about my local food experiences .6510
14. Take home as a reminder of a good holiday .6470
23. As a gift for family or friends .6070
16. Local food increases friendship or kinship .6060
20. Like to learn about the history of local food producers .5680
19. Important to taste local food in its original regions .5120
22. Protects the environment .4920
18. Enables me to have an enjoyable time with friends and/or family .4730
13. Removes me from crowds and noise .4620
27. Tastes different .454
Factor 3: Health and Taste (0.858a) 1.396 11.428%
28. Is nutritious 0.6260
29. Contains local fresh ingredients .6160
26. Looks nice .5720
25. Tastes good .5500
30. Keeps me healthy .5320
24. Smells nice .477
Factor 4: Emotion (0.862a) 1.075 10.325%
10. Makes me feel exhilarated 0.7140
9. Helps me relax .6390
11. Is exciting .5580
12. Makes me not worry about routine .516
Cumulative variance 57.644%

Principal Factor analysis with Varimax rotation. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 0.963, marvellous; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx.Chi-square 10,493.757 (df435.
Sig = 0.000).
a
Cronbach's alpha.

7. Practical implications Table 4

Statistically significant variables.
The findings of this study have implications for local food stake­ B S.E Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
holders and destination planners who wish to target domestic leisure
tourists. Local food stakeholders may use these findings within mar­ Centrality of local food 1.649 0.316 27.289 1 0.000 5.200
Cultural motivation 0.684 0.274 6.234 1 0.013 1.983
keting strategies, with a specific focus on meeting the needs of high
Satisfaction with local food 0.633 0.254 6.179 1 0.013 1.882
centrality tourists and those who are culturally motivated to consume
local food, as well as increasing leisure tourists' overall satisfaction with Conducted using IBM SPSS 25; Intention Yes(1) Maybe (0); 0 missing
local food. cases;p ≤0.05.
As increasing tourists' knowledge of local food prior to and during a
visit increases purchase behaviour (Frisvoll et al., 2016; Madaleno
et al., 2018), local food enterprises need to develop promotional stra­ enterprises can focus on the social aspects of the local food experience
tegies which target leisure tourists in their home region or in prime within their promotional materials, highlighting how such experiences
tourist sites at destinations. To target high centrality tourists, food can be used to strengthen relationships with friends and family, as well

Table 3
EFA results for food-related personal traits.
Factors and items Factor loadings Eigenvalue Variance explained

a
Factor 1: Food Neophilia (0.869 ) 3.099 51.644%
FNS3 I like foods from different cultures 0.7950
FNS6 I like to try new ethnic restaurants .7820
FNS4 At dinner parties I will try new foods .7790
FNS1 I am constantly sampling new and different foods .772
Factor 2: Food Neophobia (0.791a) 1.446 24.098%
FNS5 I am afraid to eat things I have never tried before 0.8360
FNS2 If I don't know what a food is I won't try it .766
Cumulative variance 75.742%

Principal Factor analysis with Varimax rotation. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 0.778, middling; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx.Chi-square 1316.808 (df15. Sig = 0.000).
a
Cronbach's alpha.

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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

as local producers (Williamson & Hassanli, 2020). Campaign messages examine the effects of these factors on experiential loyalty.
should also emphasise how the local food enterprise connects to the Third, whilst loyalty research examining single units may assess
local community (Murray & Kline, 2015). satisfaction with a specific product or experience (Adongo et al., 2015;
Additionally, due to the effect of cultural motivation on experiential Murray & Kline, 2015), studies examining experiential loyalty require a
loyalty, local food enterprises should highlight the authenticity of the broader understanding of satisfaction. Thus, multi-dimensional mea­
product and explain how local food experiences will enhance personal sures of satisfaction could be developed assessing how purchasing local
knowledge of food and local people. As the use of positive messaging food satisfies motivational needs and/or personal values. Research
empowers tourists in their spending (Villarino & Font, 2015), campaign could also consider how dissatisfaction and negative experiences in­
messages should be developed focusing on the benefits provided to fluence experiential loyalty and how these effects may be mediated.
local farmers and economies through purchasing local food. Finally, evidence suggests that correlations between tourists' as­
The findings also have implication for state and regional destination pirations and actual behaviour may differ (McKercher & Tse, 2012).
planners. The study focused on leisure tourists who may have multiple Consequently, a longitudinal study is required to expand our under­
motivations to visit a destination (Pearce & Lee, 2005), and equally, standing of how centrality of local food develops over time and examine
multiple experiential loyalties (McKercher et al., 2012). Hence, desti­ connections between centrality and depth of experience sought. Such
nation planners need to consider how local food consumption connects research could also provide opportunities to understand how satisfac­
with other experiences available at the destination. As tourists who are tion with local food during trips might be increased.
culturally motivated to consume local food will seek new authentic and
unique local food experiences in new destinations, policy makers need Acknowledgement
to consider methods to confirm the authenticity of local food products
(Madaleno et al., 2018). This may include the development of policies This research was made possible by funding from the University of
for quality assurance and certification programs (Madaleno et al., Technology Sydney Business School UTS Business Research Grant
2018), or the development of a national or regional local food logo (BRG). We would also like to thank individuals who provided feedback
enabling tourists to identify authentic local food products across mul­ on the pilot survey.
tiple destinations.
Finally, as tourists with experiential loyalty have an increased Declaration of Competing Interest
propensity to join a loyalty scheme (Zopiatis et al., 2016), destination
planners may consider this option. Whilst a country-wide scheme would None.
be beneficial for tourists who may visit multiple destinations within a
number of states, the complexities in developing and implementing a Appendix A. Supplementary data
scheme including the coordination and commitment of stakeholders,
and costs of implementing a program (Zopiatis et al., 2016) may act as Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
an impediment. However, a loyalty scheme may be viable for state or doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100745.
regional planners to target tourists with experiential loyalty. A loyalty
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J. Williamson and N. Hassanli Tourism Management Perspectives 36 (2020) 100745

Enterprise & Graduate Employability.

Najmeh Hassanli is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Technology Sydney Business

School. Her research interests lie in the areas of social sustainability and ethical re­
sponsibility in small/micro businesses, and the role of events for under-represented and
marginalized populations in society. She combines her academic degrees in Business
(Tourism & Events Management) with her passion for community work to concentrate on
small, community-embedded businesses and events. The calibre of her research is well
demonstrated through her publications in international high-quality journals and books.

Janine Williamson is an Adjunct Research Fellow with the

School of Management at the University of South Australia
and operates her own research consultancy one7nine. Janine has extensive experience
lecturing in Higher Education institutions, and developed and implemented a WIL pro­
gram in her role as Head of Industry Engagement. In addition, she has created and op­
erated her own micro enterprises, and has gained experience in the development and
management of social enterprises. Janine's research interests include Sustainable
Tourism, with a focus on SMEs & regional development, Consumer Behaviour, Aboriginal