Lecture 2

Chapter 1

•Sections: 1.1 to 1.13

 Contents
Concept of Stress Bearing Stress in Connections
Review of Statics Stress Analysis & Design Example
Structure Free-Body Diagram Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
Component Free-Body Diagram Pin Shearing Stresses
Method of Joints Pin Bearing Stresses
Stress Analysis Stress in Two Force Members
Design Stress on an Oblique Plane
Axial Loading: Normal Stress Maximum Stresses
Centric & Eccentric Loading Stress Under General Loadings
Shearing Stress State of Stress
Shearing Stress Examples Factor of Safety

•1- 2
 Concept of Stress
• The main objective of the study of the mechanics
of materials is to provide the future engineer with
the means of analyzing and designing various
machines and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given structure

involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This chapter is devoted to the
concept of stress.

•1- 3
Concept of Stress

•1- 4
Concept of Stress

•1- 5
Concept of Stress

•1- 6
Concept of Stress

•1- 7
Concept of Stress

•1- 8
Review of Statics

•1- 9
Review of Statics

•1- 10
Review of Statics

•1- 11
Review of Statics

•1- 12
Review of Statics

•1- 13
Review of Statics

•1- 14
Review of Statics
• The structure is designed to
support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports

•1- 15
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C  0  Ax 0.6 m   30 kN 0.8 m 
Ax  40 kN
 Fx  0 Ax  Cx
C x   Ax  40 kN
 Fy  0  Ay  C y  30 kN  0
Ay  C y  30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

•1- 16
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B  0   Ay 0.8 m 
Ay  0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y  30 kN

• Results:
A  40 kN  Cx  40 kN  C y  30 kN 
Reaction forces are directed along boom
and rod

•1- 17
Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 B 0
F
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
FAB  40 kN FBC  50 kN
•1- 18
Concept of Stress

•1- 19
Concept of Stress

•1- 20
Axial Loading and Normal Stress

•1- 21
Axial Loading and Normal Stress

•1- 22
 Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC    159 MPa
A 31410-6 m2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all  165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate
•1- 23
 Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum all= 100 MPa). What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N
 all  A   500106 m2
A  all 100106 Pa
d2
A
4

d
4A


4 500106 m2   2.52102 m  25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
•1- 24
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P   ave A   dF    dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.
•1- 25
Axial Loading: Normal Stress

•1- 26
Axial Loading: Normal Stress

•1- 27
Axial Loading: Normal Stress

•1- 28
Axial Loading: Normal Stress

•1- 29
Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
•1- 30
Concept of Shear Stress

•1- 31
Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
•1- 32
Concept of Shear Stress

•1- 33
Concept of Shear Stress

•1- 34
Shearing Stress Examples

•1- 35
 Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A
•1- 36
Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

•1- 37
Bearing Stress in Connections

•1- 38
Bearing Stress in Connections

•1- 39
Stress Analysis & Design Example
• Would like to determine the
stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• Must consider maximum

normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

•1- 40
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A  20 mm 40 mm  25 mm   300106 m2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end    167 MPa
A 300106 m2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

•1- 41
Pin Shearing Stresses
• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25 mm  6 2
A  r  
2
  49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C ,ave   
 102 MPa
A 49110 m6 2

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A,ave   
 40.7 MPa
A 49110 m 6 2

•1- 42
Pin Shearing Stresses
• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE  15 kN
PG  25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B,ave    50.9 MPa
A 491106 m2

•1- 43
Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    53.3 MPa
td 30 mm 25 mm 

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    32.0 MPa
td 50 mm 25 mm 

•1- 44
 Method of Problem Solution
•Your solution must be based on the fundamental principles of statics and on
the principles you will learn in this course.
•A simplified drawing showing all essential quantities involved should be
included.
•The solution of most of the problems you will encounter will necessitate that
you first determine the reactions at supports and internal forces and
couples.
•This will require the drawing of one or several free-body diagrams and
writing the Equations of Equilibrium.
•These equations can be solved for the unknown forces, from which the
required stresses and deformations will be computed.
•After an answer has been obtained, it should be checked.
•Here again, you may call upon your common sense and personal experience. If
not completely satisfied with the result obtained, you should carefully check
your formulation of the problem, the validity of the methods used in its
solution, and the accuracy of your computations. •1- 45
 Numerical Accuracy
• The accuracy of the solution of a problem depends upon two items: (1) the
accuracy of the given data and (2) the accuracy of the computations
performed.
• In engineering problems, the data are seldom known with an accuracy greater
than 0.2%. It is therefore seldom justified to write the answers to such
problems with an accuracy greater than 0.2%.
• A practical rule is to use 4 figures to record numbers beginning with a “1”
and 3 figures in all other cases. Unless otherwise indicated, the data given in a
problem should be assumed known with a comparable degree of accuracy. A
force of 40 lb, for example, should be read 40.0 lb, and a force of 15 lb should
be read 15.00 lb.
• Pocket calculators and computers are widely used by practicing engineers and
engineering students. The speed and accuracy of these devices facilitate the
numerical computations in the solution of many problems.
• As noted above, an accuracy greater than 0.2% is seldom necessary or
meaningful in the solution of practical engineering problems.
•1- 46
Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force
member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

•1- 47
Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cosq V  P sin q

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
   cos2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
   sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
•1- 48
Stress on an Oblique Plane

•1- 49
Stress on an Oblique Plane

•1- 50
Stress on an Oblique Plane

•1- 51
Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos2 q   sin q cosq
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0

•1- 52
Maximum Stresses

•1- 53
Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A0 A

Vyx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A0 A A0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
•1- 54
State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx   Fy   Fz  0
Mx  M y  Mz  0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z  0   xy Aa   yxAa
 xy   yx
similarly,  yz   zy and  yz   zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress

are required to define the complete state of
stress •1- 55
State of Stress
•For example, considering again the bolt
shown in Fig. (a) and a small cube at the
center Q of the bolt (Fig. 1.39a), we find
that shearing stresses of equal magnitude
must be exerted on the two horizontal
faces of the cube and on the two faces that
are perpendicular to the forces P and P’
(Fig. 1.39b).

•State of stress is dependent on the reference

•Maximum Normal stress
•Maximum Shear stress
•More in Chapter 7

•1- 56
Structural Failure

•1- 57
Design Loads

•1- 58
Working Stress / Ultimate Strength

•1- 59
 Factor of Safety
Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:
must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS  Factor of safety
• types of failure
u ultimate stress
FS   • maintenance requirements and
 all allowablestress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to integrity of
whole structure
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

•1- 60
Factor of Safety

•1- 61
Design Approaches

•1- 62
•1- 63
•1- 64
QUESTIONS / COMMENTS ???

•1- 65